Transport and the Urban Transport and the Urban EnvironmentEnvironment

Topic 1 – The Emerging Issue of Transport and the Environment

A – Why Transport and the Urban A – Why Transport and the Urban Environment?Environment?

B – Transport / Environment LinksB – Transport / Environment Links

C – Environmental Issues of Urban C – Environmental Issues of Urban TransportationTransportation

Why Transportation and the Urban Environment?

1. Context: An Urbanizing Society1. Context: An Urbanizing Society 2. Modes of Territorial Occupation2. Modes of Territorial Occupation 3. Economic Systems3. Economic Systems 4. Social Preferences4. Social Preferences

AA

A-1A-1 Context: An Urbanizing Society

An urban worldAn urban world The world is getting increasingly urbanized.The world is getting increasingly urbanized. Since 1950, the world urban population has more than Since 1950, the world urban population has more than

doubled.doubled. In 1999, half of the world’s population of 6 billions lived in In 1999, half of the world’s population of 6 billions lived in

urban areas.urban areas. 75% were in developing economies.75% were in developing economies. The majority of economic activities are taking place in cities.The majority of economic activities are taking place in cities. Cities are dominant attributes of the human landscape. Cities are dominant attributes of the human landscape.

World Urban Population, 1950-96 with Projections to 2050 (in billions)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

World

Developed countries

Developing countries

A-1A-1

Stages of Urbanization

Time

Urb

an

Pop

ula

tion

0

20

40

60

80

100

Developed countries

Terminal StageTransition StageInitial Stage

Developingcountries

Least developedcountries

Rural to urban migration

Demographic transition

RuralSociety

UrbanSociety

Urbanization

A-1A-1

% of Urban Population, 1950-2030

0 20 40 60 80 100

World

Africa

Europe

North America

Latin America

Asia

2030200019751950

A-1A-1

Urban Population, 1950-2030 (in millions)

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Africa

Europe

North America

Latin America

Asia

2030200019751950

A-1A-1

Context: An Urbanizing Society

ConcentrationConcentration An increasing share of the global population lives in An increasing share of the global population lives in

megacities.megacities. Megacities (over one million).Megacities (over one million). Supercities (over 4 million).Supercities (over 4 million). Supergiants (over 10 million).Supergiants (over 10 million).

1950:1950: 83 cities of more than 1 million.83 cities of more than 1 million. 34 cities in developing countries.34 cities in developing countries.

1995:1995: 280 cities of more than 1 million.280 cities of more than 1 million. All new millionaire cities are in developing countries.All new millionaire cities are in developing countries. 11 of the 15 largest cities are in developing countries.11 of the 15 largest cities are in developing countries.

A-1A-1

Cities of more than 8 million, 1950-2000

1950 1970 1990 2000Developed countries

New YorkLondon

New YorkLondonTokyoLos AngelesParis

TokyoNew YorkLos AngelesMoscowOsakaParis

TokyoNew YorkLos AngelesMoscowOsakaParis

Developing countriesNone Shanghai

Mexico CityBuenos AiresBeijingSao Paulo

Mexico CitySao PauloShanghaiCalcuttaBuenos AiresBombaySeoulBeijingRio de JaneiroTianjinJakartaCairoDelhiManila

Mexico CitySao PauloShanghaiCalcuttaBombayBeijingJakartaDelhiBuenos AiresLagosTianjinSeoulRio de JaneiroDhakaCairoManilaKarachiBangkokIstanbulTeheranBangaloreLima

A-1A-1

Cities of more than 8 million inhabitants, 2000

New YorkLos Angeles

Mexico

Buenos Aires

Sao Paulo

Rio de Janeiro

Paris

Moscow

CairoBombay

Delhi TianjinTokyo

Osaka

Brandt Line

Lima

Lagos

BeijingSeoul

Manila

Dhaka Shanghai

Jakarta

Karachi

Bangkok

IstanbulTeheran

CalcuttaBangalore

A-1A-1

The 15 Largest cities in the world, 1996, 2015

0 5,000,000 10,000,000 15,000,000 20,000,000 25,000,000 30,000,000

Tokyo

Bombay

Lagos

São Paulo

Dhaka

Karachi

Mexico City

Shanghai

New York

Calcutta

Delhi

Beijing

Metro Manila

Cairo

Los Angeles

20151996

A-1A-1

Modes of Territorial Occupation

How can we link society / How can we link society / economy to the territory?economy to the territory? The way a society uses its The way a society uses its

resources.resources. Highly related to the way it Highly related to the way it

occupies its territory; its occupies its territory; its spatial imprint.spatial imprint.

