Transportation | MAR 2017

Traffic Safety TrendsState Legislative Action2016

iii NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Table of ContentsIntroduction ........................................................................................1Federal Traffic Safety Update ............................................................3Occupant Protection .........................................................................3 ChildPassengerProtection ........................................................6 Smoking in Cars with Children ....................................................7 ChildreninUnattendedVehicles ................................................7Impaired Driving .................................................................................7 StateLegislation ..........................................................................8 High BAC ......................................................................................9 IgnitionInterlockRequirements .................................................9 IgnitionInterlockComplianceLaws .........................................11 ImpliedConsent,BloodAlcoholTestingandTestRefusals .....12 EnhancedCriminalPenaltiesforRepeatOffenders ................13 TreatmentProgramsand24/7Sobriety Monitoring Programs ................................................................13Drugged Driving ................................................................................14Distracted Driving .............................................................................17Driver Licensing ................................................................................19 REALID ......................................................................................19 MilitaryDesignationonDriver’sLicenses ................................20 MedicalDesignationsonDriver’sLicenses ..............................20 UndocumentedImmigrantDriver’sLicenses ..........................21 LicenseSuspensionforNon-DrivingOffenses .........................22 DigitalDriver’sLicenses .............................................................22

Teen Drivers ......................................................................................23 YoungDriversandSchoolEnrollment orAcademicPerformance ........................................................25 DistractedDrivingandYoungDrivers .......................................25 ImpairmentandYoungDrivers .................................................25Older Drivers .....................................................................................26Speeding and Speed Limits ..............................................................27Automated Enforcement ................................................................30Motorcycle Safety.............................................................................32 MotorcycleHelmets .................................................................32 MotorcycleLicensingandEducation .......................................33 MotorcycleOperationandEquipment ....................................34 Autocycles ..................................................................................35School Bus Safety .............................................................................36 IllegalPassingofSchoolBuses ..................................................36 StudentSafetyInsideandOutsideofBuses ............................37 SeatBeltsonSchoolBuses .......................................................37 SchoolBusDrivers .....................................................................37Pedestrian and Bicyclist Safety ........................................................38 SafeBicyclePassingandBicycleOperationandEquipment ...38 BicycleandPedestrianInfrastructure .....................................39 ElectricBicycles .........................................................................40Slow and Medium Speed Vehicles ..................................................42Links for Further Information ..........................................................42

Tables and FiguresTable 1 SeatBeltUseRatesbyStatesandTerritories ................................................................4Table 2 Alcohol-ImpairedTrafficFatalities,2015 .......................................................................7

Figure 1 CrashesbySeverity,2015 ...............................................................................................1Figure 2 ProcessofDUIandIgnitionInterlockInstallation ...................................................... 10Figure 3 StateswithLawsRequiringCamerason IgnitionInterlockDevicesforSomeOffenders .......................................................... 12Figure 4 StatusofState/TerritoryREALIDActCompliance,Jan.2017 .................................. 20Figure 5 StateswithStatutoryDefinitionsforAutocycles ....................................................... 35Figure 6 StateswithSafeBicyclePassingLaws ......................................................................... 39

AppendicesAppendix A NationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministrationRegionalOffices ................ 43Appendix B SafetyBeltLaws2016 ..................................................................................... 44Appendix C StateLawsonChildRestraintUse2016 ........................................................ 47Appendix D RestrictionsonRidinginCargoAreasofPickupTrucks ................................ 53Appendix E LicensingProceduresforOlderDrivers ......................................................... 56Appendix F TeenDrivingRestrictions ................................................................................ 59Appendix G StateAggressiveDrivingLaws ........................................................................ 63Appendix H StateMaximumPostedSpeedLimitLaws..................................................... 67Appendix I StatePoliciesRegardingUseofTrafficCameras............................................ 70Appendix J MotorcycleHelmetUseRequirements ......................................................... 74

BY ANNE TEIGEN, AMANDA ESSEX AND DOUGLAS SHINKLE

Traffic Safety TrendsState Legislative Action 2016

1 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

IntroductionIn2015,35,092peoplediedincrashesonU.S.Roadways,a7.2percentincreasefrom32,744fatalitiesin2014.Thisisthelargestpercentageincreaseinnearly50years.Fatalitiesincreasedfrom2014to2015inalmostallsegmentsofthepopulation—passengervehicleoccupants,passengersoflargetrucks,pedes-trians,bicyclists,motorcyclists,aswellasalcohol-impaireddrivingfatalities.Infact,accordingtoNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA),passengercarandlight-truckoccupantfatalitiesareattheirhighestsince2009andpedestrianfatalitiesareattheirhighestnumbersince1996.Additionally,2.44millionpeoplewereinjuredinmotorvehiclecrashesin2015.

According to the 2015TrafficSafetyCultureIndexbyAAA,nearlyeveryoneinAmericaisaffectedbytrafficcrashes.Oneinfivedrivershavebeeninvolvedinacrashseriousenoughtorequirethehospitaliza-tionofsomeoneatsomepointintheirlivesandoneinninepersonshasbeenseriouslyinjuredinacrash.NearlyoneinthreeAmericanshashadafriendorrelativeseriouslyinjuredorkilledinacrash.

Trafficsafetyisacostly,personal,andimportantpublichealthissueformanypeople,includingstatelegislators.In2016,statelegislatorsdebatedmorethan1,900trafficsafetyproposals.Issuesexam-inedinthisreportinclude:

• Occupantprotection.

• Childpassengerprotection.

• Impaireddriving.

• Druggeddriving.

• Distracteddriving.

• Driverlicensing.

• Teendrivers.

• Olderdrivers.

• SpeedingandSpeedLimits.

• Automatedenforcement.

• Motorcyclesafety.

• Schoolbussafety.

• Pedestrianandbicyclistsafety.

• Slowandmediumspeedvehicles.

Tablesandchartsdetailingstatetrafficsafetylawsareincluded,asarecontactsandlinksforfurtherinformation(AppendixAcontainsNationalHigh-wayTrafficSafetyAdministrationregionalofficecontactinformation).AllbillsdiscussedinthisreportcanbefoundintheNCSL-NHTSATrafficSafetyLegislativeTrackingDatabase.

35,092FATALITIES

1,715,000INJURYCRASHES

4,548,000PROPERTYDAMAGEONLY

6,296,000POLICE-REPORTEDCRASHES

13,000,000ESTIMATEDTOTALCRASHES

$242 billionESTIMATEDECONOMICCOST

$836 billionESTIMATEDSOCIETALCOST

Figure 1. Crashes by Severity, 2015

Source: NHTSA, 2016

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3 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Federal Traffic Safety UpdateFixingAmerica’sSurfaceTransportationAct(FASTAct)waspassedbyCongressandsignedintolawbyPresidentObamainDecember2015.TheFASTActisafive-yearbillthatprovidesauthorityandfundingforfederalsurfacetransportationprograms.Thebillapproved$305billioninfundingforsurfacetrans-portationprogramsthrough2020.

TheFASTActincludeshighwaysafetyprovisionsinTitleIV,whichprovidesgrantstostatestoadvanceanumberoftrafficsafety-relatedprogramsiftheyadopt,orhaveadopted,certainprovisions.Grantsareavailableforprogramsthatinvolveoccupantprotection,trafficdatasystemsimprovements,impaireddriving,distracteddriving,motorcyclistsafety,bikeandpedestriansafetyandgraduateddriver’slicenses.FormoreinformationaboutgrantsavailableintheFASTAct,pleaseseeNHTSA’sHighwaySafetyGrantProgramsResourceGuide.

Cost Calculator Tool

TheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC)providesaninnovativewebtoolforstatepolicymakerscalled“MotorVehiclePrioritizingInterventionsandCostCalculatorforStates”(MVPICCS).Itreviewsthecostsandbenefitsofdifferentstatewidetrafficsafetyinterventions,allowingtheusertoselectthefollowingcountermeasures:

• AutomatedRed-LightEnforcement

• AutomatedSpeed-CameraEnforcement

• Alcohol Interlocks

• SobrietyCheckpoints

• SaturationPatrols

• BicycleHelmetLawsforChildren

• UniversalMotorcycleHelmetLaws

• PrimaryEnforcementofSeatBeltLaws

• High-VisibilityEnforcementforSeatBeltsandChildRestraintand Booster Laws

• LicensePlateImpoundment

• LimitsonDiversionand Plea Agreements

• VehicleImpoundment

• In-PersonLicenseRenewal

• IncreasedFinesforSeatBeltUse

Thetoolcalculatestheexpectednumberandmonetizedvalueofinjuriespreventedandlivessavedbyinstitutingaselectedcountermeasure.Thetoolcanadjusttostate-specificinforma-tion,assessthepotentialrevenuetothestatefromfinesandfees,andanalyzeacombinationofpoliciestofindthemostcost-effectivewaytospendlimiteddollarsontrafficsafety.

Occupant Protection According to the CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC),motorvehiclecrashesarealeadingcauseofdeathamongthoseages1to54intheUnitedStates.Ofthe22,441occupantsofpassengervehicleskilledonAmerica’sroadsin2015,48percentwerenotwearingaseatbelt.Researchindicatesthatlap/shoulderseatbelts,whenusedproperly,reducetheriskoffatalinjurytofront-seatpassengercaroccupantsby45percentandtheriskofmoderate-to-criticalinjuryby50percent.

NHTSAestimatesthatseatbeltssavedapproximately13,941livesin2015andhavepreventedhundredsofthousandsofinjuries.Anadditional2,804liveswouldhavebeensavedin2015ifallunrestrainedpassengersinvolvedinfatalcrasheshadworntheirseatbelts.AccordingtotheAmericanAutomobileAs-sociation(AAA),nearly82percentofpeoplesurveyedsaytheyneverdrivewithoutaseatbelt,but2015NHTSAdatashowsthatseatbeltusevarieswidelyinthestates—from69.5percentinNewHampshireto97.3percentinCaliforniaandGeorgia.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 4

A CDCstudyfromJune2016lookedatseatbeltuseamongteens,findingthatonly51percentofhighschoolstudentsreportedalwayswearingaseatbeltwhenridinginacar.Thepercentageofhighschoolstudentswhoreportedwearingaseatbeltrangedfrom32percentinSouthDakotato65percentinDela-ware,withuseratesbeingreported11percentlowerinstateswithsecondaryenforcementlaws.

Seatbeltlawsandenforcementcanencouragedriversandpassengerstobuckleup.EverystateexceptNewHampshirehasanadultsafetybeltlaw.Seatbeltslawscanbeprimaryorsecondary.Primarylawsallowpoliceofficerstostopmotoristssolelyforviolatingtheseatbeltlaw.Thirty-threestatesandtheDistrictofColumbiahaveprimaryenforcementseatbeltlaws.Sixteenstateshavesecondaryseatbeltlawsthatrequirepolicetostopthevehicleforotherreasonsbeforetheycancitethedriverforfailuretouseaseatbelt.AccordingtoNHTSA,stateswithprimarylawsaveraged9percenthigherseatbeltusethansecondarylawstatesin2016.

Table 1. Seat Belt Use Rates by States and Territories

StateorU.S.Territory 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 20152014–2015

Change

Alabama 86.1 90.0 91.4 88.0 89.5 97.3 95.7 93.3 -2.4

Alaska 84.9 86.1 86.8 89.3 88.1 86.1 88.4 89.3 0.9

Arizona 79.9 80.8 81.8 82.9 82.2 84.7 87.2 86.6 -0.6

Arkansas 70.4 74.4 78.3 78.4 71.9 76.7 74.4 77.7 3.3

California 95.7 95.3 96.2 96.6 95.5 97.4 97.1 97.3 0.2

Colorado 81.7 81.1 82.9 82.1 80.7 82.1 82.4 85.2 2.8

Connecticut 88.0 85.9 88.2 88.4 86.8 86.6 85.1 85.4 0.3

Delaware 91.3 88.4 90.7 90.3 87.9 92.2 91.9 90.4 -1.5

Dist.OfColumbia 90.0 93.0 92.3 95.2 92.4 87.5 93.2 95.5 2.3

Florida 81.7 85.2 87.4 88.1 87.4 87.2 88.8 89.4 0.6

Georgia 89.6 88.9 89.6 93.0 92.0 95.5 97.3 97.3 0.0

Hawaii 97.0 97.9 97.6 96.0 93.4 94.0 93.5 92.8 -0.7

Idaho 76.9 79.2 77.9 79.1 79.0 81.6 80.2 81.1 0.9

Illinois 90.5 91.7 92.6 92.9 93.6 93.7 94.1 95.2 1.1

Indiana 91.2 92.6 92.4 93.2 93.6 91.6 90.2 91.9 1.7

Iowa 92.9 93.1 93.1 93.5 92.4 91.9 92.8 93.0 0.2

Kansas 77.4 77.0 81.8 82.9 79.5 80.7 85.7 82.1 -3.6

Kentucky 73.3 79.7 80.3 82.2 83.7 85.0 86.1 86.7 0.6

Louisiana 75.5 74.5 75.9 77.7 79.3 82.5 84.1 85.9 1.8

Maine 83.0 82.6 82.0 81.6 84.4 83.0 85.0 85.5 0.5

Maryland 93.3 94.0 94.7 94.2 91.1 90.7 92.1 92.9 0.8

Massachusetts 66.8 73.6 73.7 73.2 72.7 74.8 76.6 74.1 -2.5

Michigan 97.2 98.0 95.2 94.5 93.6 93.0 93.3 92.8 -0.5

Minnesota 86.7 90.2 92.3 92.7 93.6 94.8 94.7 94.0 -0.7

Mississippi 71.3 76.0 81.0 81.9 83.2 74.4 78.3 79.6 1.3

Missouri 75.8 77.2 76.0 79.0 79.4 80.1 78.8 79.9 1.1

Montana 79.3 79.2 78.9 76.9 76.3 74.0 74.0 77.0 3.0

Nebraska 82.6 84.8 84.1 84.2 78.6 79.1 79.0 79.6 0.6

Nevada 90.9 91.0 93.2 94.1 90.5 94.8 94.0 92.1 -1.9

NewHampshire 69.2 68.9 72.2 75.0 68.6 73.0 70.4 69.5 -0.9

NewJersey 91.8 92.7 93.7 94.5 88.3 91.0 87.6 91.4 3.8

5 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

StateorU.S.Territory 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 20152014–2015

Change

NewMexico 91.1 90.1 89.8 90.5 91.4 92.0 92.1 93.3 1.2

NewYork 89.1 88.0 89.8 90.5 90.4 91.1 90.6 92.2 1.6

NorthCarolina 89.8 89.5 89.7 89.5 87.5 88.6 90.6 89.9 -0.7

NorthDakota 81.6 81.5 74.8 76.7 80.9 77.7 81.0 80.4 -0.6

Ohio 82.7 83.6 83.8 84.1 82.0 84.5 85.0 83.9 -1.1

Oklahoma 84.3 84.2 85.9 85.9 83.8 83.6 86.3 84.5 -1.8

Oregon 96.3 96.6 97.0 96.6 96.8 98.2 97.8 95.5 -2.3

Pennsylvania 85.1 87.9 86.0 83.8 83.5 84.0 83.6 82.7 -0.9

RhodeIsland 72.0 74.7 78.0 80.4 77.5 85.6 87.4 86.7 -0.7

SouthCarolina 79.0 81.5 85.4 86.0 90.5 91.7 90.0 91.6 1.6

SouthDakota 71.8 72.1 74.5 73.4 66.5 68.7 68.9 73.6 4.7

Tennessee 81.5 80.6 87.1 87.4 83.7 84.8 87.7 86.2 -1.5

Texas 91.2 92.9 93.8 93.7 94.0 90.3 90.7 90.5 -0.2

Utah 86.0 86.1 89.0 89.2 81.9 82.4 83.4 87.2 3.8

Vermont 87.3 85.3 85.2 84.7 84.2 84.9 84.1 86.0 1.9

Virginia 80.6 82.3 80.5 81.8 78.4 79.7 77.3 80.9 3.6

Washington 96.5 96.4 97.6 97.5 96.9 94.5 94.5 94.6 0.1

WestVirginia 89.5 87.0 82.1 84.9 84.0 82.2 87.8 89.0 1.2

Wisconsin 74.2 73.8 79.2 79.0 79.9 82.4 84.7 85.8 1.1

Wyoming 68.6 67.6 78.9 82.6 77.0 81.9 79.2 79.8 0.6

Nationwide 83 84 85 84 86 87 86.7 88.5 1.8

PuertoRico 92.8 92.3 NA 91.9 90.2 89.7 89.5 91.8 2.3

American Samoa 55.7 60.0 73.0 77.0 75.0 74.9 76.3 77.0 0.7

Guam 85.0 80.0 85.0 81.0 81.4 93.8 90.1 91.5 1.4

No.MarianaIslands 89.8 84.6 80.9 93.7 NA 90.5 91.4 95.6 4.2

U.S.VirginIsland 82.3 85.6 86.4 85.6 77.9 76.8 66.1 82.7 16.6

Note:Ratesinjurisdictionswithprimarybeltenforcementduringthecalendaryearofthesurveyareshaded.

