Training - Learning Theories & Transfer of Learning

7/27/2019 Training - Learning Theories & Transfer of Learning

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Training and Learning


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Concepts of learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledgeand skills. It is a process in which an individualsbehaviour is changed through experience.

For our purposes, that experience is training

and development. Learning occurs, when one experiences a new

way of acting, thinking, or feeling, finds the newpattern gratifying or useful, and incorporates it

into the repertoire ofbehaviours. When a behaviourhas been learned, it can bethought of as a skill.


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Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge or skill through

study, experience or teaching.

It is a process that depends on experience and leads to long term

changes in behavior potential.

Learning occurs, when one experiences a new way of acting,

thinking, or feeling, finds the new pattern of gratifying or useful,

and incorporates it into the behaviors

When a behavior has been learned, it can be thought of as a skill.

Learning


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What is not a learning ?

This can be done through direct experience , bydoing/participating , or indirectly , throughobservation.

Learning does not apply to temporary changesin behaviour such asthose stemming fromfatigue, drugs, or illness.

It does not refer to changes resulting from

maturation. The changes produced by learning are not

always positive in nature.


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Learning

Learning is relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of

growth processes. These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes.

Type of Learning Outcome Description of Capability

Verbal Information State, tell or describe previously stored

information.

Intellectual Skills Apply generalizable concepts and rules to

solve problems and generate novel

products.

Motor Skills Execute a physical action with precision

and timing.

Attitudes Choose a personal course of action.

Cognitive Strategies Manage ones own thinking and learning

processes.


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Training Training refers to a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees learning of job

related competencies. These competencies include knowledge, skills, or behaviors that are

critical for successful job performance.

The goal training is for employees to master the knowledge, skill and behaviors

emphasized in training programs and to apply them to their day-to-day activities.

Training is opportunity for learning.

What is learned depends on many factors such as :

1.) the design.

2.) implementation of training.

3.) the motivation to learn.

4.) learning style of the trainees.

5.) the learning climate of the organization.

Training, development and education are all a subset ofLearning.

Training is structured presentation with a specific purpose and may or may not be

classroom based.


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Conditions for Effective Learning

Authentic and open system at the training

institution.

Non-threatening Climate

Challenging in learning tasks

Collaborative arrangements for mutual support of

learning.

Mechanisms for supportive and quick feedback. Opportunities to practise skills learned.

Opportunities to apply learning.


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Conditions for Effective Learning-trainers perspectives

Opportunities for and encouragement of self-learning.

Opportunities and support for experimentation.

Emphasis on learning through discovery. Indirect and liberating influence of the trainer

through minimum guidance.

Trainers human values and faith in humanity.

Trainers high expectations from learners andopenness to examine his own needs.

Trainers competence


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Major Conditions for learning to be

effective- Leaners Perspectives'

The learner should be motivated to learn. Standard of performance should be set for him.

The learner should have guidance (direction + feedback).

The learner must get satisfaction from learning.

Learning is an active and not a passive process.

Appropriate techniques should be used.

Learning methods should be varied.

Time must be allowed to absorb the learning. The learner must receive reinforcement or correct behavior.

The need to recognize that there are different levels of learning

and that these need different methods and take different times.


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What should be learned?

Verbal Information : Includes names or labels,facts and bodies of knowledge.

Intellectual Skills : Includes concepts and rules.To solve problems, serve customers and create

product. Motor Skills: Include coordination of physical

movements.

Attitudes : Beliefs, feeling, action/behaviour choose a personal course of action.

Cognitive Strategies : Manage ones own thinkingand learning process.


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Training Design

CharacteristicsObjectives

Plan of instruction

Principles of learning

TraineeCharacteristics

Readiness to learn

Motivation to learn

Learning Outcomes

Cognitive

Skill

Affective

Transfer Outcomes

Generalization

Adaptability

Maintenance/

Enhancement

Work

CharacteristicsOpportunity

Climate

Support

A model of characteristics affecting learning and transfer outcomeBaldwin,T.T

Theories and principles of learning


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Stages Of Learning

According To ACT (Adaptive Character of Thought)Theory, learning takes place into three stages that areknown as:

Declarative knowledge (knowledge, facts, informationetc.)- cognitive resources/attention.

Knowledge Compilation, and

Procedural knowledge or proceduralization.


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Learning Styles

According to David Kolb, there are four learning modes:

1. Concrete Experience (Learning by experience)

2. Abstract Conceptualization (learning by thinking)

1. Reflective Observation (learning by reflecting)

2. Active Experimentation (learning by doing)


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Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Social Learning Theory Information processing Theory

Adult Learning Theory

-Read Motivation& Learning theories as

well.