Different societies have Different societies have different modes of territorial different modes of territorial occupation.occupation.

Three major elementsThree major elements Mass production.Mass production. Mass consumption.Mass consumption. Mass distributionMass distribution

Spatial Imprint

Environmental impacts

A-2A-2

MassProduction

MassConsumption

MassDistribution

Modes of Territorial Occupation

Mass productionMass production Mass consumption requires mass production of food products Mass consumption requires mass production of food products

on mechanized farmson mechanized farms Use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides.Use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Capital intensive agriculture.Capital intensive agriculture. Large exploitations.Large exploitations. Qualified, flexible and organized workforce.Qualified, flexible and organized workforce.

Mass consumptionMass consumption Consumption of resources part of social ideals.Consumption of resources part of social ideals. The availability of food requires a powerful agricultural system.The availability of food requires a powerful agricultural system.

Mass distributionMass distribution Highly mobile society consuming vast amounts of energyHighly mobile society consuming vast amounts of energy The car is the foremost expression of status and freedom.The car is the foremost expression of status and freedom.

A-2A-2

Modes of Territorial Occupation

Environmental impactsEnvironmental impacts Modes of territorial occupation have environmental Modes of territorial occupation have environmental

consequencesconsequences Overuse of resources and generation of wastes.Overuse of resources and generation of wastes. Consumption of space.Consumption of space. Destruction of natural habitats and pollution.Destruction of natural habitats and pollution. Mobility has impacts on the way cities are built and organizedMobility has impacts on the way cities are built and organized Space is cheap and roads are available.Space is cheap and roads are available. Cities are generally of low density and extended.Cities are generally of low density and extended.

A-2A-2

A-3A-3 Economic Systems

Impacts of globalizationImpacts of globalization International division of labor and production.International division of labor and production. Specialization of economic regions and international trade.Specialization of economic regions and international trade. Increasing reliance on transportation.Increasing reliance on transportation. High mobility levels of production factors, notably capital.High mobility levels of production factors, notably capital. Space is economically less relevant for location.Space is economically less relevant for location. Comparative advantages are exploited in terms of the Comparative advantages are exploited in terms of the

distribution capacity of networks and production costs.distribution capacity of networks and production costs. Economic production and markets can be much more spatially Economic production and markets can be much more spatially

separated and allow greater economies of scale.separated and allow greater economies of scale.

Economic Systems

Management and operationsManagement and operations Rely on the fast distribution of goods, people, and information Rely on the fast distribution of goods, people, and information

over vast territories.over vast territories. ““Just-in-time” and “door-to-door” strategies.Just-in-time” and “door-to-door” strategies. Logistical distribution.Logistical distribution. Interdependencies created by new management alternatives Interdependencies created by new management alternatives

within a space-time collapse of global proportion.within a space-time collapse of global proportion.

A-3A-3

Fragmentation of the Production System and the Logistics Industry

Inputs Outputs

FactoryRegion A

Region A

Region B

Region C

Logistics

Conventional

Emerging

Distribution

A-3A-3

Distribution Strategies for Production Systems

Centra

lized

Pro

ductio

n Regio

nal Pro

duct

ion

Regio

nal

Sp

ecia

lizatio

n

Vert

ical In

tegra

tion

Country A Country B

Country C Country D

A-3A-3

A-4A-4 Social Preferences

The appeal of the carThe appeal of the car The individual car as the main mode of transportation.The individual car as the main mode of transportation. 81% of all cars are found in developed countries.81% of all cars are found in developed countries. New spatial environments where personal mobility is required New spatial environments where personal mobility is required

to perform most activities like working, shopping and to perform most activities like working, shopping and entertainment.entertainment.

Land use pattern and density is such a consequence to the Land use pattern and density is such a consequence to the social ecology of cities and regions.social ecology of cities and regions.

Decision making behavior behind the design and allocation of Decision making behavior behind the design and allocation of infrastructure in urban and inter-urban areas.infrastructure in urban and inter-urban areas.