Sources: NHTSA 2016.

Lawsin17states,theDistrictofColumbia,GuamandtheNorthernMarianaIslandshaveprimarylawsthatrequireoccupantsinboththefrontandrearseatstobebelted.AccordingtotheGovernorsHighwaySafetyAssociation,seatbeltusebyadultsinthebackofpassengervehiclesisabout10percentagepointslowerthanbythoseinthefront.(AppendixBcontainsinformationaboutsafetybeltuselawsandAppen-dixDcontainsinformationonoccupantsincargoareasintrucks.)

Onecommonconcernaboutenactingaprimarybeltlawisthefearthatsuchalawwouldbeunequallyenforcedagainstminorities.NHTSApublishedastudyof13statesthathadchangedtheirseatbeltlawsfromprimarytosecondarysince2000.Itfoundthat,althoughminoritygroupsthoughttheirchancesofgettingaseatbeltticketwerehigherthanforwhites,datarevealednodifferencesinticketingbyrace.Thenumberofcitationsfornonuseofseatbeltsincreasedsubstantiallyineverystatethatswitchedtoaprimarylaw,andincreasesoccurredinallgroups.Thepercentageofcitationsreceivedbyeachgroupchangedverylittle.However,areportfromtheACLUinFloridaindicatedthat,in2014,blackmotoristsinthestatewerestoppedandticketedforseatbeltviolationsinfargreaternumbersthanwhitemotorists.LawenforcementagenciesinFloridaarerequiredtoreporttheraceandethnicityofeveryrecipientofaticketforviolationofseatbeltrequirements.In2014,blackmotoristswerestoppedandcitedthreetimesmoreoftenthanwhitemotoristsinPalmBeachCountyand2.8timesmoreofteninOrangeCounty.Thereportcitesstatewideandnationalstudiesthatshowthedifferencesinseatbelt-wearingbehaviorbe-tweenraces,butdoesnotexplainthedisparitiesinseatbeltcitationrates.Fairenforcementofseatbelt

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 6

useandothertrafficlawsinallsegmentsofthepopulationisanongoingconcernforlawenforcementagencies,statelawmakersandthegeneralpublic.

State LegislationDuringthe2016statelegislativesession,23statesconsideredbillsrelatedtoseatbelts.Louisianadoubledtheamountofaseatbeltcitationin2016from$25to$50forthefirstoffenseand$50to$75forthesecondoffense.Massachusetts,PuertoRicoandTennesseeconsideredbutdidnotpass,similarmeasures.Twostates—MissouriandOhio—considered,butdidnotpass,primaryseatbeltlawsin2016.InAlabama,MarylandandNewYork,billswereintroducedthatwouldrequirepassengersinallseats,includingtherearseats,towearsafetybelts.ThemeasuresinAlabamaandMarylandfailedandtheNewYorkmeasurewasstillpendingatthetimeofpublication.

Child Passenger Protection In2015,1,132childrenage14andyoungerdiedandanestimated178,000wereinjuredinmotorvehiclecrashes.Childdeathsinmotorvehiclecrasheshavedeclinedsince1975,but,onaverage,threechildrenwerekilledandanestimated487childrenwereinjuredeverydayintheUnitedStatesintrafficcrashesin2015.Themosteffectivewaytokeepchildrensafeincarsistoensurethattheyareproperlyrestrainedinappropriatechildrestraintsystemsinthebackseat.NHTSAestimatesthatchildsafetyseatsreducetheriskoffatalinjuryby71percentforinfantsandby54percentfortoddlersinpassengercars.From1975to2015,anestimated10,940livesweresavedbychildrestraints(childsafetyseatsoradultseatbelts)forchildrenunder5yearsoldinpassengervehicles.

NHTSA’srecommendationsandchildrestraintguidelinesinclude:

Forthebestpossibleprotection,infantsshouldbekeptinthebackseat,inrear-facingchildsafetyseatsuntilaminimumofage1andatleast20pounds.Thechildshouldbekeptrear-facingaslongaspossi-ble—untilheorshereachesthetopheightorweightlimitallowedbyyourcarseat’smanufacturer.Onceyourchildoutgrowstherear-facingcarseat,yourchildisreadytotravelinaforward-facingcarseatwitha harness and tether.

Whenchildrenoutgrowtheirrear-facingseatstheyshouldrideinforward-facingchildsafetyseats,inthebackseat,untiltheyreachtheupperweightorheightlimitoftheparticularseat(usuallyataroundage4and40pounds).

Oncechildrenoutgrowtheforward-facingseats,theyshouldrideinboosterseats,inthebackseat,untilvehicleseatbeltsfitproperly.Foraseatbelttofitproperlythelapbeltmustliesnuglyacrosstheupperthighs,notthestomach.Theshoulderbeltshouldliesnuglyacrosstheshoulderandchestandnotcrosstheneckorface.

NHTSAnotestheprimaryreasonsforinjuriestochildrenrestrainedatthetimeofmotorvehiclecrashesrelatetoprematurelyturningachildforward,prematuremovingfromharnessedsafetyseatstoboosterseats,prematuremovingfromboosterseatstoadultsafetybelts,misuseofsafetyrestraintsandseatbelts,andchildrenseatedinthefrontseatofthevehicle.

State LegislationAllstatesandtheDistrictofColumbiahavechildrestraintlawsthatrequirechildrenofcertainagesandsizestorideinappropriate,federallyapprovedchildsafetyrestraintsystems.Theageandsizerequire-mentsvarybystate.Somelawscoverchildrenonlyuptoacertainage(usuallyage4),whileothersallowuseofadultsafetybeltstorestrainchildren.ChildrestraintlawsareprimarilyenforcedforallchildrenexceptinNebraskaandOhio.Nebraska’slawissecondaryonlyforthosechildrenwhomaybeinsafetybeltsandprimaryforthosewhomustbeinachildsafetyseat.Ohio’slawissecondaryforchildrenages4through14years.(AppendixCcontainsinformationonstatechildrestraintuselaws.)AccordingtotheCDC,boosterseatusereducestheriskofseriousinjuryby45percentforchildrenages4to8whencomparedwithseatbeltusealone.

7 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

In2016,16statesdebatedchildpassengerprotectionlegislation,andonestate,Pennsylvania,enactedalaw.Pennsylvanianowrequiresallchildrenundertwowhohaven’toutgrownmanufacturers’weightlim-itstobebuckledintoanapprovedrear-facingchildsafetyseatinthebackseat.Forthefirstyear,officerswillgiveverbalwarningstoparentsbut,afterthat,eachviolationwillcarrya$75penaltypluscostsandotherfees.

Smoking in Cars with ChildrenInadditiontokeepingchildrenproperlyrestrainedinvehicles,statesalsohavebeeninterestedinkeepingchildrensafefromtobaccosmoke.Statutesinfivestates—Arkansas,California,Louisiana,MaineandUtah—prohibitadultdriversandpassengersfromsmokingwhileinamotorvehiclewithachild.Utah’s2013lawprohibitsdriversfromsmokinginavehicleiftheyhaveapassengerwhoisage15oryounger.Theinfractioncarriesa$45fine.Missouriconsidered,butdidnotpass,abillin2016prohibitingsmokingincarswithchildrenpresent.

Children in Unattended VehiclesAccording to Kids and Cars,anonprofitchildsafetyorganization,38children,onaverage,dieeveryyearfromheat-relateddeathsinmotorvehicles.In2016,39childrendiedincarsduetoheatstroke.Lawsin19states—California,Connecticut,Florida,Hawaii,Illinois,Kentucky,Louisiana,Maryland,Michigan,Missouri,Nebraska,Nevada,Oklahoma,Pennsylvania,RhodeIsland,Tennessee,Texas,UtahandWash-ington—specificallymakeitillegaltoleaveachildunattendedinavehicle.

Impaired DrivingIn2015,10,265peoplewerekilledinalcohol-impairedtrafficcrashes,accountingfor29percentofallmotorvehiclefatalities.Impaireddrivingcontinuestobeaserioustrafficsafetyandpublichealthissueforstates(seeTable1).AccordingtoNHTSA,anaverageof1alcoholimpaired-drivingfatalityoccurredevery51minutesin2015.Theannualcostofalcohol-relatedcrashesismorethan$44billon.

Table 2. Alcohol-Impaired Traffic Fatalities, 2015

State/Jurisdiction Total Traffic Fatalities Alcohol-Impaired Driving

Fatalities (BAC ≥.08)Percentage

Alcohol-Impaired

Alabama 849 247 29

Alaska 65 23 36

Arizona 893 272 31

Arkansas 531 149 28

California 3,176 914 29

Colorado 546 151 28

Connecticut 266 103 39

Delaware 126 41 33

Florida 2,939 797 27

Georgia 1,430 366 26

Hawaii 94 33 35

Idaho 216 70 32

Illinois 998 307 31

Indiana 821 178 22

Iowa 320 78 24

Kansas 355 84 24

Kentucky 761 192 25

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State/Jurisdiction Total Traffic Fatalities Alcohol-Impaired Driving

Fatalities (BAC ≥.08)Percentage

Alcohol-Impaired

Louisiana 726 245 34

Maine 156 52 33

Maryland 513 159 31

Massachusetts 306 96 31

Michigan 963 267 28

Minnesota 411 115 28

Mississippi 677 175 26

Missouri 869 224 26

Montana 224 75 34

Nebraska 246 65 26

Nevada 325 97 30

NewHampshire 114 33 29

NewJersey 562 111 20

NewMexico 298 98 33

NewYork 1,121 311 28

NorthCarolina 1,379 411 30

NorthDakota 131 50 38

Ohio 1,110 313 28

Oklahoma 643 170 27

Oregon 447 155 35

Pennsylvania 1,200 364 30

RhodeIsland 45 19 43

SouthCarolina 977 301 31

SouthDakota 133 43 33

Tennessee 958 252 26

Texas 3,516 1,323 38

Utah 276 43 16

Vermont 57 15 27

Virginia 753 208 28

Washington 568 148 26

WestVirginia 268 71 27

Wisconsin 566 189 33

Wyoming 145 56 38

DistrictofColumbia 23 6 26

United States 35,092 10,265 29

PuertoRico 309 104 34

Source: NHTSA, 2016.

State LegislationIn2016,lawmakersin42statesintroducedapproximately380billsrelatedtoimpaireddriving.Theulti-mategoaloftheselawsistoreducetheincidenceofimpaireddrivingandresultinginjuriesandfatalities.Lawmakersconsideredlegislationrangingfromhigherpenaltiesforrepeatoffenderstoincreaseduseofignitioninterlocksandcomprehensivealcoholtreatmentprograms.Duringthe2016legislativesession,32statesenactedlawsrelatedtoimpaireddriving.

9 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

High BACIn2015,55percentofdriverswhohadbeendrinkingandwereinvolvedinfatalcrasheshadabloodalcoholconcentration(BAC)of.15orgreater.

Toaddressthisproblem,stateshaveenactedhigh-BAClawswithenhancedsanctionsforoffenderswithhigherBACs.Thesanctions,whichvaryfromstatetostate,includelongerlicensesuspension,longertermsofimprisonment,additionalfines,installationofignitioninterlocks,vehiclesanctionsormandato-rytreatment.TheBAClevelsatwhichthesesanctionsareappliedvaryaswell,rangingfrom.15to.20.NHTSArecommendsthattheenhancedpenaltiesforfirst-timehigh-BACoffendersshouldbecomparabletothoseforrepeatoffenders.

Ignition Interlock RequirementsIgnitioninterlockdevicesareinstalledinmotorvehiclestopreventthecarfrombeingstartedifasetlevelofalcohol,usually.02or.025,isdetectedonthedriver’sbreath.Mostdevicesrequirerandomretestingwhilethecarisrunningtoensurethatthedriverisnotdrinkingoncethecarisstarted.Manycourtsincludetheuseofignitioninterlockdeviceswhensentencingoffendersconvictedofdrivingundertheinfluence(DUI).(Itisunderstoodthatwhilemanystatesrefertoimpaireddrivingas“drivingwhileimpaired”(DWI),or“operatingwhileimpaired”(OWI),or“operatingundertheinfluence”(OUI),theterm“DUI”willbeusedforthisdocument.)Duringsentencing,anoffenderwhosedriver’slicensehasbeensuspendedorrevokedcanbegrantedlimiteddrivingprivilegesifanignitioninterlockdeviceisinstalledonthevehicle(s)theyuse(SeeFigure2).All50stateshavepassedlegislationthatallowsorrequiresuseofignitioninterlocksfordrunkendrivingoffenders.

States have enacted high-BAC laws with enhanced sanctions for offenders with higher BACs. The sanctions, which vary from state to state, include longer license suspension, longer terms of imprisonment, additional fines, installation of ignition interlocks, vehicle sanctions or mandatory treatment.

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Figure 2. Process of DUI and Ignition Interlock Installation

1. ArrestOffenderisarrestedfordrivingwhileimpaired(DUI)orrefusestosubmittoa Breathalyzertest.

5. Installation and interlock-restricted driving privilegesnTheoffenderselectsaninterlockvendorfromastate-approvedlist.Vendorinstalls the interlock and teachestheoffenderhowtousethedevice.nTheoffendertypicallypaysbetween$65and$90/monthplusaninstal-lationandremovalcharge.DMVmayalsocoordinatepaymenttothevendoriftheoffenderqualifiesforastate’sindigentfund.nOncethevendorortheoffenderprovidesproofofinstallation,OMVissuesandinterlock(restricted)license.

2. PretrialJudgemayorderinterlockasconditionofpre-trialreleaseand/ordepartmentofmotorvehicles(DMV)maysuspendlicense,butallowoffendertoapplyforarestricted interlock license.

6. Interlock data transferred and monitoredDuringperiodicvisitsfromoffender,vendoruploadsdataandinspectsignitioninterlock.VendortransmitsdatatoOMV,courtsoroth-erstateagencyforreview.Failedblows,lockoutsortamperingcouldextendtheinterlockperiodorleadtoothersanctions.

3. ConvictionIfconvictedofDUI(eitherfirstorrepeat)thestate’signitioninterlocklawcouldlimittheoffendertointer-lock-restricteddrivingformonthsoryears.

7. Required ignition interlock endsDMVfullyreinstateslicense;Convictionremainsonof-fender’sdrivingrecordforacertainnumberofyearsandisusedtodetermineifheorsheisarepeatoffenderifarrestedorconvictedagainforDUI.

4. Coordination among court, OMV and law enforcementCourtssendsOMVtheconvictioninformationorcourtorderforaninterlockandOMVsuspendsthelicenseuntilthedeviceisinstalled.Lawenforcementdatabasesareupdatedtoreflectwhetheranoffend-er’svehicleisrequiredtohaveaninterlock.Ifcaughtdrivingwithoutarequiredignitioninterlock,offendersmayhavetheirinterlockpe-riodextendedorbesubjecttoothersanctions

8. RemovalVendorremovesinterlockfromoffender’svehiclewheninterlockperiodiscomplete.

Source: GAO Analysis of Ignition Interlock Devices 2014.

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In2005,NewMexicobecamethefirststatetorequireignitioninterlockdevicesforallconvicteddrunkendrivers,includingfirst-timeoffenders.AsofDecember2016,25additionalstates—Al-abama,Alaska,Arizona,Arkansas,Connecticut,Delaware,Hawaii,Illinois,Kansas,Louisiana,Maine,Maryland,Mississippi,Nebraska,NewHampshire,NewMexico,NewYork,Oregon,Pennsylvania,Tennessee,Texas,Utah,Virginia,WashingtonandWestVirginia—alsorequireignitioninterlockdevicesforallconvicteddrunkendrivingoffenders.MarylandandPennsylvaniaenactedtheirrequirementsin2016.Pennsylva-nia’slawisuniquebecauseitrequiresinterlocksforfirsttimeoffendersiftheyhadabloodalcoholconcentrationof.10orgreater.Theotherstatessetthelimitat.08orgreater.Colorado’signitioninterlocklawdoesnotmakeinstallationofthede-vicesmandatoryforfirst-timeoffenders,buttheyprovidestrongincentivesforinstallation.