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Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning is a term used todescribe learning which has beenacquired through experience.

In these experiments, Pavlov trained hisdogs to salivate when they heard a bellring. In order to do this he first showed

them food, the sight of which causedthem to salivate.

Later Pavlov would ring a bell every timehe would bring the food out, untileventually he could get the dogs tosalivate just by ringing the bell and

without giving the dogs any food. In this simple but ingenious experiment,

Pavlov showed how a reflex (salivation,a natural bodily response) could becomeconditioned (modified) to an externalstimulus (the bell) thereby creating a

conditioned reflex/response.


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Components Involved In Classical

Conditioning

The Unconditioned Stimulus (food)

The food is an unconditioned

stimulus, because it causes a

reflex response (salivation)

automatically and without the

dog having to learn how tosalivate.

Conditioned Stimulus (bell)

When Pavlov rang a

bell and caused the

dogs to salivate, this

was a conditioned

stimulus becausethe dogs learnt to

associate the bell

with food.

Unconditioned Reflex (salivation)

An unconditioned reflex

is anything that happens

automatically without

you having to think

about it, such as your

mouth salivating when

you eat.

Conditioned Reflex (salivation in

response to bell)The dogs salivated

when Pavlov rang a

bell, when

previously (without

conditioning) the

bell would not

cause the dogs tosalivate.


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Reinforcement /operant

conditioning Theory

Famous psychologist , B.F. Skinner

StimulusEvents or cues

in the environment

attract our attention

BehaviourA response or

set of response

ConsequencePositive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

No consequence

Punishment

Ratio Schedules : fixedratio ,continuous, variable- ratio

Interval Schedules: Fixed interval /variableinterval


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This theory was developed by the behaviouristschool of psychology by B.F. Skinner.

Reinforcement theory emphasizes that people aremotivated to perform or avoid certain behaviorsbecause of past outcomes that have resulted fromthose behaviors.

In behavioral terms "positive" means something isadded to the situation, "negative" means somethingis taken away. "Reinforcement" means that thebehavior is more likely to be repeated after it isapplied, "punishment" means the behavior is less

likely to be repeated afterwards.

Positive reinforcement, or 'rewards' can includeverbal reinforcement such as 'That's great' or'You're certainly on the right track' through to moretangible rewards such as a certificate at the end ofthe course or promotion to a higher level in an

organisation.


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Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcement

whenever target behavior has taken place a

given no. of times.

Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement

after each occurrence of target behavior.

Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcementafter several occurrences of target behavior;

no. of occurrences before reinforcement may

differ each time.

Fixed-interval schedule: reinforcement at a

given time interval after performance of

target behavior.

Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement

occurring periodically after performance of

target behavior; time intervals may differ

each time.


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Social Learning Theory

The theory was introduced by Albert Bandura, Psychologist.

Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (models)

whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable.

Learning is also influenced by a persons self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a persons

judgment about whether he or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills.

Self-efficacy can be increased using several methods:

Verbal persuasion: means offering words of encouragement to convince others they

can learn.

Logical verification: involves perceiving a relationship between a new task and a

task already mastered.

Modeling: involves having employees who already have mastered the learningoutcomes demonstrate them for trainees.

Past Accomplishments: refers to allowing employees to build a history of successful

accomplishments.


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Albert Bandura , PsychologistObservation :( the role model or set an

examples )

Techniques of observation learning :attention ,retention , reproduction and

reinforcement.

Self-efficacy:Self-management:


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Four Processes of Social Learning Theory

Attention:

Model Stimuli

TraineeCharacteristics

Retention:

Coding

OrganizationRehearsal

Motor Reproduction:

Physical Capability

Accuracy

Feedback

Motivational Processes:

Reinforcement

Match

Modeled

Performance


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Example of Social Learning Theory

Students learn how to act in school through interaction with the teacher and otherstudents. They learn to work quietly and raise their hands to get the teachers attention.

There are expectations of behavior and negative consequences for not acting

appropriately.


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Information Processing Theory

Stimulus or

message

Environment

Feedback

Reinforcement

Receptors

Eyes

Ears

Nose

Skin

Effectors

Sensory

Register

Short-

term

Memory

Long-

term

Memory

Response Generator


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Adult Learning Theory

Educational psychologist ,Malcolm Knowles

1. Adults have the need to know why they arelearning.

2. Adults have a need to be self-directed3. Adults bring more work- related experiences

into learning situation.