World Automobile Production and Fleet, 1965-2004

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

1965

1967

1969

1971

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

Flee

t (m

illio

ns)

161820222426283032343638404244

Prod

uctio

n (m

illio

ns)

Fleet

Production

A-4A-4

People per Automobile, 1950-1998

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

A-4A-4

Sport Utility Vehicle

                                                                        

                                                                

A-4A-4

Transport / Environment Links

1. Environmental Systems1. Environmental Systems 2. Transport Systems and the Environment2. Transport Systems and the Environment 3. Environmental Impacts of Transportation3. Environmental Impacts of Transportation 4. Modal Impacts4. Modal Impacts

BB

The Environmental System

ConceptConcept Set of interactions between the elements of the biosphere.Set of interactions between the elements of the biosphere. Includes the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere Includes the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere

and the ecosphere.and the ecosphere. AtmosphereAtmosphere

Constituents: Constituents: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and traces (remaining 1%) Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and traces (remaining 1%)

of carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor and other of carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor and other components.components.

Approximately 1,100 km high.Approximately 1,100 km high. Stratosphere (10 to 50 km) and the troposphere (less than 10 Stratosphere (10 to 50 km) and the troposphere (less than 10

km)km) Main atmospheric interactors of the biosphere.Main atmospheric interactors of the biosphere.

Prime mean for the spatial diffusion of pollutants and a Prime mean for the spatial diffusion of pollutants and a temporary mean of their accumulation.temporary mean of their accumulation.

B-1B-1

The Environmental System

HydrosphereHydrosphere Accumulation of water in all its states (solid, liquid and gas).Accumulation of water in all its states (solid, liquid and gas). Elements dissolved it in (sodium, magnesium, calcium, Elements dissolved it in (sodium, magnesium, calcium,

chloride and sulfate).chloride and sulfate). 97% of the water forms the oceans.97% of the water forms the oceans. 2% is ice (north and south poles).2% is ice (north and south poles). 1% in rivers, lakes, ground water and atmospheric vapor.1% in rivers, lakes, ground water and atmospheric vapor. Water covers around 71% of the earth's surface.Water covers around 71% of the earth's surface. Important accumulator of pollutants and a significant vector of Important accumulator of pollutants and a significant vector of

diffusion. diffusion.

B-1B-1

The Environmental System

The lithosphereThe lithosphere Thin crust between the mantle and the atmosphere.Thin crust between the mantle and the atmosphere. Around 100 km thick.Around 100 km thick. 1 km of it can be considered in interaction with the biosphere.1 km of it can be considered in interaction with the biosphere. Main constituents:Main constituents:

Oxygen (47%), silicon (28%), aluminum (8%), iron (5%), Oxygen (47%), silicon (28%), aluminum (8%), iron (5%), calcium (4%), sodium (3%), potassium (3%) and calcium (4%), sodium (3%), potassium (3%) and magnesium (2%) in a crystalline state.magnesium (2%) in a crystalline state.

Main source of pollutants and a permanent accumulator.Main source of pollutants and a permanent accumulator. Some are naturally released through sources like volcanic Some are naturally released through sources like volcanic

eruptions.eruptions. Others like fossil fuels are the result of artificial extraction Others like fossil fuels are the result of artificial extraction

and combustion. and combustion.

B-1B-1

The Environmental System

EcosphereEcosphere Set of all living organisms, including animals and vegetal.Set of all living organisms, including animals and vegetal. Temporary accumulators (like lead).Temporary accumulators (like lead). Sources for pollutants (natural forest burning).Sources for pollutants (natural forest burning). Very complex set of relationships with the atmosphere, Very complex set of relationships with the atmosphere,

hydrosphere and lithosphere.hydrosphere and lithosphere.

B-1B-1

The Environmental System

Biosphere

Atmosphere

Ecosphere

LithosphereHydrosphere

B-1B-1

The Environmental System

CyclesCycles How energy and elements flow from one constituent, like the How energy and elements flow from one constituent, like the

atmosphere, to others where they are accumulated atmosphere, to others where they are accumulated (permanently of temporarily) or passed on.(permanently of temporarily) or passed on.

Well-known cycles are the ones of carbon, nitrogen and water.Well-known cycles are the ones of carbon, nitrogen and water. Carbon cycleCarbon cycle

Transportation contributes to different geographical scales of Transportation contributes to different geographical scales of the carbon cycle.the carbon cycle.