Californiacurrentlyhasafour-countypilotprogram,includingLosAngeles,thatrequiresallconvicteddrunkendriverstoinstallignitioninterlockdevices.Inadditiontothepilotprogram,Californiaamendeditslawin2016torequireorallowtheuseofignitioninterlocksinseveralcircumstances.First,foranoffensenotinvolvinganinjury,afirsttimeoffendermaychoosetoinstallanignitioninterlockdeviceforsixmonthswithfulldrivingprivileges.Iftheoffenderdoesnotchoosetoinstallthedevice,theywillreceivea1yearrestrictedlicensethatonlyallowstraveltoandfromworkandtreatment.Afirsttimeoffenderthatcausedanyinjuriesisrequiredtohaveaninterlockdeviceforsixmonths.ForasecondDUI,interlockinstallationwouldberequiredforayearandforathird,twoyears.

Vermontpassedlegislationthisyearmandatingthatsecondtimeoffendersinstallaninterlockinordertobelicensedanddrivelegally.Georgialaw,whichwaspreviouslysilentregardingfirstoffenders,nowallows,butdoesnotrequire,first-timeDUIoffendertouseanignitioninterlock.

AnewlawinNewHampshirerequiresanindividualtoagreetobesubjecttotheignitioninterlockpro-gramforoneyearafterrestorationoffulldrivingprivilegesasaconditionofreceivingalimitedprivilegelicenseafter45dayssuspension.

Ignition Interlock Compliance LawsSixteenstates—Florida,Hawaii,Illinois,Michigan,Minnesota,Missouri,Nebraska,New Hampshire,NewYork,Oregon,SouthDakota,Tennessee,Texas,Vermont,VirginiaandWashington—requireallorsomeoffenderstoinstallinterlockdevicesthatareequippedwithacamera.Thecameracapturesanimageofthepersonusingtheinterlocktoensurethedriveristhepersontakingthetesttostartthevehicle.Virgin-ia’smeasures,adoptedin2016,werenotadoptedlegislatively,butratherbytheCommissiononVASAP(VirginiaAlcoholSafetyActionProgram).VASAPisVirginia’sstatewideprogramforenforcingdrunkendrivinglaws,managingandadjudicatingcases,andeducatingthepublicaboutthedangersofimpaireddriving.TheGovernorapprovedthemeasuresinMay2016.AlthoughColoradohasnorequirementinstatute,theDMV’scontractswithignitioninterlockvendorsrequirealldeviceshavecameras.WashingtonpassedaprovisionthisyeartorequireinterlocksusedinthestatetohaveglobalpositioningcapabilitiesandtheMinnesotaDepartmentofPublicSafetyissuedasimilarruleinOctober2016.MissouriandVer-monthaveGPSrequirementsforsomeoffenders.

As of December 2016, 25 states—Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington and West Virginia —require ignition interlock devices for all convicted drunken driving offenders.

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Figure 3. States with Laws Requiring Cameras on Ignition Interlock Devices for Some Offenders

AS GU MP PR VI

WA

OR

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CO

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Nocamerarequirements

IDcamerarequirements

Statesalsoareamendingprovisionsoftheirignitioninterlockslawstoincludecompliance-basedremovalprovisions.Toattaincompliance-basedremoval,anoffendermustusetheinterlockdeviceandnotfailanytestsforasetamountoftimepriortoremoval.Washingtonpasseditscompliance-basedremovalprovisionin2011.Thelawstatesthat,whentherequirementperiodisover,theoffendercanhavethedeviceremovedifheorshehasnot:

• Triedtostartthevehiclewithabreathalcoholconcentrationof.04ormore.

• Failedtotakeorpassanyrequiredretests.

• Failedtoobtainscheduledmaintenance,repairs,calibration,monitoring,inspectionorreplacementofthedevice.

NewHampshirepassedprovisionsin2014torequirethatanoffenderhavearecordof120dayswithnoreportedfailsontheinterlockbeforethedevicecanberemoved;Vermont’slawwilladdthreeaddition-almonthstotheignitioninterlockrequirementiftheoffenderwithaBACof.04orabovemakesthreeattemptstostartavehicle.InMissouri,apersonwithaninterlockrestrictedlicensewhotestsabove.08percentBACortamperswiththedeviceduringthesix-monthperiod,mustkeepthedeviceonthevehicleforanothersixmonths.Additionallythedrivermusthavenoviolationsatallforthreeconsecutivemonthsinordertoregainfulldrivingprivileges.

Implied Consent, Blood Alcohol Testing and Test RefusalsWhenapersonsignstheformstoapplyforadriver’slicense,theyagreetocomplywithrequestsbylawenforcementofficerstotakebreathorbloodsamplestodetermineblood-alcoholcontent(BAC).Abreathtestcanbeadministeredroadsideoratanylocation;bloodandurinetestingcanonlybeperformedatamedicalfacilityordetentionfacility.Theselaws,calledimpliedconsentlaws,arebasedonthepremisethatdrivingisaprivilegeandnotaright.Offenderswhorefusewillstillfaceadministrativepenalties,likehavingtheirdriver’slicensesuspended.Allstateshavesomesortofimpliedconsentlawbutthepenaltiesvary.StatessuchasNebraska,MississippiandWyomingrequirea90-daylicensesuspensionforafirst

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timeBACrefusal.Otherstatesrequireasixmonthorevenayearsuspension.SomesuspectedDUIof-fenderswillrefusetotakeBACtestsandtakealicensesuspensioninordertoavoidorreducethechanceoffacingmoreseriouscriminalsanctions.NHTSAresearchindicatesabout20percentofpeoplearrestedfordrunkendrivingrefusetosubmittoaBACtest.Inresponsetohighrefusalrates,atleast15statescurrentlycriminalizerefusaltoconsenttoaBAC.Criminalpenaltiestypicallyincludefinesandjailtime.

Throughouttheyears,questionsaroseastowhethertheselawsviolatedtheFourthamendment.InJune2016,theUSSupremeCourtheld5-3inBirchfield v. North Dakota thatstatesmaycriminalizeanarrest-ee’srefusaltotakeawarrantlessbreathtest.Ifstatescriminalizetherefusaltotakeabloodtest---policemustobtainawarrant.Perthesearch-incident-to-arrestexception,policeofficersareallowedtosearchanarrestee’sperson,withoutfirstobtainingawarrant,toprotectofficersafetyorevidence.Todetermineifthisexceptionapplies,theCourtweighedthedegreetowhichthesearch“intrudesuponanindividual’sprivacy”withtheneedtopromote“legitimategovernmentinterests.”TheCourtconcludedtheprivacyintrusionofbreathtestswasminimalbuttheprivacyintrusionofbloodtestswasnot.“Whilehumansex-haleairfromtheirlungsmanytimesperminute,humansdonotcontinuallyshedblood.”ForthisreasontheCourtconcludedifstatescriminalizetherefusaltotakeabloodtest,policemustobtainawarrant.

Enhanced Criminal Penalties for Repeat OffendersAtleastfourstatesin2016enactedlegislationtoenhancethecriminalpenaltiesforDUIconvictionsforrepeatoffenders.WashingtonchangedtheseverityofthefifthoffensefromaClassCfelonytoaClassBfelony,whichcarriesamaximumsentenceof10yearsinprison,afineof$20,000,orboth.WisconsinincreasedpenaltiesforafourthorsubsequentoffenseandalsomadethefourthDUIafelony,nomatterwhenitwascommitted.Underpreviouslaw,therewasa“lookback”period,soafourthdrunkendrivingoffensemusthavehadtohappenwithinfiveyearsofthethird.Marylandincreasedpenaltiesforoffend-erswhocommitvehicularmanslaughterandwhohavealsobeenconvictedofdrivingundertheinflu-enceofdrugsoralcoholpreviously.Offenderscannowfaceupto15yearsinprisonand$15,000infines.Oklahomaincreasedthejailtimeandpenaltiesforimpaireddrivingoffenderswhocausebodilyinjury.

Treatment Programs and 24/7 Sobriety Monitoring ProgramsOnesignificantlegislativetrendrelatedtoimpaireddrivingistheinterestinusingtreatmentprogramsandsobrietymonitoringprogramstohelppreventDUIrecidivism.Court-mandatedtreatment,whichrequiresimpaireddrivingoffenderstoparticipateinanevaluationandtreatmentfortheirsubstanceabuseissues,hasalwaysbeenanoptionforjudgeswhensentencingDUIoffenders.Recently,however,moreinteresthasbeenshownincombiningbehavioraltreatmentwithmorepunitivesanctions,lead-ingtoamorecomprehensiveapproachindealingwithimpaireddrivingoffendersandthosewhohavecommittedotheroffenseswhileimpaired.Oneoftheseprogramsiscalleda“24/7sobrietymonitoringprogram.”In2007,SouthDakotabecamethefirststatetopassastatewideprogramofthiskind.Thepre-trialprogramemphasizesoffendersobrietyandrequiresrepeat-andhigh-BACDUIoffenderstosub-mittoabreathorurinetesttwiceadayatalocalsheriff’sofficeorotherdesignatedsite.Breathalyzers,transdermalalcoholmonitoringdevices(anklebracelets)anddrugmonitoringpatchesalsomaybeusedtomonitoranoffender’ssobriety.Iftheoffenderfailsordoesnotappearforatest,theoffender’sbond,paroleorprobationmaybeimmediatelyrevokedand,inmostcases,theinfractionwillresultinimmedi-ateincarceration.

In2013,theRANDCorporationpublishedthefirstpeer-reviewedevaluationofwhether24/7sobrietymonitoringprogramsimprovedpublichealthinSouthDakota.Keyfindingsindicatedthat,between2005and2010,morethan17,000SouthDakotaresidents—includingmorethan10percentofmenages18to40insomecounties—participatedina24/7program.Atthecountylevel,researchersdocumenteda12percentreductioninrepeatDUIarrestsanda9percentreductionindomesticviolencearrestsfollowingadoptionoftheprogram.Evidencepertainingtotrafficcrasheswasmixed.

A 2015 studybytheUpperGreatPlainsInstituteatNorthDakotaStateUniversitystudiedthedeterrenteffectofthe24/7programonoffenders.ResearchersfoundthatamongDUIoffendersinthissample,

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positivebehavioralimprovementsweremadeuponenrollingintheprogram.Theprogramappearstohavemoreofadeterrenteffectonwomenthanonmen.Themandatory12-monthenrollmentperiodhasastrongerdeterrenteffectthandidpriorsentences,whichgenerallywerelefttojudicialdiscretion.Nonetheless,forthegroupofhigh-riskoffenderswholikelyhavealcoholabuseproblems,theprogramwasfoundtohavelittledeterrenteffect.

OtherstateshaveusedSouthDakota’smodel,andAlaska,Idaho,Montana,NorthDakota,WashingtonandWyominghaveenactedstatewidelegislation.Wisconsinenacteda“24-7sobriety”pilotprogramin2016.Thepilotprogramisvoluntaryandavailableinfivecountiesforoffenderswhohavetwoormoreimpaireddrivingconvictions.Participantsmustbetestedfortheuseofalcohol,atleasttwicedaily,atapproximately12hourintervals,orfortheuseofacontrolledsubstanceasfrequentlyaspracticable.Thelawcontainsaprovisionthatallowsoffendersinsomeinstancestojointhesobrietytestingprogrampilotratherthanhaveanignitioninterlockinstalledintheirvehicle.

Theseprogramshavenotbeenwithoutcontroversy.AnoffendertookhiscasetotheMontanaSupremeCourt,arguingtheprogramwasunconstitutionalbecausethetestsviolateddueprocessrightsandstatefeesforalcoholmonitoringconstitutedpretrialpunishment.TheCourtruledunanimouslyinJune2015thatthe24/7programisconstitutionalandthatbreathtestingcanbeanappropriateconditionofpretrialrelease.TheCourtconcludedthattestingalsocanbeanappropriateconditiononbondandlikenedthetestfeestobail.Thus,requirementsforthe24/7programcanbeorderedonlyafterthecourtconductsanindividualassessmenttodeterminewhethertheconditionisappropriateforthedefendant.

Drugged DrivingInadditiontoalcohol-impaireddriving,druggeddrivingisimplicatedinanincreasingnumberofcrashesandfatalities.Inthe2013-2014NationalRoadsideSurveyofAlcoholandDrugUsebyDrivers,about20percentofweekendnighttimedriverstestedpositiveforatleastonedrug,upfrom16.3percentin2007.Thepercentofweekendnighttimedriverswhotestedpositiveforthepresenceofmarijuanarosefrom8.6percentofdriversin2007to12.6percentin2014.In2015,drugswerepresentin42percentofthefatally-injureddriverswithaknowntestresult.Butitisextremelydifficulttousecrashdatatoquantifyhowwidespreadthedruggeddrivingproblemisbecausemanystatesdonottestforthepresenceofdrugs,donottestforthesamedrugsordonottesttothesamecutofflevels.Currently,specificdrugcon-centrationlevelscannotbereliablyequatedwithlevelsofimpairmentoreffectsondriverperformance.

TheGovernorsHighwaySafetyAdministrationnotesintheirnewreport,“DrugImpairedDriving:AGuideforWhatStatesCanDo”thatdruggeddrivingismorecomplexthanalcohol-impaireddrivingformanyreasonsincluding:

• Hundredsofdifferentdrugscanimpairdrivers.

• Somedrugsthatcanimpairdrivingareillegaltouse,somearelegaltouseundercertainconditions,andsomearefreelyavailableover-the-counter.

• Formanydrugstherelationbetweenadrug’spresenceinthebody,itseffectondriving,anditseffectsoncrashriskiscomplex,notunderstoodwell,andvariesfromdrivertodriver.

• Dataondrugpresenceincrash-involveddriversareincompleteinmostjurisdictions,inconsistentfromstatetostate,andsometimesinconsistentacrossjurisdictionswithinstates.

• It’smoredifficultforlawenforcementtodetectdrugimpairmentattheroadsidethanalcoholimpairment.

• Lawsregardingdrivingwhileundertheinfluenceofdrugs(DUID)varyacrossthestates.

• It’smoredifficulttoprosecuteandconvictadriverforDUIDthanforalcohol-impaireddriving(DUI).

Thelegalizationofrecreationalmarijuanahasbroughtanewchallengeforlawmakerswhowanttopreventimpaireddriversontheroads.AsofJanuary2017,Alaska,California,Colorado,Maine,Mas-

15 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

sachusetts,Nevada,OregonandWashingtonhavelegalizedtheadultuseofmarijuana.Washingtonlegalizedmedicalmarijuanain1999anditsrecreationalusein2012.AstudybytheAAAFoundationforTrafficSafetyhasfoundthatinWashington,theproportionofdriversincrasheswhotestedpositivefortetrahydrocannabinol(THC),thecomponentthatgivescannabisitspsychologicaleffects,rosefrom20to30percentbetween2005and2014.

Somestateshavechosentoenactversionsofdrugperselaws.Inthesestates,adrivercannothaveanypresenceofaprohibiteddrugorsubstanceinhisorherbodywhiledriving.Theselawsvary,however.InColoradoandWashington,theperseappliesonlytothepresenceofTHC,theprimaryingredientfoundinmarijuana.InSouthDakota,theperselawappliestopeopleunderage21only,andinMinnesota,theperselawdoesnotincludeTHC.Inall,22states—Arizona,Colorado,Delaware,Georgia,Illinois,Indiana,Iowa,Kentucky,Michigan,Minnesota,Montana,Nevada,NorthCarolina,Oklahoma,Ohio,Pennsylvania,RhodeIsland,SouthDakota,Utah,Virginia,WashingtonandWisconsin—havesomeversionofadrugperselaw.NewJerseyconsideredbutdidnotpassapersebillin2016.FormoreinformationseeNCSL’sresourceonDruggedDrivingPerSe.

Asreferencedintheparagraphabove,somestatessetabloodcontentthresholdforTHC.InColorado,Illinois,MontanaandWashington,anyonewhodrivesamotorvehicleandhasaTHCbloodconcentra-tionof5nanogramsormoreispresumedtobeguiltyofdrivingundertheinfluence.NevadaandOhiostatutesestablishathresholdof2nanogramsofillegalsubstancespermilliliterofblood,andPennsylva-nia’sadministrativelawestablishesthethresholdat5nanograms.Maineintroduced,butdidnotpassa5nanogram limit in 2016.

State LegislationIn2016,theMichiganlegislatureenactedaone-yearroadsidetestingpilotprogramforpeoplesuspect-edofdrivingwhileundertheinfluenceofdrugs.ThelawauthorizespoliceofficerswhoarecertifiedasDrugRecognitionExpertsinfivecountiestoadministerapreliminaryoralfluid(saliva)testonsuspecteddruggeddrivers.Theresultsofthetestisadmissibleinbothacriminalprosecutionandanadministrativehearing.Ifthedriverrefusestosubmittothesalivatest,thedrivercanbecitedforacivilinfraction.Criticsofthelawcitethepossibleinaccuraciesofthetestandthatdrugslikemarijuanacanbedetectedinthebodylongafterthepossibilityofimpairmenthasdissipated.