4. Adults enter into a learning experience with a

problemcentered approach to learning.5. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic

and intrinsic motivators.


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Model based on several assumptions:-

1.Adults have the need to know why they are

learning something.

2.Adults have a need to be self-directed.

3.Adults bring more work- related experiences

into the learning situation.

4.Adults enter into a learning experience with a

problem-centered approach to learning.

5.Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic

and intrinsic motivators.


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Adult Learning Theory (By Malcolm

Knowles)

Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training :-

Design Issue Implications

Self- Concept Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction

Experience Use learner experience as basis for examples and

applications

Time Perspective Immediate application of content

Orientation to learning Problem-centered instead of subject-centered


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Factor Children Adults

Personality Dependent Independent

Motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic

Roles students/child parent ,volunteer ,spouse

Openness to change keen Ingrained habits and

attitudes

Barriers to change Few Negative Self-

ConceptLimited opportunities

Time

Inappropriate Teaching Methods

Experience Limited Vast

Orientation to learning subjectedcentered problem-centered


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Pedagogy and Andragogy

Pedagogy is defined as the art and science of teaching children.

Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults to learn.

Andragogy

As an individual matures his need and capacity to be self directing,to utilize his experiences in learning around life problems, increasessteadily from infancy to pre-adolescence and then increasinglyrapidly during adolescence.

Knowledge's based Andragogy upon certain crucial assumptions

concerning the differences between children and adults as learners.

Assumptions Design Elements


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Assumptions

Pedagogy Andragogy

Self Concept

Experience

Readiness

Time

Perspective

Orientation to

learning

Design Elements

Dependency Self Directing

of little worth Learners are

rich resource

Biological

development

social pressure

Developmental

task of social

roles

Postponed

application

Immediacy of

application

Subject

Centered

Problem

Centered

Pedagogy Andragogy

Climate

Planning

Diagnosis of

needs

Formulation

of Object.

Design

Authority

Oriented

Mutual

respect

Collaborative

Informal

By teacher Mutual

By teacher Mutual Self-

Diagnosis

By Teacher Mutual

Negotiations

Logic of the

subject matter

Content Units

Sequenced in

terms of readiness

Problem Units

Activities Transmitting

techniques

Experimental

techniques


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Andragogy vs. Pedagogy

Difference 1:

Self concept: The child sees himself as a dependent

personality; the adult wants to be treated as a self-directing

person and with respect.

Implications:(1) A climate of adultness is a necessity in

all adult program. (2) Engage the adult in diagnosing hisown needs for learning. (3) Involve the adults in the

planning of their own learning. (4) Allow the adults to

carry out their own learning. (5) Evaluation should be a re

self-diagnosis.


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Difference 2

Experience: By virtue of a longer life, adults have hadmore experiences, thus are richer resources for learning.

Implication: Allow the adult to express theirexperiences. Action-learning and participative

learning techniques are good to use.


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Difference 3

Time Perspective: A Youths learning orientation is

one of postponed application, therefore learning is

subject centered. An adults time perspective concerning

learning is one of immediate application resulting in a

problem centered orientation.


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Principles of learning

Association : Contiguity ,law of effect andactive practice.

Spaced versus massed practice

Whole versus part practice Sequence of Practice

Feedback & coaching

More Practice/over-learning


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What is transfer of learning?

Transfer of learning is

Students/employees independently apply

knowledge and skills to similar but new

information. Influence of previous experience on:

Learning a new skill

Performing a skill in a new context


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Types of Transfer

Positive transferA situation in which prior learning aids

subsequent learning.

Negative transferA situation in which prior learning interferes

with subsequent learning.

Zero transferA situation in which prior learning has no effect

on new learning.


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Others Types of Transfer

Specific transfer Situation in which prior learning aids

subsequent learning because of specific

similarities between two tasks. General transfer

Situation in which prior learning aids

subsequent learning due to the use of similar

cognitive strategies.


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Types of Transfer

Near transfer Knowledge domains are highly similar, the

settings in which the original learning and

transfer tasks occur are basically the same,and the elapsed time between the two tasks is

relatively short.

Far transfer

Knowledge domains and settings are judged to

be dissimilar and the time between the original

learning and transfer tasks is relatively long.


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Types of Transfer

Low-road transfer Situation in which a previously learned skill or

idea is almost automatically retrieved from

memory and applied to a highly similar currenttask.

High-road transfer

Situation involving the conscious, controlled,

somewhat effortful formulation of an

abstraction that allows a connection to be

made between two tasks.

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Training - Learning Theories & Transfer of Learning