Only one link in the environmental chain.Only one link in the environmental chain. Several aspects of the carbon cycle are ill-defined and difficult Several aspects of the carbon cycle are ill-defined and difficult

to evaluate.to evaluate. Growth of carbon dioxide emitted by transportation may imply Growth of carbon dioxide emitted by transportation may imply

for elements of the environmental system.for elements of the environmental system.

B-1B-1

The Environmental SystemB-1B-1

Fossil fuels

Atmosphere

Limestone

Animal activities

Decomposition

Human activities

Respiration and assimilation

Respiration and assimilation

Respiration

Respiration

Emission

Lithosphere

Ecosphere

Hydrosphere

Transportation

B-2B-2 Transport Systems and the Environment

RelationshipsRelationships Concomitant contribution.Concomitant contribution. Additional contribution.Additional contribution. In some cases, it may be a dominant factor, while in others its In some cases, it may be a dominant factor, while in others its

role is marginal and difficult to establish. role is marginal and difficult to establish. Geographical scales of relationship:Geographical scales of relationship:

Local (noise and CO emissions).Local (noise and CO emissions). National / regional problems (smog and acid rain)National / regional problems (smog and acid rain) Global (global warming).Global (global warming).

Transport Systems and the EnvironmentB-2B-2

Localized emissionsEnergy efficient

Diffused networkCentralized network

Diffused emissionsHigh energy use

TrafficLevel of emissionsLevel of energy consumption

Mode

CarBusWalkingRail

Nature of emissionsNature of energy consumption

Network

Traffic

Mode

Transport Systems and the Environment

The networkThe network Influences the spatial distribution of emissions.Influences the spatial distribution of emissions. Centralized networks concentrate the traffic and emissions, Centralized networks concentrate the traffic and emissions,

but are using less energy.but are using less energy. Dispersed networks may are more environmentally friendly, Dispersed networks may are more environmentally friendly,

but are consuming much more energy. but are consuming much more energy. The trafficThe traffic

Induces the level of emissions since it is related to the Induces the level of emissions since it is related to the utilization level of a transport system. utilization level of a transport system.

The modeThe mode Impels the nature of emissions.Impels the nature of emissions. Different transport modes have different energy requirements Different transport modes have different energy requirements

and levels of efficiency.and levels of efficiency. A transport system related to the usage of cars has different A transport system related to the usage of cars has different

environmental problems than one related to public transit. environmental problems than one related to public transit.

B-2B-2

Transport Systems and the Environment

Economic / industrial processes sustaining this systemEconomic / industrial processes sustaining this system Production of fuels, vehicles and construction materials, some Production of fuels, vehicles and construction materials, some

of which are very energy intensive (e.g. aluminum).of which are very energy intensive (e.g. aluminum). Disposal of vehicles, parts and infrastructure.Disposal of vehicles, parts and infrastructure. They all have a life cycle timing their production, utilization and They all have a life cycle timing their production, utilization and

disposal.disposal. Consideration of cycles in the environment and in the product Consideration of cycles in the environment and in the product

life alike.life alike. May lead to incorrect appraisal and policies.May lead to incorrect appraisal and policies.

B-2B-2

Environmental Impacts of TransportationB-3B-3

Land UseLand Use

EconomicsEconomics

Causes Activities

OtherOther

Infrastructureconstruction

and maintenance

Vehicle and partsmanufacture

Travel

Vehiclemaintenance and

support

Disposal ofvehicles and parts

Infrastructureconstruction

and maintenance

Vehicle and partsmanufacture

Travel

Vehiclemaintenance and

support

Disposal ofvehicles and parts

Outputs

Habitat changesHabitat changes

EmissionsEmissions

Ambient levelsAmbient levels

ExposureExposure

End results

Social orecological

effects

Social orecological

effects

Health,environmental

or welfareeffects

Health,environmental

or welfareeffects

Environmental Impacts of Transportation

AtmosphereAtmosphere Large scale diffusion of pollutants.Large scale diffusion of pollutants. High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of

pollutants because of local conditions (e.g. smog).pollutants because of local conditions (e.g. smog). Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays,

notably over ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.notably over ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Climatic changes (global warming).Climatic changes (global warming). Acid rain.Acid rain. Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g. Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g.

smog and greenhouse gases).smog and greenhouse gases).