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Alsoin2016,WestVirginiaslightlyamendeditsimpaireddrivingstatutetohavethedrivingundertheinfluencechargeincludeothersubstanceslikeinhalants.

Federal ActionSection4008oftheFASTAct requirestheU.S.DepartmentofTransportationtoconductastudyonmari-juana-impaireddriving.Theissuestobeexaminedinclude:

• Methodstodetectmarijuana-impaireddriving,includingdevicescapableofmeasuringmarijuanalevelsindrivers.

• Areviewofimpairmentstandardresearchfordrivingundertheinfluenceofmarijuana.

• Methodstodifferentiatethecauseofadrivingimpairmentbetweenalcoholandmarijuana.

• State-basedpoliciesonmarijuana-impaireddriving.

• Theroleandextentofmarijuanaimpairmentinmotorvehiclecrashes.

Thefindingsofthestudyweretobepresentedin2016andwerestillpendingatthetimeofpublication.Section4009oftheactprovidesthatfederalpartnersworktogethertohelpstatesincreasepublicaware-nessaboutthedangersofdrug-impaireddriving.

Dangers of Drowsy Driving

ADecember2016studyfromtheAAAFoundationforTrafficSafetyexaminedtheconnectionbetweendrowsydrivingandcrashinvolvement.Previousresearchhadestimatedthatasmanyas7percentofallcrashes—including21percentoffatalcrashes—involvedriverdrowsiness.Thenewstudyexaminedtherelationshipbetweenthenumberofhoursapersonhadsleptinthepast24hoursandtheriskofbeinginvolvedinacrash.

Ifadriverhadsleptforlessthanfourhoursinthe24hoursbeforeacrash,theywere11.5timesmorelikelytobeinvolvedinacrashthanadriverwhohadsleptforsevenormorehours.Thosewhohadsleptforbetweenfourandfivehourswere4.3timesmorelikelytobeinacrashandthosewhohadbetweenfiveandsixhoursofsleepwere1.9timesmorelikely.

Whendriversreportedthattheyhadsleptfourormorehourslessthanusual,theywere10.2timesmorelikelytobeinacrashthandriverswhoreportedsleepingforatleasttheirusualamount.Iftheyreportedgettingtwotothreefewerhoursofsleepthanusual,theywerethreetimesmorelikelytobeinacrash.

Thestudyalsonotedthattheresultsmayactuallyunderestimatetheriskofdrowsydrivingbecausedataforcrashesbetweenmidnightand6a.m.werenotavailableforthestudyandthisisgenerallywhenstudieshaveshownthatattentionandperformancesuffermostduetosleepdeprivation.

TheGovernorsHighwaySafetyAssociationreleasedareportinAugust2016detailingthedangersofdrowsydriving.ThereportdetailsanestimatefromNHTSAthattheannualsocietalcostoffatigue-relatedcrashesis$109billion,notincludingpropertydamage.Thereportdetailscountermeasurestoaddressdrowsydrivingandexploresstatebestpractices,suchas“MessageMondays”inIowaandDrowsyDrivingAwarenessWeekinUtah.

Thisyear,AlabamadesignatedNov.19thasdrowsydriverawarenessdayandMassachusettsconsideredlegislationthatwouldhavedesignatedthesecondweekofNovemberasMassachu-settsDrowsyDrivingPreventionWeek.

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Distracted DrivingNHTSAdefinesdistractionasaspecifictypeofinattentionfromthedrivingtasktofocusonsomeotheractivity.Distractingtaskscanaffectdriversindifferentwaysandcanbegroupedintothreecategories:

1. Visuallydistracting:Tasksthatrequirethedrivertolookawayfromtheroadwaytovisuallyobtaininformation.

2. Manuallydistracting:Tasksthatrequirethedrivertotakeahandoffthesteeringwheelandmanipu-lateadeviceorobject.

3. Cognitivelydistracting:Tasksthatrequirethedrivertothinkaboutsomethingotherthandriving.

Allthesetypesofdistractionscanincreasecrashrisk.Researchindicatesthatusingacellphonewhiledrivingcanbedangerous.In2009,VirginiaTechTransportationInstituteresearchshowedthatdriverswhotextedwhiledrivinghadmorethan20timestheriskofacrashornearcrashthanadriverwhowasnotusingaphone.Thestudyalsorevealedthatdriverswhotextedwhiledrivingtooktheireyesofftheroadfor4.6secondsoverasix-secondinterval.Thisequatestoadrivertravelingthelengthofafootballfieldat55mphwithoutlook-ing at the road.

Distracteddrivingcanleadtocostlyanddeadlyoutcomes.NHTSAreports3,477peoplewerekilledincrashesinvolvingdistracteddrivingin 2015,an8.8percentincreasefrom2014.Anestimated391,000peoplewereinjuredindistraction-affectedcrashesin2015.A“distrac-tion-affected”crashisanycrashinwhichadriverisidentifiedasdistractedatthetimeofthecrash.Tenpercentoffatalcrashesand16percentofinjurycrashesin2015werereportedasdistrac-tion-affectedcrashes.AccordingtoNHTSA,basedonallpolice-reportedcrashesthatoccurredin2010,theeconomiccostofdistraction-affectedcrasheswasapproximately$40billion(in2010dollars).

NHTSAreleasedaresearch noteinSeptember2016regardingelectronicdeviceusebydriversin2015thatfoundthepercentageofdriversvisiblymanipulatinghandhelddevicesremainedconstantat2.2per-centandhandheldcellphoneusedecreasedfrom4.3percentin2014to3.8percentin2015.Handheldcellphoneusewashigheramongfemalesthanmalesandwashighestamong16-to24-year-olddrivers.

Althoughdriverscanbedistractedbymanythings—includingeatinganddrinking,grooming,usinganavigationsystemandadjustingaradio,CDplayerorMP3player—a2011CDCstudyconfirmedthatcellphoneuseiswidespreadonAmerica’sroadways.IntheUnitedStates,69percentofdriversages18to64reportedthattheyhadtalkedontheircellphone,and31percentreportedtheyhadreadorsentatextmessagewhiledrivingatleastoncewithinthelast30days.Theprevalenceofcellularphones,newresearchandpublicizedcrasheshaveresultedincontinueddebatesrelatedtotherolecellphonesplayindriverdistraction.

Oregon’sDOTcommissionedastudythatwasreleasedinMarch2016regardingdistracteddrivinginthestateandfoundthat75percentofdriversadmittedtodrivingwhiledistracted.Eighty-fourpercentofsurveyrespondentssaidtheyfeeluncomfortableridingasapassengerwithadistracteddriverand29percentsaidtheyfeltlawsneededtobestrongeragainstdistracteddriving.

NewYorkannouncedthedevelopmentofnew“TextStops”beingsponsoredbyGEICO,thenation’ssec-ond-largestautomobileinsurer,alongstatehighways.Thesearefacilitieswheredriverscanpulloffthehighwayandparkiftheyneedtousetheirmobiledevices.SimilarprogramssponsoredbyGEICOexistin

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Virginia,ArizonaandFlorida.Iowa’sgovernor,TerryBranstad,indicated thatdistracteddrivingisgoingtobeasignificantlegislativeissuein2017.Heaskedthestate’spublicsafetycommissioner“tochairataskforcetostudytheproblemandmakerecommendationstohiminadvanceofnextyear’slegislativesession.”

State LegislationIn2016,legislatorsin38statesconsiderednearly175driver-distractionbills.Nostatecompletelybansallphonesforalldrivers.Statelegislationusuallyaddressesarangeofissues,includingparticularwirelesstechnologiesandspecificdrivers.Fourteenstates—California,Connecticut,Delaware,Hawaii,Illinois,Maryland,Nevada,NewHampshire,NewJersey,NewYork,Oregon,Vermont,WashingtonandWestVir-ginia—andtheDistrictofColumbiaprohibitdriveruseofhand-heldphones.Californiapassedlegislationclarifyingthatadrivercannotoperateanelectricdevicethatisheldinone’shandwhiledrivingandmayonlyuseadeviceifitismountedonthewindshield,dashboardorcenterconsoleandisoperatedbyasingleswipeortap,addressing,forexample,GPS.NewHampshirealsopassedlegislationspecifyingthatcertaintypesofnavigationdevicesareexemptfromtheprohibitiononelectronicdeviceusewhiledriv-ing.Wisconsincreatedabanontheuseofcellphoneswhiledrivinginworkzones.Delawareincreasedthepenaltyforviolatingthehands-freelawfroma$50fineto$100.Forasecondorsubsequentviola-tion,thefinerangeincreasedfrom$100-$200to$200-$300.Atleast10states—Indiana,Iowa,Kansas,Massachusetts,Minnesota,Mississippi,Missouri,RhodeIsland,SouthCarolinaandTennessee—consid-ered,butdidnotpass,hands-freelawsin2016.

Textingwhiledrivingalsoremainsacommondriverdistractionmeasuredebatedinlegislatures.AsofDecember2016,46states,theDistrictofColumbia,Guam,PuertoRicoandtheU.S.VirginIslandsspecifi-callybantextmessagingwhiledrivingforalldrivers.Mostofthesejurisdictionsenforcetextinglawswithprimaryenforcement,butfivestates—Florida,Iowa,Nebraska,OhioandSouthDakota—havesecondaryenforcementlawsthatallowpolicetoissueatextingwhiledrivingcitationonlyifthemotoristwasfirststoppedforanotherinfraction.Floridadebatedprimaryenforcementin2016,butthelegislationfailed.LegislationwasalsounsuccessfulinNewHampshirethatwouldhavechangedthelawfromprimarytosecondaryenforcement.MissouriandTexasbantextingwhiledrivingfornovicedriversunder21.In2016,Missouridebatedexpandingthatprohibitiontoalldrivers,butthelegislationfailed.ArizonaandMontanaaretheonlystateswithoutanysortoftextingban.

Penaltiesforviolatingtextingbansvaryamongthestates,fromamisdemeanorchargeinMarylandthatcarriesa$175fine,toatrafficinfractioninSouthCarolinathatcarriesa$25fine.Thisyear,Louisianain-creaseditsfinefrom$175to$500forthefirstoffenseandfrom$500to$1,000forsubsequentoffenses.Tennessee’snewlawrequiresapersonwhoviolatedthetextingbantoattendandcompleteadrivereducationcourse.AlaskaloweredtheoffenseoftextingwhiledrivingfromaClassAmisdemeanortoaviolation,subjecttoafineofupto$500.Thesponsorexplainedthatthepurposeofthelegislationwasto“makeprosecutionofdistracteddriversmoreexpedient,inthatlawenforcementofficerswillbeabletoissueticketsimmediately,ratherthanprosecutetheindividualthroughthecourtsystem.”Michigandebatedincreasingthefinesfortextingwhiledrivingandallowingpointstobeassessedagainstadriver’slicenseforcertainoffenses,butthelegislationdidnotpass.

NewMexico’snewlawprohibitstheuseofcellphonesforcommercialvehicleoperatorsandestablishesafineof$25forafirstviolationand$50forsubsequentviolations.

Anumberofstates,includingAlaska,Illinois,Maryland,NewJerseyandUtahprovideforincreasedpen-altieswhensomeonecommitstheoffenseofdistracteddrivinganditresultsindeathorseriousinjury.Pennsylvaniapassedalawthisyearpermittingasentencingenhancementofuptofiveyearsfortextingwhiledrivingcrashesresultingindeathanduptotwoyearsforcrashesresultinginseriousinjuries.

Federal ActionInNovember2016,NHTSAissuedvoluntaryguidelinestoaddressdriverdistraction.Theguidelinesen-couragecompaniestoimplementtechnologiesthatwillreducethepotentialfordriverdistraction,suchaspairingdevicestoacar’sinfotainmentsystemandimplementing“DriverMode”whichwouldlimitthenumberofapplicationsavailabletotheuserwhiledriving.

19 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Driver LicensingThestates,theDistrictofColumbiaandtheU.S.territorieslicensemorethan211milliondrivers,rep-resentingroughly88percentofthoseeligibletodrive.Stateshaveadministeredtheirdriver’slicensingsystemssince1903,whenMassachusettsandMissourienactedthefirststatedriver’slicensinglaws.Since1959,allstateshaverequiredanexaminationtotestdrivingskillsandtrafficsafetyknowledgebeforealicenseisissued.Testingdriversandissuinglicenses,however,nolongeristhesoleconcernofstatelicensingagencies.Becausethedriver’slicensenowservesarolebeyondtrafficsafety—wherebothgovernmentandprivateentitiesrelyonitforpersonalidentification—statelegislaturesanddriver’slicenseagenciesareconcernedaboutthesafetyandsecurityofusingthelicenseasanidentifier.Eachyear,statelegislaturesdebatehundredsofbillsrelatedtovariousaspectsofdriver’slicensing,includingREALID,unlicenseddriving,immigrantdriver’slicensesmilitarydesignations,andmostrecentlydigitaldriver’slicenses.

REAL ID TheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity(DHS)hasdeterminedthat23statesandtheDistrictofColumbiaarefullycompliantwiththelaw.OnOct.132016,DHSannouncedupdatesforthe32statesandter-ritoriesthatarenotcurrentlyincompliancewiththeREALIDAct.Ofthe32non-compliantstatesandterritories,17weregrantedone-yearextensions,throughOct.10,2017.Fourstates—Alaska,California,OregonandVirginia—weregrantedlimitedextensionsthroughJune6,2017.

Mostimportantly,DHSannouncedthatKentucky,Maine,Oklahoma,PennsylvaniaandSouthCarolinawouldnotbereceivingarenewedextension,whichwillresultinresidentsinthesefivestatesnotbeingabletousetheirdriver’slicensestoaccesssecurefederalbuildings,nuclearpowerplants,ormilitarybas-esafterJan.30,2017.Additionally,residentsfromthesestateswillnotbeabletousetheirdriver’slicensetogetthroughairportsecuritystartingJan.22,2018,unlesstheycomeundercompliance.

StartingonOct.1,2020,everyairtravelerwillneedaREALID-compliantlicense,oranotheracceptableformofidentification,fordomesticairtravel.Itisimportanttonotethatindividualsdonotneedtoadjustanyimmediatetravelplansastheearliestthataresidentfromanon-compliantstatewouldbeimpactedisJan.22,2018.Furthermore,passengerscancontinuetouseanyofthevariousotherformsofidenti-ficationacceptedbyTSA(suchasaPassportorPassportCard,GlobalEntrycard,U.S.militaryID,airlineorairport-issuedID,federallyrecognizedtribal-issuedphotoID).SeeTSA’swebsiteforalistofallotheracceptableformsofidentification.

Atleasteightstatesconsideredandfourstates—Louisiana,Massachusetts,NewHampshire,NewMex-ico—passedlegislationrelatedtoREALIDin2016.Thebillsthatpassedmadechangestofacilitatebe-comingcompliantwiththefederallaw.TheKentuckyLegislaturepassedabillthatgaveKentuckianstwochoices:eithergetanewfederalRealIDmarkedwithastarinthecorner,orkeeptheircurrentKentuckydriver’slicense.ThebillwasvetoedbyGovernorMattBevin,whosevetomessagesaid:

After considerable reflection based on many hours of discussion with constituents, fellow governors and members of Congress, I am vetoing Senate Bill 245.

I do this despite having expressed support for the passage of this legislation earlier this session.

In fact, I encouraged the Senate to move this bill out of their chamber in March, and appreciate those Senators and Representatives who voted to do so – especially those who may not have done so otherwise.

Since that time, however, it has become increasingly clear that there is tremendous opposition and misunderstanding about this bill. The widespread opposition comes from citizens of Kentucky across the entire political spectrum for a variety of different reasons. Good

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 20

governance demands the courtesy of time needed to better understand and discuss the difference between “REAL ID” as originally envisioned by its authors, and the minimal and voluntary requirements authorized by Senate Bill 245.

We also owe the voters of Kentucky the ability to see what effect, if any, the next Presidential administration will have on this issue.