B-3B-3

Environmental Impacts of Transportation

HydrosphereHydrosphere Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved of colloidal state.Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved of colloidal state. Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground

and underground water.and underground water. Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are

particularly vulnerable).particularly vulnerable). Growth in the solubility of several metals because of Growth in the solubility of several metals because of

acidification.acidification. Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese,

calcium, magnesium and potassium by runoffs.calcium, magnesium and potassium by runoffs. Contamination of ground and underground water by Contamination of ground and underground water by

nitrates.nitrates.

B-3B-3

Environmental Impacts of Transportation

LithosphereLithosphere Acid depositions.Acid depositions. Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.)

through acidification.through acidification. Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium.Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium. Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen.Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen. Modifications in the compositions and the depth of Modifications in the compositions and the depth of

decomposition gradient.decomposition gradient. Inhibition of decomposition.Inhibition of decomposition. Loss of the soil flora and fauna.Loss of the soil flora and fauna. Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and

contamination.contamination. Removal and consumption of land.Removal and consumption of land. Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and

energy.energy.

B-3B-3

Environmental Impacts of Transportation

Aquatic ecosphereAquatic ecosphere Alteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways.Alteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways. Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of

tolerant ones.tolerant ones. Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by

nitrification.nitrification. Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species.Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species. Reproductive impediments.Reproductive impediments.

Land ecosphereLand ecosphere Damages over the vegetation modifying:Damages over the vegetation modifying:

hydric cycles.hydric cycles. the level of underground water resources.the level of underground water resources. soil erosion.soil erosion. air purification capacity of the ecosphere.air purification capacity of the ecosphere. food sources (agriculture).food sources (agriculture). entertainment and tourism.entertainment and tourism.

B-3B-3

Environmental Impacts of Transportation

Reduction of the vital space.Reduction of the vital space. Reduction of the genetic potential of species.Reduction of the genetic potential of species. Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food

chain.chain. Consumption of resources.Consumption of resources.

Human ecosphereHuman ecosphere Odors and noise.Odors and noise. Cardiovascular and respiratory problems.Cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Susceptibility to infection.Susceptibility to infection. Drops in life expectancy.Drops in life expectancy. Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death.Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death. Damage to structures:Damage to structures:

Loss of useful life. (amortization)Loss of useful life. (amortization) Loss of property values.Loss of property values. Corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.).Corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.). Destruction of historical and cultural monuments.Destruction of historical and cultural monuments.

B-3B-3

Modal Causes

Modes concernedModes concerned Road.Road.

Main support of passenger and freight movements.Main support of passenger and freight movements. System-wide distribution.System-wide distribution.

Rail.Rail. Impacts mainly around terminals and major lines.Impacts mainly around terminals and major lines.

Maritime.Maritime. Air.Air.

Transportation activities affecting the environmentTransportation activities affecting the environment Infrastructure construction, maintenance, and abandonmentInfrastructure construction, maintenance, and abandonment.. Vehicle and parts manufactureVehicle and parts manufacture.. Vehicle travelVehicle travel.. Vehicle maintenance and supportVehicle maintenance and support.. DDisposal of used vehicles and partsisposal of used vehicles and parts..

B-4B-4

Transportation activities affecting the environment

Infrastructure

Vehicle manufacture

Vehicle travel

Vehicle maintenance

Vehicle disposal

Road

Rail

Maritime

Air

Activity Mode

Passengers

Freight

Traffic

B-4B-4

Modal Causes

Road Construction and MaintenanceRoad Construction and Maintenance.. Habitat disruption and land take for road and right-of-wayHabitat disruption and land take for road and right-of-way.. Emissions during construction and maintenanceEmissions during construction and maintenance.. Releases of deicing compoundsReleases of deicing compounds.. Highway runoffHighway runoff..

Motor Vehicle and Parts ManufactureMotor Vehicle and Parts Manufacture Toxic releases and other emissionsToxic releases and other emissions..

Road Vehicle TravelRoad Vehicle Travel Tailpipe and evaporative emissionsTailpipe and evaporative emissions.. Fugitive dust emissions from roadsFugitive dust emissions from roads.. Emissions of refrigerant agents from vehicle air conditionersEmissions of refrigerant agents from vehicle air conditioners.. NoiseNoise.. Hazardous materials incidents during transportHazardous materials incidents during transport.. RoadkillRoadkill..