Figure 4. Status of State/Territory REAL ID Act Compliance, Jan. 2017

ID

ND

TX

LA

IL

AS GU

MI

MP

NC

PR

NY

NJ

VI

MA

NH

HI

NV

WY

UT

CO

AZ

SD

NM

NE

IA

KS

WI

AR

MS

IN

TN

WV

AL

OH

FL

GA

DC

MD

DE

CT

VT

OR

CA

OK

VA

AK

RIWA MT MN

MO KY

PA

SC

ME

Compliant

ExtensionthroughOct.10,2017

LimitedextensionthroughJune6,2017

Non-compliant

Military Designation on Driver’s LicensesActivedutyservicemenandservicewomencarrymilitaryIDcardstoprovetheirstatus,butveteransmustcarrythecomparativelylargeCertificateofReleaseorDischargefromActiveDuty—referredtoasaDD214—toprovetheirmilitaryexperience.Tomakeiteasierandmoreconvenientforveteranstoverifytheirservice,everystateallowsamilitarydesignationondriver’slicenses.Delawarehasaveteraniden-tificationcardthatisavailablefreeofcharge.In2016,Louisianacreatedadesignationfor“100percentdisabledveteran”.Noadditionalfeeischargedtoincludethedesignation.

Medical Designations on Driver’s LicensesInthelastfewyears,ahandfulofstateshaveconsideredorpassedlegislationthatwouldallowformed-icalinformationoremergencyinformationtobedisplayedonadriver’slicense.LouisianaandGeorgiaallowadriver’slicenseapplicanttorequesttoputtheirbloodtypeonthebackoftheirdriver’slicense.Themeasuresareaimedathelpingmedicalpersonnelduringthosecrucialmomentsinanemergency.InVirginia,upontherequestofanapplicant,withasignedstatementfromaphysician,theDMVcandesig-natehearingorspeechimpairment,insulindependence,orintellectualdisabilitiesonadriver’slicense.Michiganenactedabillin2016allowingforvoluntaryencodingofemergencymedicalcontactinforma-tionondriverslicensesthatlawenforcementcouldaccessinthecaseofanemergency.

In2016,NewJerseyconsideredavoluntarynotationforpeoplewhohavespecificallergiesandPennsyl-vaniaconsideredprovidinganautismspectrumdisordernotationonlicensesandidentificationcards.

21 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Alaska,Hawaii,Illinois,Massachusettsconsideredbillsthatwouldallowforavoluntarydesignationofdisabilitiesondriver’slicensesin2016.FloridaandNewYorkconsideredbillsthatwouldnotehearingdisabilitiesondriver’slicenses.Noneofthesebillspassedatthetimeofpublication.

Undocumented Immigrant Driver’s LicensesManystatelegislaturesandexecutiveagencieshavereviewedtheirdriver’slicensestatutesandpoliciesregardingissuancetounauthorizedimmigrants.

Priorto2013,lawsinonlythreestates—NewMexico,UtahandWashington—allowedunauthorizedimmigrantstoobtainadriver’slicense.Thesestateswillissuealicenseifanapplicantprovidesaforeignbirthcertificateoraforeignpassport,aMatriculaConsularCard andevidenceofcurrentresidencyinthestate.InUtah,the“DrivingPrivilegeCard,”specificallyforunauthorizedimmigrants,wascreatedtohelpensuredriversonUtahroadspurchasedautoinsurance.In2016,UtahenactedSenateBill129whichaddedadditionalrequirementstothe“DrivingPrivilegeCard”.Now,applicantsmustsubmitfingerprintstobecheckedagainstlocal,stateandregionalcriminalrecordsdatabases.ImmigrationandCus-tomsEnforcementmustbenotifiedofanyneworexistingcriminalhistoryinformationorwarrantsthatcomeupinthedatabases.NewMexicocreatedatwo-tiereddriver’slicensesystemtobeincompli-ancewiththefederalREALIDlaw.Thesystemincludesaprovisionthatallowscertainunauthorizedimmigrantstoobtainalternativelicensesiftheyprovidefingerprintsandpassabackgroundcheck.

AsofDecember2016,12statesandtheDistrictofColumbiahavelawstoallowunauthorizedimmigrantstoobtainadriver’slicenses.Thesestates—California,Colorado,Connecticut,Delaware,Hawaii,Illinois,Maryland,NewMexico,Nevada,Utah,VermontandWash-ington—issuealicenseifanapplicantprovidescertaindocumenta-tion,suchasaforeignbirthcertificate,aforeignpassport,oracon-sularcardandevidenceofcurrentresidencyinthestate.Delaware’sdriver’sprivilegecardlaw,whichwentintoeffectJanuary2016,re-quiresdocumentationsuchasabirthcertificate,aforeignpassport,aforeigndriver’slicenseoraschoolidentificationcard.Additionally,thelawrequiresapplicantstoprovidetwoyearsofstateincometaxreturnsandsubmitfingerprintsforabackgroundcheck.Thedriverprivilegecardswillbemarked“NotValidforIdentification.”

GeorgiaandMainehavelimitedimmigrantdriver’slicensinglaws.GeorgialawallowsanoncitizenwhohasfiledarequestforavisaextensionwiththeU.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecuritytobeissuedatemporarydrivingpermitvalidfor120days.Maineprovidesanexceptiontoitslegalpresencerequirementifthepersonisrenewingadriver’slicensethatheorshehasheldcontinuouslysince1989,orifthepersonwasbornbeforeDec.1,1964.In2013,OregonenactedS833thatprovideddriver’slicens-esforunauthorizedimmigrantsbutin2014,votersapprovedballotmeasure88thatsuspendedthelaw.

In2016,Indianaintroduced,butdidnotpass,abillthatwouldcreatea“drivingauthoritypermit”forpeoplewhocannotprovelegalpresenceintheUnitedStates.Thebillspecificallynotedthatthepermitcannotbeacceptedforfederalpurposes.Virginiaconsideredasimilarbillin2016.AprovisionincludedtheMassachusetts2017budgetbilleffectivelyprohibitsunauthorizedimmigrantsfromobtainingadriv-er’slicenseinthatstate.

ThePewCharitableTrusts,ImmigrationandtheStatesProjectpublishedinformationandanoverviewofavailableresearchondriver’slicensesforundocumentedimmigrants.

Delaware’s driver’s privilege card law, which went into effect January 2016, requires documentation such as a birth certificate, a foreign passport, a foreign driver’s license or a school identification card. Additionally, the law requires applicants to provide two years of state income tax returns and submit fingerprints for a back ground check. The driver privilege cards will be marked “Not Valid for Identification.”

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 22

License Suspension for Non-Driving OffensesInrecentyears,statelegislatureshaveconsideredrepealinglawsthatsuspenddriver’slicensesforanon-drivingoffense.TheAmericanAssociationofMotorVehicleAdministratorsnotesthatsuspendingdrivingprivilegesfornon-highwaysafety-relatedreasonsarenoteffective,canstrainDMVbudgetsanddetractfrompublicsafetypriorities.Federallaw(23CFR192)requiresstatestosuspendorrevokethedriver’slicenseofanyoneconvictedofaviolationoftheControlledSubstanceActoranydrugoffense.Statescanlosefederalhighwaymoneyiftheyarenotincompliance.However,statescan“optout”bysubmittingacertifiedstatementfromthegovernororaresolutionpassedbythestatelegislature.Massa-chusettspassedsucharesolutionin2016.Ohiopassedalawin2016thatgivesjudgestheoptionofsus-pendingadriver’slicensewhensomeoneisconvictedofadrugcharge,insteadofthesuspensionbeingmandatory.Maine,MississippiandVirginiaconsidered,butdidnotenact,legislationin2016relatingtodriver’slicenserevocationfordrugoffenses.

Onestatethisyear,RhodeIsland,didenactlegislationsuspendingdriver’slicensesforanon-drivingoffense.Newlawnowprovidesthattollevadersmaybesubjecttodriver’slicensesuspensioninadditiontofines.

Digital Driver’s LicensesInaworldfilledwithsmartphonesandapps,itmayhavebeeninevitablethatthedriver’slicensewouldalsobecomedigital.In2015,Iowaconductedapilotprogramtestingamobileappthatwouldmakedriver’slicensesdigital.About100DepartmentofTransportationemployeesparticipatedinthepilotpro-gramwheretheycouldaccesstheirdriver’slicensethroughasecuresmartphoneapp.Alsoin2015,theTexaslegislaturerequestedtheTexasDepartmentofPublicSafetytoconductastudy concerningtheuseofadigitalimageforidentificationandproofoflicensurepurposes.TheU.S.CommerceDepartment’sNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnologyhasestablishedpilotprogramsin2016totestdigitaldriv-er’slicensesinColorado,Idaho,MarylandandWashington,D.C.

In2016,Louisianabecamethefirststatetoenactlegislationallowingadigitaldriver’slicense.Thefeetoinstallthelicenseapplicationcannotexceed$6andapersoncannotbeissuedacitationfordrivingwith-outalicenseifthepersonpresentsadigitizedlicensetoalawenforcementofficerinconnectionwithatrafficstoporcheckpoint.However,apersonmayberequiredtoproduceaphysicaldriver’slicensetoalawenforcementofficer,arepresentativeofastateorfederaldepartmentoragency,oraprivateentitywhensorequestedifitisnotrelatedtoatrafficstop.

Somestateshavebeenmorecautiouswhenconsideringdigitaldriver’slicenses.IllinoiscreatedtheElectronicDriver’sLicenseTaskForcein2015toexamineandmakerecommendationsrelatedtothefeasibilityandcostforthestatetoissueelectronicorvirtualdriver’slicenses.Thetaskforcereleased its findingsin2016andreportedthatwhiletheideaofdigitaldriver’slicensesmaybea“…realisticendeavorinthefuture…”,thetechnologyis…“initsinfancyandtherearemanyunansweredquestionsthatmaysignificantlyimpacttheproperandsuccessfulimplementationofanelectronicdriver’slicense.”In2015,boththeAssemblyandtheSenateinCaliforniapassedabillthatwouldrequirethedepartmentofMotorVehiclestostudythefeasibilityoftheappbutthegovernorvetoedthebillnoting“Whiletheideaofadigitallicensesoundsinnovative,itposesnumeroustechnicaldifficulties.Giventhemanynewresponsi-bilitiesthattheDepartmentofMotorVehiclesisalreadydealingwith,Idon’tbelievethisbillisadvisable.”

Utahpassedlegislationin2016requiringastudytoinvestigatetheissuesandfeasibilityofelectronicdriv-er’slicenses.Georgia,Minnesota,NewJersey,Oklahomaintroduced,butdidnotpass,similarmeasures.

23 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Teen DriversYoung,inexperienceddriversaresignificantlyoverrepresentedinfatalcrashes,accordingtoNHTSA.In2015,1,847teendriversbetweentheagesof16and20werekilledincarcrash-es.Anadditional532youngpassen-gersridingwithyoungdriverswerekilledincrashes.Motorvehiclescarcrashesareoneoftheleadingcauses ofdeathforyoungpeoplebetween15and20yearsold.With8.73 million teendriversontheroadtoday,teendrivingremainsatoptrafficsafetyissue.

Duetoimmaturityandinexperience,youngdriversmayoftenexhibitdan-gerousdrivingbehaviors.Teendrivershavethehighestcrashriskofanyagegroupand,accordingtotheCDC,arethreetimesmorelikelytobeinvolvedinafatalcrashthandriversage20andolder.AccordingtoareportreleasedbytheChildren’sHospitalofPhiladelphiain2013,amongthemorethan55,000teendriversandtheirpassengerswereseri-ouslyinjuredeachyearin2009and2010,30percentsufferedheadinjuries,includingconcussions,skullfracturesandtraumaticbraininjuries.Injuryandfatalityratesarehighforteensbecausetheyaremorelikelytoengageinriskybehaviorssuchasspeeding,drivingundertheinfluence,runningredlightsandnotwearingsafetybelts,allofwhichcontributetohighfatalityandinjuryrates.

Tomitigatethispublichealthissue,everystatehasenactedsometypeoflawintendedtoprotectthesedriversastheydevelopskillandexperience.Commonlyreferredtoasgraduateddriver’slicens-ing(GDL),thelawsprovideagradualprocessforteendriverstogainexperienceinasaferenviron-ment.

NHTSAdefinesacomprehensiveGDLlawasonethatincludesfiveofsevenofthefollowingcompo-nents:

• Aminimumageof16yearsforobtainingalearner’spermit.

• Awaitingperiodofatleastthreemonthsafterobtainingalearner’spermitbeforeapplyingforan intermediate license.

• Aminimumof30hoursofsuperviseddriving.

• Aminimumageofatleast16andsixmonthsforobtaininganintermediatestatelicense.

• Aminimumageofatleast17forfulllicensing.

• Nighttimedrivingrestrictions.

• Passengerrestrictions.

AllstateshaveatleastoneoftheGDLcomponents.(AppendixFcontainsinformationaboutteendrivingrestrictions.)

A CDCreportpublishedinApril2016exploredtheconnectionbetweenrace/ethnicityandsocioeco-nomicfactorsandwhetherteensweredriving.Thestudyfoundthat23percentofhighschoolseniorsdidn’tdriveduringanaverageweek,butthatonly14percentofwhitestudentswerenotdrivingin

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 24

aweek,comparedto40percentofblackstudents.Itwas1.8to2.5timesmorelikelythatminoritystudentswerenon-driversthanwhitestudents.Similarly,studentswhowerenotearningmoneywere2.8timesmorelikelytobenon-driversthanthosemakinganaverageofatleast$36aweek.Theresearchersconcludedthat“[m]anyyoungpeoplefromminorityorlowersocioeconomicfamilieswholearntodrivemaybedoingsoaftertheir18thbirthdayandthereforewouldnottakeadvantageofthesafetybenefitsprovidedbygraduateddriverlicensing.”

AccordingtoastudybytheCaliforniaDepartmentofMotorVehiclesandtheUniversityofNorthCarolina,fatalcrashratesfor16-and17-year-oldswere21percentlowerwithpermit-holdingperiodsofnineto12months,comparedtonoholdingperiod.Alimitofnomorethanonepassengerwasassociatedwitha15percentreductioninfatalcrashrates,comparedwithnopassengerrestriction.

AnewreportfromtheCDCevaluatedGDLrestrictionsondrivingatnightandtheimpacttheserestrictionshaveonfatalnightcrashes.Inmanystates,thenightrestrictionsdon’tbeginuntilaftermidnightandtheCDCfoundthat57percentoffatalnightcrashesfordriversaged16or17occurredbeforemidnight.TheCDCrecommendsthatstatesconsiderupdatingthenightrestrictionstoincludeearliernighttimehours.

TheGovernorsHighwaySafetyAssociationalsoreleasedareportonteendrivingin2016.Thereportfoundthatolderteensareinvolvedinmorefatalcrashesthanyoungerteens,eventhoughthefatalcrashrateforteensoverallhasbeendecreasing.SomeoftherecommendationsofthereportwerethatGDLrestrictionsbeexpandedtoincludeallyoungdriversunder21,thatallnovicedriversberequiredtocompletedrivereducationandtrainingandtoenactaprimaryseatbeltlawthatcoversallvehicleoccupants.

InJanuary2016,NHTSAreleasedanevaluationofthebenefitsofriskawarenessandperceptiontrainingprogramsfornoviceteendrivers.Thetrainingprogramwasshowntoimprovedriverper-formanceformaledrivers.Maledriversintheprogramhada23.7percentlowercrashratethanyoungmaledriverswhodidnottaketheprogram.Theresultsforyoungfemaledriversshoweda10.7percenthighercrashrate,buttheresultswerenotstatisticallysignificant.

AnewCDCreportonparentalperceptionsofteendrivingfoundthatparentsworrylessaboutthesafetyoftheirteendriverwhentheyarenewlylicensedascomparedtowhentheyarelearning,eventhoughthecrashriskishigherwhentheyarenewlylicensed.Thereportalsofoundthatmanyparentshaverulesandrestrictionsregardingtheirteen’sdriving,butthesearen’tgenerallyputintoaformalparent-teendrivingagreement.

State LegislationIn2016,32statesconsideredover100billsrelatedtoteendrivers.Anumberofstatesconsideredlegisla-tionaddressingGDL,thoughveryfewnewlawswereenacted.Virginiapassedlegislationprohibitingtheholderofalearner’spermitfromhavingmorethanonepassengerinthevehiclethatisunderage21.Thebillalsoallowsdriverswhoareatleast18toobtainalicenseafterholdingapermitforonly60daysinsteadofthepreviousrequirementofninemonths.

Iowa’snewlawexpandedwhereastudentcoulddriveiftheyaredrivingusingaspecialminors’licenseinthestate.Thislicenseisavailableforstudentsbetween14and18thathavecompleteddriver’seducationandhavehadaninstructionpermitforatleast6months.Thislicenseallowsstudentswholiveatleastonemilefromtheirschooltodrivetoschoolwithoutadultsupervision,eventhoughtheyhaven’tyetobtainedanintermediatelicense.Nebraskahasasimilarschoolper-mitandthisyearthelegislatureremovedtherequirementthatthestudentliveatleast1.5milesfromtheirschool.