B-4B-4

Modal Causes

Motor Vehicle Maintenance and SupportMotor Vehicle Maintenance and Support Releases during terminal operations: tank truck cleaning, Releases during terminal operations: tank truck cleaning,

maintenance, repair, and refuelingmaintenance, repair, and refueling.. Releases during passenger vehicle cleaning, maintenance, Releases during passenger vehicle cleaning, maintenance,

repair, and refuelingrepair, and refueling.. Leaking underground storage tanks containing fuelLeaking underground storage tanks containing fuel..

Disposal of Motor Vehicles and PartsDisposal of Motor Vehicles and Parts Scrappage of vehiclesScrappage of vehicles.. Improper disposal of motor oilImproper disposal of motor oil.. Tire disposalTire disposal.. Lead-acid batteries disposalLead-acid batteries disposal..

B-4B-4

Modal Causes

Railway Construction, Maintenance, and AbandonmentRailway Construction, Maintenance, and Abandonment Habitat disruption and land takeHabitat disruption and land take.. Emissions during construction and maintenanceEmissions during construction and maintenance..

Rail Car and Parts ManufactureRail Car and Parts Manufacture Toxic releasesToxic releases..

Rail TravelRail Travel Exhaust emissionsExhaust emissions.. NoiseNoise.. Hazardous materials incidents during transportHazardous materials incidents during transport

Rail Car Maintenance and SupportRail Car Maintenance and Support Releases during terminal operations: car cleaning, maintenance, Releases during terminal operations: car cleaning, maintenance,

repair, and refuelingrepair, and refueling.. Emissions from utilities powering railEmissions from utilities powering rail..

Disposal of Rail Cars and PartsDisposal of Rail Cars and Parts Rail car and parts disposalRail car and parts disposal..

B-4B-4

Modal Causes

Airport Construction, Maintenance, or ExpansionAirport Construction, Maintenance, or Expansion Habitat disruption and land takeHabitat disruption and land take.. Emissions during construction and maintenanceEmissions during construction and maintenance.. Releases of deicing compoundsReleases of deicing compounds.. Airport runoffAirport runoff..

Aircraft and Parts ManufactureAircraft and Parts Manufacture Toxic releasesToxic releases

Aviation TravelAviation Travel High altitude emissionsHigh altitude emissions.. LLow altitude/ground level emissionsow altitude/ground level emissions.. Noise impactsNoise impacts.. Hazardous materials incidents during transportHazardous materials incidents during transport..

Airport OperationAirport Operation Emissions from ground support equipment involved in aircraft loading, Emissions from ground support equipment involved in aircraft loading,

cleaning,cleaning, maintenance, repair, and refuelling.maintenance, repair, and refuelling. Disposal of Aircraft and PartsDisposal of Aircraft and Parts

Airplane and parts disposalAirplane and parts disposal

B-4B-4

Modal Causes

Construction and Maintenance of Navigation ImprovementsConstruction and Maintenance of Navigation Improvements Direct deterioration of habitats and water quality from dredging or Direct deterioration of habitats and water quality from dredging or

other navigationother navigation improvementsimprovements.. Habitat disruption and contamination from disposal of dredged Habitat disruption and contamination from disposal of dredged

materialmaterial.. Habitat disruption and land take for ports and marinasHabitat disruption and land take for ports and marinas..

Manufacture of Maritime Vessels and PartsManufacture of Maritime Vessels and Parts Toxic releasesToxic releases..

Maritime Vessel TravelMaritime Vessel Travel Air pollutant emissionsAir pollutant emissions.. Habitat disruption caused by wakes and anchorsHabitat disruption caused by wakes and anchors.. Introduction of non-native speciesIntroduction of non-native species.. Hazardous materials incidents during transportHazardous materials incidents during transport.. Wildlife collisionsWildlife collisions.. Overboard dumping of solid wasteOverboard dumping of solid waste.. Sewage dumpingSewage dumping..

B-4B-4

Modal Causes

Maritime Vessel Maintenance and SupportMaritime Vessel Maintenance and Support Releases of pollutants during terminal operationsReleases of pollutants during terminal operations..

Disposal of Maritime Vessels and PartsDisposal of Maritime Vessels and Parts Scrappage of old vessels and dilapidated partsScrappage of old vessels and dilapidated parts..

B-4B-4