Washington,DCrepealedarequirementthatanypersonwhohasnotpreviouslybeenissuedadriver’slicensehadtocompletedrivereducation.Louisianaaddedtrailersafetyeducationtodriver’seducationcoursesandalsorequiresyoungdriverstoobtainacertaindriver’spermitbeforeenrollinginadriver’seducationcourse.NewJerseyclarifiedthatindividualstakingtheirdrivingtestareper-mittedtouseabackupcameraandparkingsensorsifthecarisequippedwiththesefeatures.

25 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Inrecentyears,focusontheactionsoflawenforcementanddriversduringtrafficstopshasin-creased,particularlywhenthingsgowrong.LegislationenactedinIllinoisthisyearisintendedtoteachdriverswhattodointheeventtheyarestoppedbypolice.Thelawrequiresdrivereduca-tioncoursestoincludeinstructionregardinglawenforcementprocedureduringstopsaswellasademonstrationoftheappropriateactionsfordriversduringastop.NewJerseyhassimilarlegislationpendingthatwouldrequiretheMotorVehicleCommissiontoeducateandtestdriversontheirre-sponsibilitiesduringapolicestop.

SomestateshaveconsideredrequiringyoungdriverstoplaceadecalontheircarwhichwouldassistlawenforcementofficersintheenforcementofGDLrestrictions.NewJerseyistheonlystatethatrequirestheplacementofdecalsonvehiclesdrivenbyyoungdrivers.Afewotherstates,includingMaineandMissouri,offeroptionaldecals.Massachusettsconsideredsimilarlegislationthisyear.Concernshavebeenexpressedthatthesedecalscouldleadtootherdriverstargetingyoungdriversinsomeway.NewJerseyconsidered,butdidnotpass,legislationtorepealthedecalrequirementinthestate.

Young Drivers and School Enrollment or Academic PerformanceIn29states,someprovisionexiststolinkdriver’slicensestoschoolenrollment,attendance,oracademicperformance.Forexample,inIllinois,studentswhowishtoenrollinadriver’seducationcoursemustreceiveapassinggradeinatleasteightcoursesduringtheprevioustwosemesterspriortoenrolling.Driver’seducationisrequiredforapermitorlicense.Pennsylvania’snewlawrequirestheDOTtosuspendatruantstudent’soperatingprivilegesfor90days,andforsixmonthsifthechildisconvictedoftruancyagain.

Distracted Driving and Young DriversDistracteddrivingamongyoungdriversisaserioussafetyissue.In2015,9percentofteen(15to19)driverswhowereinvolvedinfatalcrashesweredistractedatthetimeofthecrashes.AccordingtotheUniversityofMichiganTransportationResearchInstitute,asmanyas25percentofteensrespondtoatextmessageonceormoreeverytimetheydriveeventhough32statesandD.C.banallcellphoneusebynovicedriversandconsideritaprimaryoffense.

Virginia’snewlawprohibitssomeonewithalearner’spermitfromusingacellphonewhiledriving.Okla-homaandNewHampshirebothpassedlegislationrequiringdriver’seducationcoursesprovideinforma-tiononthedangersofdistracteddriving.

Impairment and Young DriversAccordingtoNHTSA,“teensareatfargreaterriskofdeathinanalcohol-relatedcrashthantheoverallpopulation,despitethefactthattheyarebelowtheminimumdrinkingageineverystate.”Infact,21percentofdriversbetweentheagesof15and20whowerekilledincrashesin2015hadabloodalcoholcontentof.08orhigher.Toaddressthisrisk,anumberofstatesconsideredlegislationrelatedtoteendriverimpairmentin2016,particularlyregardingeducation.

Connecticut’snewlawallowsacourttosendindividualsunder21chargedwithcertainoffensesinclud-ingdrivingviolationsandunderagedrinkingoffensestoaprogramthatwillprovideeducationonthedangersofunderagedrinkingandriskydrivingbehaviors.Tennesseeauthorizedjudgestoordertheuseofarestrictedlicenseoraninterlockdevicefor16-and17-yearoldsconvictedofunderagedrivingwhileimpaired.

Tennesseenowrequiresthatdrivereducationcoursesincludeinstructionregardingtheeffectsofcon-sumptionofdrugsondrivingabilities.Oklahomapassedlegislationrequiringdriver’seducationcoursestoincludeinformationonthedangersofimpaireddriving,aswellastextingwhiledriving.NewHamp-shiremodifiedthedriver’slicensewrittentesttorequirequestionsondistracteddriving,DUIanddrivinginbadweather.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 26

Older DriversIn2015,14.9percentofthetotalU.S.residentpopulation—approximately47.9millionpeople—was65andolder.AccordingtodatafromtheFederalHighwayAdministration,42.8millionlicenseddriversareoverage65.In2015,accordingtoNHTSA,6,165people65andolderwerekilledintrafficcrashesandanestimated240,000wereinjured.Olderpeopleaccountedfor18percentofalltrafficfatalities.However,since2005,thefatalityrateofolderpeopleintrafficcrasheshassteadilydeclined.Whileolderdrivershavelowerratesofcrashesreportedtothepolice,thelikelihoodofinvolvementinafatalcrashgoesupafterage70.

Olderdriversgenerallyareconsideredtobesaferdriversbecausetheyuseseatbelts,rarelyspeedandarelesslikelythanotheragegroupstodrivewhileimpaired.Ontheotherhand,AAAnotesthatage-re-

lateddeclineinvision,hearingandcognitivefunctioning,alongwithphysicalchanges,mayaffectdrivingability.Inaddition,anumberofmedicalconditions,suchasheartdiseaseanddiabetes,maymakeitmoredifficultforolderdriverstohealfollowingatrafficcrash.

AstudyfromtheAAAFoundationforTrafficSafetyreleased in March 2016foundthatseniorswhohavefallenathomeare40percentmorelikelytobeinvolvedincarcrashesthanotherseniors.Thestudyfoundthatfallscanaffectdrivinginthreemainways.First,fallscanleadtolimitedfunctionalmobility,makingithardertohandleacar.Second,afallmayleadtophysicalormentaldete-rioration.Finally,afallcanleadtoanincreasedfearofinjuryandawarenessofrisk.

NHTSAreleasedastudyinMay2016exploringtheimpactsofcrashesonolderandmiddle-agedvehicleoccupantsinConnecticutandIndiana.Thestudyfoundthatpeopleinjuredinacrashhadgreaterlong-termhealthdeteriorationfollowingthecrashthanthoseinsimilarcrashesthatwerenotinjured.However,italsofoundthat“whileolderparticipantshadpoorerphysicalabilitiesbeforethecrash,thefindingssuggestthattheyhadperformedbet-terthantheirmiddle-agecohortsonthementalmeasuresbefore,aswellasafter,thecrash.”

AstudyfromtheMichiganDepartmentofTransportationandWesternMichiganUniversityfoundthatnewsignsandsignalscanmaketheroadsaferforolderdrivers.Inresponsetothestudy,thestateDOTbeganworkingtoimprovesignageinanumberofwaysincludingpedestriancountdownsignalsandarrow-per-lanesigning.Asurveyofdriversandpedestriansinthestatefoundthatdrivers

preferredtheimprovedsignageandtheimprovementswerefoundtoreducecrashratescost-effective-ly.Thearrow-per-lanesigning,forexample,reducedoverallcrashesby42percentandcrashesamongdrivers65andolderby68percent,asavingsof$1,440foreverydollarinvested.

IncooperationwithNHTSA,theAmericanGeriatricsSocietyprovidestheClinician’sGuidetoAssess-ingandCounselingOlderDrivers.Theguidehelpscliniciansassesscrashriskforolderdriversatriskforcrashesandcounselolderdriversonhowtoenhancetheirdrivingsafety.Theguidealsoprovidesresourcestohelptransitionolderpeopleawayfromdrivingwhennecessary.

State LegislationSixstatesconsideredlegislationonolderdriverissuesin2016.Whilesomebillsarecurrentlypending,noneofthelegislationwasenacted.

PendinglegislationinIllinoiswouldspecifydriver’slicensesfordrivers90yearsofageorolderwouldex-

A study from the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety released in March 2016 found that seniors who have fallen at home are 40 percent more likely to be involved in car crashes than other seniors. The study found that falls can affect driving in three main ways. First, falls can lead to limited functional mobility, making it harder to handle a car. Second, a fall may lead to physical or mental deterioration. Finally, a fall can lead to an increased fear of injury and awareness of risk.

27 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

pire12monthsafterissuance.Hawaiidebatedlegislationthatwouldhaverequireddriversoveracertainunspecifiedagetoprovideanoteregardingtheirmedicalfitnesstodrive.(AppendixEcontainsinforma-tionaboutstatelicensingproceduresforolderdrivers).

Tennesseeconsideredabillthatwouldhaverequiredavisiontestfordrivers76yearsofageorolder.Vermontalsoconsideredlegislationthatwouldhaverequireddrivers65yearsofageoroldertopassavisiontestandaroadtestinordertoobtainorrenewanoperator’slicense.

Stateswitha“YellowDot”programprovideabrightyellowcircledecaltodrivers,includingseniors,whosignupfortheprogram.Thisdecal,whichisplacedinthecar’sbackwindow,tellsfirstresponderstolookfora“YellowDot”folderinthegloveboxthatcontainsaphotoanddetailedmedicalinformation,includingprescriptions,drugallergies,surgeries,presenceofpacemakersorotherinformationthatcouldaffectemergencytreatment.Thenation’sfirst“YellowDot”programbeganinConnecticutin2002,and23statescurrentlyhavesomeformoftheprogram.Massachusettshaspendinglegislationtodevelopayellowdotprograminthestate.Eachyearforthelastfouryears,NewYorkhasintroducedlegislationtoestablishastatewide“YellowDot”programinitsDepartmentofTransportation.Legislationpassedthesenatein2016butwasnotenacted.Federallegislationwasintroducedinlate2013thatwouldcreateanational“YellowDot”program,butthebilldidnotmoveoutofcommittee.

Speeding and Speed LimitsIn2015,9,557trafficfatalitiesoccurredinspeeding-relatedcrashes.NHTSAconsidersacrashtobespeeding-relatedifthedriverwaschargedwithaspeeding-relatedoffenseorifanofficerindicatedthatracing,drivingtoofastforconditionsorexceedingthepostedspeedlimitwasacontributingfactorinthecrash.Thenumberoffatalitiesin2015representeda3percentincreasefrom9,283in2014.Speedingwasafactorin27percentofmotorvehiclefatalitiesin2015andhasbeenimplicatedinmorethan25percentofcrashdeathssince2005accordingtotheInsuranceInstituteforHighwaySafety(IIHS).

AccordingtoAAA’s2015TrafficSafetyCultureIndex,48.4percentofdriverssaytheyhavedriven15mphoverthespeedlimitonafreewayinthepastmonth,and25.9percentsayitisacceptabletodoso.For-ty-fivepercentofdriverssurveyedsaytheyhavegone10mphoverthelimitonaresidentialstreetinthepastmonth,but88.6percentsaytheydisapproveofspeedingonaresidentialstreet.

In1995,Congressrepealedthemaximumspeedlimitof55mph,whichhadbeenestablishedintheearly1970s,andthestateshavebeengivenmorepowertosetmaximumspeedlimits.Sincethen,38stateshavesetspeedlimitsof70mphorhigheronsomeportionoftheirroadwaysystems.

InApril2016,IIHSreleasedanewstudyevaluatingtheimpactofincreasedspeedlimits.Itfoundthatincreasedspeedlimitshaveresultedinmorethan33,000additionaltrafficdeathsinthelast20years.Thestudyfoundthat“each5mphincreaseinthemaximumspeedlimitresultedina4percentincreaseinfatalities,”increasingto8percentoninterstatesandfreeways.

NHTSAreleasedadditionaldataanalysisconnectedtothatagency’sstudyregardingmotivationsforspeedinginMarch2016.Theanalysisfoundthatincidentalspeedingwasthemostcommontypeofspeeding,whereindividualswentslightlyoverthelimitforshortperiodsoftime.Casualspeeding,whereanindividualwaslikelyawarethattheywerespeeding,wasalsorelativelycommon.Thestudyalsoiden-tifiedfourtypesofspeeders:deliberatespeeders,typicalspeeders,situationalspeedersandunintention-alspeeders.

State LegislationIn2016,32statesconsideredover100billsrelatedtospeedlimits.Ahandfulofstatespassedlegislationincreasingspeedlimits,whileotherstatesenabledspeedlimitstobereducedincertaininstances.Afewstatesenactedlawsestablishingschoolspeedzonesandincreasingpenaltiesforspeedinginaworkzone.

In2016,OregonpassedlegislationtoincreasethespeedlimitoncertainportionsofhighwaysnearthestateborderandWyomingincreasedthemaximumspeedlimitonstatehighwaysto70mph.Hawaii

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passedlegislationestablishingaspeedlimitof60mphalongaspecifiedstretchofhighwayand45mphalonganotherstretch.Michiganpassedasuiteoflegislationthatraisedthespeedlimitinvariousinstanc-es,includingcreatinga“limitedaccessfreewaygeneralspeedlimit”of70mphandageneralspeedlimitof55mph.Thenewlegislationalsorequiresanincreaseto75mphon600milesoffreewayand65mphon900milesofhighwayoneyearafterthelegislationiseffectiveifanengineeringstudyfindsthatthehigherspeedisappropriate.

Kansasnowallowsthesecretaryoftransportationtosetspeedlimits5mphhigherthanthestatutorilyestablishedlimitiftheroadisoutsideofanurbandistrict.Oklahomaremovedcertaindesignatedmaxi-mumspeedlimitsandrequiredtheDOTtoconductengineeringandtrafficinvestigationstodeterminetheappropriatespeedlimits.Thiscouldallowtheimplementationofspeedlimitsover75mph.

In2013,Utahpassedlegislationestablishingamaximumspeedlimitof80mphinthestateonroadswherestudiesshowitwouldbesafe.Thisyear,theDepartmentofTransportationplanstoraise the speedlimitto80mphonahandfulofstretchesofhighway.

Aggressive Drivers

Runningredlightsorstopsigns,speeding,preventingotherdriversfrompassingandillegaldrivingontheshoulderareexamplesofaggressivedriving.NHTSA,incooperationwithlawenforcementagencies,definesaggressivedrivingasoccurringwhen“anindividualcommitsacombinationofmovingtrafficoffensessoastoendangerotherpersonsorproperty.”

InAAA’sTrafficSafetyCultureIndex,nearlyhalfofdriversadmittedtoexceedingspeedlimitsbyatleast15mphinthepreceding30days.Inthesamesurvey,however,86percentofdriversranked“peopledrivingaggressively”asa“veryseriousthreat”or“somewhatseriousthreat”totheirpersonalsafety.Nearly65percentofdriversindicatedabeliefthataggressivedriversareabiggerproblemtodaycomparedtothreeyearsago.

A newreportfromtheAAAFoundationforTrafficSafetystudiedself-reportedaggressivedrivingbehaviorandfoundthat78percentofdriversreportedengaginginatleastoneaggressivedrivingbehaviorinthelastyear.Themostcommonlyreportedbehaviorswerepurposefullytail-gating,yellingatanotherdriverandhonkingtheirhorntoexpressannoyanceoranger.Amuchsmallerproportionofdriversreportedengaginginbehaviorsthatmaybeconsideredroadrage,includingexitingtheirvehicletoconfrontanotherdriver(3.7percent)andbumpingorramminganothervehicleonpurpose(2.8percent).

Aggressivedrivingcontinuestobeatopicoflegislationaroundthecountry.Severalstateshavelawsdefiningtheoffenseofaggressivedrivingandestablishingpenalties.Elevenstates—Ar-izona,Delaware,Florida,Georgia,Indiana,Maryland,Nevada,NorthCarolina,RhodeIsland,VermontandVirginia—haveaggressivedrivinglaws.(AppendixGcontainsmoreinformationaboutstateaggressivedrivinglaws.)CaliforniaandUtahhaverecklessdrivinglawsthatincludebehaviorssimilartothoseotherstatesclassifyasaggressive.ThePennsylvanialegislaturepassedaresolutionagainstaggressivedriving.

InMaryland,adrivermustcommitthreespecifiedoffensesatthesametimeorinacontinuousperiodofdrivingforhisorherbehaviortoconstituteaggressivedriving.Marylandconsideredlegislationin2015,andagainin2016,toreducethenumberofrequiredoffensestotwoandincreasethemaximumfineto$1,000,butitfailed.Virginiadebatedraisingthethresholdforperserecklessdrivingfromdrivingover80mphtoover85mphbutthelegislationfailed.

NewJerseydebatedlegislationthatwouldhaveestablishedanewoffense,engaginginapatternofaggressivedriving,butthelegislationhasnotpassedatthetimeofpublication.

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Allstateshavelawsrequiringvehiclestravelingslowerthanthenormalspeedoftraffictooperateinthefurthestright-handlaneavailable.Thisyear,Tennesseepassedlegislationprovidingfora$50finefordriverswhooperatetheirvehicleinthelefthandlanewhentheyaren’tpassinganothervehicle.

NHTSAnotesthat,in2015,only15percentofspeeding-relatedfatalitiesoccurredoninterstatehighways,meaningthatmanycrashesoccuroncitystreetsandinworkzones.Indianaenactedalawspecifyingthatadriverconvictedoftwospeedinfractionsinworkzonesinoneyearcanhavetheirdrivingprivilegessus-pendedfor60days,inadditiontootherpenalties.Michigannowallowstheassessmentofonepointonadriver’slicenseforadriverwhoexceedsthespeedlimitbyonetofivemphandanassessmentofthreepointsonalicenseforexceedingthespeedlimitbyupto10mphinaworkzone.

Atleasteightstates—California,Michigan,NewJersey,NewYork,Ohio,Oklahoma,VermontandWestVirginia—consideredbillsrelatedtospeedinschoolzonesin2016.Californiapassedabilldesignatingaspecificportionofastateroadasaschoolzone.WestVirginiapassedlegislationallowingacountyboardofeducationtorequestthatthestateexpandaschoolzonetoaroadnexttoaschool.

Afewstatesdidenactbillsloweringspeedlimitsandgivinglocalgovernmentsmorelatitudetodosoin2016.Researchshowsthelikelihoodofapedestriansurvivingacrashdeclinesdrasticallyasvehiclespeedincreases. A 2011AAAstudy notedthatthe“averageriskofdeathforapedestrianreaches10percentatanimpactspeedof23mph,25percentat32mphand50percentat42mph.”

Mostnotably,inordertohelpBostonandotherMassachusettscitiesandtownsmeetVisionZerogoalstoeliminatetrafficfatalities,theMassachusettslegislatureauthorizedcitiesandtownstosettheirspeedlimitat25mph“insideathicklysettledorbusinessdistrictinthecityortownonanywaythatisnotastatehighway.”Thusfar,Boston,CambridgeandSomervillehavetakenadvantageofthenewflexibilitytolowerspeedlimitsonsomeeligiblestreetsto25mph,whileLowellisstudyingtheidea.InBoston,thedefaultspeedlimitwillbe25mphbeginninginJanuary2017unlesssignagestatesotherwise.

TheArizonalegislatureenabledlocalauthoritiestoincreaseordecreasethemaximumspeedlimitonstreetsadjacenttoorsurroundingschoolgroundsorpublicparks.NewYorkauthorizedthevillagesofSagHarborandEastHamptoninSuffolkCountytoreducespeedlimitstonolowerthan20mphoncertainstreets.Michiganalsoallowedlocalauthoritiestoreducespeedlimitsinpublicparkstonolowerthan15mph.AnotherbillinMichiganpermitstownshipboardstopetitionforachangeinthespeedlimit.

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Automated Enforcement Runningaredlightisadangerousyetcommonviolationmadebydrivers.AccordingtoIIHS,in2014,red-lightrunningcaused171,000trafficcrashesnationwide,whichledtoapproximately126,000injuriesand709deaths.Datashowsthatmorethan50percentofthefatalitieswerebicyclists,pedestriansandoccupantsinthevehiclethatdidnotruntheredlight.

Redlightcamerasandphotoradarallowlocallawenforcementagenciestoenforcetrafficlawsremotely.Bothredlightcamerasandphotoradardetectvehiclesthatviolatetrafficregulations.Redlightcamerasarelinkedtotrafficsignalsandmonitoreachphaseofgreen,yellowandred.Whenamotoristdrivesthroughanintersectionafterthesignalhasturnedred,sensorstriggerthecamerastotaketwophoto-graphs—oneofthevehicleenteringtheintersectionwhilethelightisred,andoneshowingthevehicletravelingthroughtheintersectiononaredlight.Photoradarfunctionsaresimilar.Thephotoradar

systemusuallyislocatedinamobileunit,suchasavan.Thesystemisequippedwithbotharadarspeeddetectorandacamera.Onceaspeedingvehicleisdetected,thecameraistriggered.Thephotos,stampedwiththedateandtime,areusedtoidentifythevehicleownerandticketsareissued.

Resultsofstudiesontheeffectivenessofautomatedenforcementvary,butmostlyshowapositiveimpactontrafficsafety.AstudyofArlington,Va.,byIIHSshoweddecreasesinredlightrunninginin-tersectionsequippedwithcameras.Thedecreaseswereparticularlysignificantforthemostdangerousviolations,thosethatoccurred1.5secondsorlongerafterthelightturnedred.Additionally,a2016IIHSreportshowedthatremovingred-lightcamerasfromintersec-tionsactuallycostlives.Researcherscomparedtrendsinannualcrashratesin14citiesthathadendedtheircameraprogramswiththosein29citiesinthesameregionsthatcontinuedtheirprograms.Theyfoundthat,afteradjustingforotherfactors,red-light-runningcrashesincreasedby30percentatintersectionswherecameraswereremoved.Thestudyestimatedthat63deathswouldhave

beenpreventedinthe14citiesiftheyhadnotturnedofftheircameras.Somestudieshavenotedthatred-lightcamerasmayincreaserear-endcrashes;however,theytendtoleadtoanoveralldecreaseinthenumberandseverityofcrashes.

IIHS has also studiedtheeffectivenessofspeedcameras.SpeedcameraswereintroducedinMontgom-eryCounty,Va.,in2007.Asof2014,thecountyhad56fixedcameras,30portablecamerasandsixmobilespeedvans;thecamerasareusedonresidentialstreetswithspeedlimitsof35mphorlessandinschoolzones.IIHSfoundthat,duringtheprogram’sfirstyear,theproportionofdriverstravelingatleast10milesoverthespeedlimithaddeclinedonstreetswithcameras.Researchersfoundthat,in2014,thecameraprogramshadreducedby59percentthelikelihoodofadriverexceedingthespeedlimitbymorethan10mph,comparedwithsimilarroadsintwonearbyVirginiacountiesthatdonothavespeedcameras.Theresearchersalsolookedatcrashesoncamera-eligibleroadsinMontgomeryCountyandcomparedthemtoothersimilarroadsinVirginia.Theyfoundthatthecameraprogramresultedina19percentreductioninthelikelihoodthatacrashwouldinvolveafatalityoranincapacitatinginjury,asreportedbyapoliceofficeronthescene.

Politically,red-lightandspeedcamerasremaincontroversial.Opponentsoftheprogramspointtorecentbribery-for-contractscandalsinChicagoandFloridatoarguetheyarecorruptanddesignedtobringinrevenuetocash-strappedcities.Whilestillbeinglaunchedinsomeplaces,thetotalnumberofcommuni-tieswithred-lightcamerasfellto430in2016,fromapeakof533in2012.

Approximately425communitieshaverightlightprograms,andabout140communitieshavespeedcameraprograms.Cityandlocalgovernmentsin23states—Alabama,Arizona,California,Colorado,Delaware,Florida,Georgia,Illinois,Iowa,Louisiana,Maryland,Missouri,NewMexico,NewYork,NorthCarolina,Ohio,Oregon,Pennsylvania,RhodeIsland,Tennessee,Texas,VirginiaandWashington—andthe

A study of Arlington, Va., by IIHS showed decreases in red light running in intersections equipped with cameras. The decreases were particularly significant for the most dangerous violations, those that occurred 1.5 seconds or longer after the light turned red.

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DistrictofColumbiausered-lightcameras.Inmostcases,statelegislatureshavepassedenablingstatuteswithspecificprovisionstoallowlocalgovernmentstodevelopred-lightcameraprograms.NostatelawexistsinIowaandMissouri,butlocalcommunitieshavechosentodevelopprograms.InNewMexico,NMDOThasbannedredlightcamerasonstateandfederalroadwaysbuttheyareallowedtobeusedbylocalgovernmentsundersomecircumstances.

CommunitiesinAlabama,Arizona,Colorado,Illinois,Iowa,Louisiana,Maryland,Missouri,NewMexico,NewYork,Oregon,RhodeIsland,Tennessee,WashingtonandtheDistrictofColumbiausespeedcamer-as.AlthoughIowaandOhiohavenospecificstatutes,camerasareusedincertaincities.

Somestatesprohibituseofautomatedenforcementaltogether.Arkansas,NewJersey,SouthCarolinaandWisconsinprohibitphotoradarenforcement.SouthCarolinalawprovidesanarrowexceptionthatspeedenforcementcamerascanbeusedinastateofemergency.InTexas,municipalitiesareprohib-itedfromusingautomatedenforcementtoenforcespeed.StatutesinMaine,Mississippi,Montana,NewHampshire,SouthCarolina,SouthDakotaandWestVirginiaprohibitredlightcamerausetoissuecitationstomotorists.NevadaandOhioeffectivelyprohibitred-lightcameraprogramsbecausetheirlawsrequirelaw-enforcementpersonneltobepresentifcamerasareused.(AppendixIcontainsmoreinforma-tionaboutstateautomatedenforcementlaws.)

State LegislationTwenty-fourstatesconsidered99billsrelatedtoredlightandspeedcamerasin2016.AlabamaallowedthecityofBessemertostartaredlightandspeedcameraprogramandRhodeIslandnowallowsspeedenforcementinschoolzones.Pennsylvaniaextendeditslawtoallowmunicipalitiestouseautomateden-forcementthrough2027.ThelawalsorequiresthePADOTtoevaluatetheeffectivenessofredlightpro-gramsinthestate,theconditionsthatshouldbepresentinorderforamunicipalitytoconsiderapprovingautomatedredlightenforcementsystemsatintersectionswithinthemunicipalitybasedontheclassandsizeofthemunicipality,theaveragedailytraffic,thenumberofcollisionsandfatalities,thecollectionoffines,therevenuelimitandtheallocationofrevenuereceived.Thereportistobecompletedandsubmit-tedtotheHouseandSenateTransportationCommitteesonJune1,2017.NewYorkconsidered,butdidnotpass,legislationin2016thatwouldhaveexpandedautomatedenforcementprograms.

In2016,statelegislationaimedtomakered-light-cameraandspeedcameraprogramsmoretransparentandtoplacethefocusonsafety.In2016,Louisianapassedalawrequiringpostedsignswithin500feetofthered-lightcameratowarnmotoristsoftheenforcementmeasure.Tennesseenowrequiresadisclaim-eronallred-lightcitationsstatingthatnon-paymentcannotadverselyaffectthedriver’screditscoreorreport,driver’slicense,and/orautomobileinsurancerates.Illinoisconsidered,butdidnotpassabillthatwouldrequiretheDOTtodevelopastatisticalanalysisprogramforamunicipalityorcountyoperatinganautomatedtrafficlawenforcementsystemtoassessthesafetyimpactofthesystem.Thebillhadguide-linesforthetypeofdatathatcouldbecollectedbythesystemsandwouldhaverequiredthemunicipalityorcountygovernmenttosubmitanannualreporttotheDOT,whichwouldthenbemadepublic.TheNationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)publishedNCHRPReport729in2014entitled,“AutomatedEnforcementforSpeedingandRedLightRunning”.Thereportexaminessuccessfulautomat-edenforcementprograms,exploresthefactorscontributingtosuccessandalsodrawsonlessonsfromunsuccessfulprograms.

Still,somestateswithautomatedredlightandspeedenforcementconsideredbillstoendtheprograms.Arizona,Colorado,Florida,Maryland,Michigan,Missouri,andVirginiaconsideredlegislationin2016toprohibitredlightandspeedcamerause.Arizonanowprohibitsautomatedenforcementonstatehigh-ways.InColorado,abillpassedbothchambersandwouldhaveimmediatelyendedtheuseofred-lightcamerasandlimitspeedcamerastoonlyschoolzonesandconstructionzones,butthemeasurewasve-toedbythegovernor.ThisisthesecondyearColorado’sgovernorhasvetoedanautomatedenforcementprohibition.Noneoftheothermeasurespassed.

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Federal ActionThe FASTAct discussesautomatedenforcementinTitle23,Sections148and402.First,thelegislationprohibitsstatesfromusingfederalfundsfromtheHighwaySafetyImprovementProgramandtheHigh-waySafetyGrantProgramtopurchase,operateormaintainautomatedtraffic-enforcementcameras,exceptforthoselocatedinschoolzones.Second,stateswithautomated-enforcementsystemsarere-quiredtoconductabiennialsurvey.Itmustincludealistofautomated-enforcementsystemsinthestate;datatomeasuretransparency,accountabilityandsafety;andacomparisonoftheirsystemstoearlierDepartmentofTransportationguidelinesonautomatedred-light-runningenforcementprograms.Theserequirementswilltakeeffectinfiscalyear2018.

Motorcycle SafetyAccordingtothelatestnumbersfromtheU.S.DOT’sBureauofTransportationStatistics,therewereover8.4millionregisteredmotorcyclesinthecountryin2014,aslightincreasefrom2013.Overall,thenumberofregisteredmotorcyclesintheU.S.hasdoubledinthepast20years,althoughtheall-timehighofregistrationsofnearly8.5millionwasreachedin2012.

Therewasalargeincreaseinmotorcyclistfatalitiesin2015,from4,594in2014to4,976in2015,anin-creaseof8.3percent.Thisincreasewashigherthantheoverallfatalitypercentageincreaseof7.2percentin 2015.

Othernotablestatisticsfrom2015motorcyclisttrafficsafetydatainclude:

• Motorcyclistinjuriesdeclined3percent,fromapproximately92,000in2014to88,000in2015.

• Theoverallproportionoftotalfatalitiesthatweremotorcyclistshasincreasedfrom11percentin2006to14percentin2015.

• Thenumberofalcohol-impairedmotorcyclistsinvolvedinfatalcrashesactuallydeclinedslightly,from1,370in2014to1,365in2015.

• Everyagegroupsawincreasesinmotorcyclistfatalities,withtheexceptionofmotorcyclistsundertheageof19,wheretherewasan8.7percentdeclineindeaths.

• Instateswithoutauniversalhelmetlaw,58percentofmotorcyclistswhodiedin2015werenotwearinghelmets.Thisisinstrikingcontrastwithstateswithuniversalhelmetlaws,whereonly8percentofmotorcycliststhatdiedwerenotwearinghelmets.

• Useofnon-complaintmotorcyclehelmetsincreasedfrom4.8percentin2014to10.6percentin2015 according to theannualNationalOccupantProtectionUseSurvey(NOPUS).

• Theoveralluseofhelmetsremainedfairlystatic;60.7percentofmotorcyclistswereobservedwear-ingcomplianthelmets.HelmetuseobservedviaNOPUShasvariedbetween54and67percentsince2008.

State Legislation2016wasarelativelyquietyearformotorcyclesafetylegislation.Whileanumberofstatesconsideredbillsregardingmotorcyclehelmetrequirements,therewerenoenactedbillsinthatcategoryin2016.Statelegislaturesdidcontinuetoenactlawsmakingchangestotheirmotorcyclelicensing,education,operationandequipmentstandardsandrequirementsin2016though.

Motorcycle Helmets Nostatesenactedlegislationonthealwayscontroversialtopicofrequiringhelmetswhileoperatingorridingonamotorcycle,butanumberofstatesdidintroduceandconsiderlegislationin2016.

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Eightstates—Georgia,Louisiana,Maryland,Mississippi,Missouri,Nebraska,VirginiaandWestVirginia—triedunsuccessfullyin2016toweakenordoawaywiththeiruniversalhelmetlaws.

MississippiandMissouridebatedadoptingtheapproachofMichi-gan,whichviaa2012law,allowsmotorcyclistsovertheageof21toridewithoutahelmetiftheymeetcertaineducationalandinsur-ance thresholds.

Missourilegislationcreatinganexceptiontoitsuniversallawgainedsupport,passingoutoftheHouse,butdidnotsecureSenateapprovalbeforetheendofsession.Theproposedlawwouldhaveallowedmotorcyclistsovertheageof21tonotwearahelmetiftheyhadamotorcyclelicenseforatleasttwoyearsorcompletedamotorcyclesafetyeducationcourse,inadditiontocarryingatleast$50,000inhealthinsuranceformotorcycleinjuries.Mississippiconsideredsimilarlegislationin2016,whichwouldhaveexemptedriderswhohadpossessedamotorcycleendorsementforthepastfiveyearsandcarried$10,000inhealthinsurancefromthestate’suniversalhelmetrequirement.

Ashasbeenthecasethepastfewlegislativesessions,Missouriconsidered,butdidnotpasslegislationthatwouldhaveprovidedahelmetexceptionforout-of-statemotorcyclistsduringadefinedtimeperiod.Thebillwouldhaveallowedanyperson21yearsofageoroldertravelingthroughMissouribetweenAugust1andAugust21—whichistypicallywhenthefamedSturgisMotorcycleRallytakesplaceinSouthDakota—toridewithoutahelmetaslongastheirstateofresidencedoesnotrequirethemtowearahelmet.

Missourialsodebatedlegislationthatwouldhavemadewearinganon-compliantmotorcyclehelmetasecondaryoffense,onlyallowinglawenforcementtocitesuchaninfractionwhenthemotorcyclisthadbeenpulledoverforaprimaryoffense.Arizonaconsideredsimilarlegislationin2016thatwasnotenacted.

Hawaiiwastheonlystatein2016tointroducelegislationattemptingtostiffenitshelmetlaw.Hawaii,whichonlyrequiresmotorcyclehelmetuseforthoseage17andyounger,debatedlegislationtocreateahelmetrequirementforthoseage25oryounger.

NewYorkconsideredabillthatwouldhaveauthorizedthecommissioneroftransportationtoconductacomprehensivestudyoftheefficacyofmotorcyclehelmets.

NewJerseyintroducedabillthatwillstillbependinginthe2017legislativesessionthatwouldexemptthesaleofrecreationalsafetyhelmetssuchasmotorcyclehelmetsfromsalesandusetax.

Motorcycle Licensing and EducationFourstates—California,Michigan,OklahomaandVirginia—enactedlawsregardingmotorcyclelicensing,endorsementandsafetyeducationandtrainingrequirementsin2016.

AgoodportionofmotorcyclistsinMichiganandnationallylackamotorcycleendorsementfortheirdriver’slicense.In2012,54percentofmotorcyclistskilledincrashesinMichigan lacked an endorsement. AnewMichiganlawsoughttorectifythisproblembyraisingthepenaltiesforoperatingamotorcyclewithoutanendorsement;themaximumfineforafirstoffensewasraisedfrom$100to$500,whilekeepingthemaximumprisontermof90days.Thelawalsocreatedanewenhancedpenaltyforasecondviolation,withmaximumtermofimprisonmentofoneyearand/orafineof$1,000.

AnothernewMichiganlawincreasedthemotorcyclesafetycoursefeefrom$25to$50,withanyin-creasedrevenuesolelydesignatedtocoveradministrativecostsaccordingtothebill’sfiscalanalysis.

Afewstatesrefinedtheirrequirementsformotorcyclesafetycourses.TheCalifornialegislatureautho-rizedtrafficviolatorschoolstoalsoadministeramotorcyclistsafetytrainingprogram,whileVirginia

In states without a universal helmet law, 58 percent of motorcyclists who died in 2015 were not wearing helmets. This is in striking contrast with states with universal helmet laws, where only 8 percent of motorcyclists that died were not wearing helmets.

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clarifiedthatamotorcycleridersafetytrainingcourseappliestobothtwo-wheeledandthree-wheeledmotorcycles.Intermsoflicensingandmotorcycleendorsements,Oklahomaaddedarequirementthatanapplicantforamotorcycleendorsementage17oryoungermust,besidestheexistingrequirements,nowcompleteacertifiedstate-approvedmotorcyclebasicridercourse.Kansasrestrictsadriverwhopassesadrivingexaminationonathree-wheeledmotorcycleotherthananautocycletoonlyoperatearegisteredthree-wheeledmotorcycle,andnotatwo-wheeledmotorcycle.

Motorcycle Operation and EquipmentMotorcyclelanesplitting,thepracticeofridingamotorcyclebetweentwolanesofvehiclesinordertoavoidcongestion,haslongbeenaregulatorygrayareainCalifornia,commonlypracticedbymotorcy-clists,butwithnoclearstatutorypermissiontodoso.Citingthepotentialtoreducetrafficcongestion and increasetrafficsafetybylegalizingandformalizingthepractice,legislatorsunanimouslyvotedforalawlegalizinglanesplittingin2016.Thelawdefines“lanesplitting”asdrivingamotorcyclebetweenrowsofstoppedormovingvehiclesinthesamelane,andappliestodividedandundividedroadsandhighways.ThelawauthorizestheCaliforniaHighwayPatrol(CHP)todeveloplanesplittingeducationalguidelinesinconsultationwiththeCaliforniaDMV,thestateDepartmentofTransportation(Caltrans),theOfficeofTrafficSafetyandamotorcycleorganizationfocusedonmotorcyclistsafety.Earlierversionsofthebillhadproposedonlyauthorizinglanesplittingwhentrafficwasmovinglessthan15mphandcappingthespeedamotorcyclecouldtravelwhilelanesplittingat50mph,butthoseprovisionswereremoved.CHPhadpostedmoreinformalguidelinesin2013,butacomplaintthattheyconstituted“undergroundregu-lations”ledtotheirremoval.Thenewguidelineshavenotyetbeencreatedandwillnotbeformalrulesforlanesplitting,justsafety-basedbestpracticestokeepinmind.

Afewstatesrevisedtheirmotorcyclelightingequipmentlawsin2016.InDelaware,theDivisionofMotorVehiclesMotorcycleOperatorManualhadrecommendedthatmotorcycle,mopeds,andmotorizedscooteroperatorstemporarilyflashbrakelightswhenstoppinginordertoincreasevisibilitytoothermotorists.However,aftermarketproductsthatwouldautomaticallydosowereillegalinthestate.AnewDelawarelawnowallowsmotorcycles,mopeds,andmotorizedscooterstobeequippedwiththissafetyequipmentthatflashesthebrakelightsuptofivetimes.

TheVirginiaGeneralAssemblydirectedtheSuperintendentofStatePolicetoestablishguidelinesallowingforthesubmissionandapprovalofauxiliarylightsonmotorcyclesthatarenotapprovedbytheSocietyofAutomotiveEngineers.TheapprovalofanylightsorequipmentmustbepublishedontheDepartmentofStatePolice’swebsiteandthedepartmentmustnotifyofficialsafetyinspectionstationsoftheapprovedequipment. Virginiaalsoincreasedfromfourtofivethemaximumnumberoflightsallowedforgeneralilluminationaheadofthemotorcycle.Illinoisauthorizedmotorcyclestonowbeequippedwithabluelightorlightsontherearofthemotorcycle.

Georgianowallowsamotorcyclisttooperateamotorcyclewithhandlebarsmorethan25inchesinheightabovetheseat,asopposedtothepreviousheightlimitof15inches.

Federal ActionThe2015FASTActincludedseveralmotorcyclesafetyprovisions.ANationalPrioritySafetyProgram(NPSP)formotorcyclistsafetywascontinuedinSection405withadditionalflexibilityprovided.NHTSAawardedover$4millioningrantsinMarchof2016formotorcyclistsafetyactivities.

Statesinthelowest25percentofallstatesformotorcycledeathsper10,000motorcycleregistrationscanuse50percentoffundsforSection402StateandCommunityHighwaySafetyGrantProgramactivities.

AutocyclesSignificantactionwastakenbystatelegislaturesin2016todefineautocyclesandthesafetyandequipmentrequirementsnecessarytooperatethem.UnderMissouri’sstatutorydefinition,anautocycleis:“Athreewheeledmotorvehicle onwhichthedriversandpassengersrideinacompletelyenclosed,tandemseatingareathatisequippedwithairbagprotection,arollcage,safetybeltsforeachoccupant,andantilockbrakesandthatisdesignedtobecontrolledwithasteeringwheelandpedals.”

Atleast31states—Alabama,Arizona,Arkansas,Colorado,Connecticut,Delaware,Idaho,Illinois,Indiana,Iowa,Kansas,Louisiana,Maryland,Michigan,Minnesota,Mississippi,Missou-ri,Nebraska,NewHampshire,NewJersey,NewMexico,NorthCarolina,Ohio,Oklahoma,Pennsylvania,RhodeIsland,Tennes-see,Texas,Utah,VermontandVirginia—havecreatedstatutorydefinitionsforautocycles.Ofthese,nineenactedtheirmeasuresin2016—Iowa,Maryland,Minnesota,Missouri,NewJersey,Ohio,Pennsylvania,RhodeIslandandUtah.Ofthestateswhichenactedtheirmeasuresin2016,fivestates—Iowa,Maryland,Missouri,RhodeIslandandUtah—defineautocyclesas“motorvehicles.”Theotherfourstates—Minnesota,NewJersey,OhioandPennsylvania—defineautocyclesas“motorcycles.”

Iowa,Maryland,Minnesota,Missouri,NewJersey,Ohio,Penn-

sylvania,RhodeIslandandUtahjoinedatleast22otherstates—Alabama,Arizona,Arkansas(driversoverage18),California,Colorado,Connecticut,Delaware,Idaho,Illinois,Indiana,Kansas,Louisiana,Michigan,Nevada,NewHampshire,NewMexico,NorthCarolina,Oklahoma,SouthCarolina,Texas,VermontandVirginia—thatdonotrequireaClassMmotorcycleendorsementonadriver’slicensetooperateanautocycle.

Withregardtosafetyrequirements,afewstatesinstitutedoper-atingandequipmentrequirements.Atleastfivestates–Minne-sota,Missouri,NewJersey,OhioandUtah–requiredautocycleoperatorstowearapprovedprotectiveheadgear.Thesestatesalsowaivedtherequirementifthevehiclehada“top”orwasfullyenclosed.Fourstates–Iowa,Maryland,PennsylvaniaandRhodeIsland–didnotexpresslyaddresshelmetrequirements.

AutocycledriversinPennsylvaniaarerestrictedfromhavingpas-sengersyoungerthaneight-years-oldiftheycannotbesecuredinacarseat.Additionally,Pennsylvaniawill,startingin2018,re-quirelawenforcementagenciestoincludeseparateinformationordataonautocyclesintheirformsforwrittencrashreports.Marylandalsorequiredwrittencrashreportformstodistinguishbetweenautocyclesandmotorcycles.MarylandalsojoinedNebraskaandNorthCarolinaasstatesthatdonotallowtheuseofanautocycletotakeadrivingskillstest.

Figure 5. States with Statutory Definitions for Autocycles

WA

OR

HI CA

MT

NV

WY

ND

SD

WI

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MP

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GA

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OH PA NJ

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CO

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LA

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AR

MS

IN

TN

MI

AL

NC

DE

CT

NH

ME

Statutorydefinitions

Enactedstatutesin2016

35 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 36

School Bus SafetyAccordingtoNHTSA,studentsare50timesmorelikelytoarriveatschoolalivewhentheytakethebus,ratherthanwhentheydrivethemselvesorridewithfriends.Accordingtodatafrom2001-2009,58percentofstudentfatalitiesduringnormalschooltravelhoursoccurredwhentravelingwithateendriverand23percentoccurredwhentravelingwithanadultdriver.Onlyonepercentofthosefatalitiesoccurredwhentravelingbyschoolbus.From2006to2015,301school-agechildrendiedinschool-trans-portation-relatedcrashes.54ofthosechildrenwereinschooltransportationvehicles.

State LegislationEachyear,agreatdealoflegislativeactivityinvolvesschoolbussafetyand2016wasnodifferent.Anumberofstateslookedattakingactiontoincreasethesafetyofpassengersonschoolbuses.Themostactivityoc-curredintheareasofillegalpassingofschoolbuses,includingtheuseofcamerastocatchviolators,andindebatingwhethertorequireseatbeltsonschoolbuses.

Illegal Passing of School BusesWhenaschoolbusisstoppedwithlightsflashing,thisindicatesthatstudentsaregettingonoroffofthebus.Boardingandexitingthebusput

studentsmostatriskofinjuryordeathbecausedriversmayignoreordon’tunderstandlawsrequiringthemtostopforschoolbuses.

AnannualsurveyofschoolbusdriversorganizedbytheNationalAssociationofStateDirectorsofPupilTransportationServicesischargedwithcollectingfirst-handinformationtohelpunderstandthepreva-lenceofillegallypassingschoolbuses.The2016surveycollectedresultsfrommorethan96,000schoolbusdriversin33states.Thesedrivers“reportedthat74,421vehiclespassedtheirbusesillegallyonasingleday.”Thisaddsuptoover13millionviolationsintheschoolyear.

Inthe2016legislativesession,Alabamaenactedalawallowingforexteriorschoolbuscameras,expand-ingaprograminitiallycreatedin2015inMobileCounty.Thenewlawallowsanyschoolsysteminthestatetouseelectronicdevicestocaptureimagesofvehiclesillegallypassingschoolbuses.Revenuefromthefineistobeallocatedamongthegoverningbodyandschoolsystemwheretheviolationoccurred,alongwiththeAlabamaLawEnforcementAgencyandthestatedepartmentofeducation.Certainpri-vacysafeguardsareincludedinthelaw,suchasarequirementthatimagesorvideodonotincludethefaceofthedriverorpassengersinthevehicleandarequirementthatimagesandvideobedestroyedwithin90daysoftherecordingiftherewasnoviolation.

Arkansas,Connecticut,Georgia,Illinois,Maryland,Mississippi,NorthCarolina,RhodeIsland,SouthCarolina,Virginia,Washington,WestVirginiaandWyominghavesimilarlaws.Anumberofotherstatesconsideredlegislationonschoolbuscamerasthisyear,includingArizona,California,Indiana,Kansas,Michigan,NewJersey,andNewYork,butnoneofthosebillswereenacted.

Illinoismodifieditslawregardingpassingbusestomakeitclearthatcarscannotpassastoppedschool

37 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

busonanyroad.Louisianaalsoenactedlegislationrequiringthatdriversstopforschoolbusesonroadswithonelaneineachdirectionandadedicatedturnlaneinthemiddle.Mississippiclarifiedwhenvehi-clesdonothavetostopforastoppedschoolbus,specificallywhenonadividedhighwaywithatleasttwolanesoftrafficineachdirection.

Student Safety Inside and Outside of BusesCarsthatillegallypassschoolbusesaren’ttheonlybus-relateddangertochildren.Statelegislationhasalsobeenpassedtoprotectchildreninotherways.

In2003,atoddlerwaskilledinNewJerseywhenshewashitwhilestandinginfrontofaschoolbus.Be-causethechildwassmall,thebusdriverwasunabletoseeherandwasn’tawarethatshewasinfrontofthebus.Thisyear,NewJerseyenacted“Abigail’sLaw,”requiringnewschoolbusestohavemotionsensorsonthefrontandbackofthebustodetectthepresenceofpeopleandobjects.

Statesarealsoconcernedwithprotectingchildrenwhileonschoolbuses.Therehavebeenahandfulofnewsstoriesregardingchildrenbeingleftonschoolbusesafterthedriverhasleftthebus.Californiapassedanewlawthisyearrequiringthatschooltransportationsafetyplansincludeprocedurestoensurethatchildrenarenotleftunattendedonschoolbuses.Thelawalsorequiresthat,beginninginthe2018schoolyear,allnewbusesbeequippedwitha“childsafetyalertsystem”thatrequiresthebusdrivertogotothebackofthebusandmanuallyconfirmthatnochildrenareleftonthebus,ensuringthataninspectionofthebuswascompleted.

Seat Belts on School BusesSchoolbusesarethesafestformoftransportationtoschoolforchildren.NHTSAhasmandatedanumberofsafetystandardsthatmustbemetforschoolbusesinordertoensurethisremainsthecase.Thosesafetystandardsdonotincludearequirementthatschoolbuseshaveseatbeltsforthepassengersonthebus.However,inNovember2015,NHTSAAdministratorMarkRosekindannouncedthat“NHTSA’spolicyisthateveryschoolbusshouldhaveathree-pointseatbelt,”andindicatedthat“NHTSAwillseektouseallthetoolsatourdisposaltohelpachievethatgoal...”

California,Florida,Louisiana,NewJersey,NewYork,andTexashavepassedsomevariationofaseatbeltlawforschoolbuses.In2016,another10states–Arizona,Connecticut,Hawaii,Indiana,Maryland,Massachusetts,Oklahoma,RhodeIsland,SouthCarolinaandWestVirginia–consideredlegislationthatwouldhaverequiredtheinstallationofseatbeltsonschoolbuses.Noneofthesebillswereenacted.In-dianaadoptedaresolutionurgingthelegislativecounciltostudythetopicofseatbeltsonschoolbuses.FollowingRosekind’sannouncementlastyearandtheschoolbuscrashinChattanooga,Tenn.thatkilledsixchildreninNovember2016,thisislikelytocontinuetobeatopicofconversationinstatecapitolsaroundthecountry.

School Bus DriversStatesalsopassedlegislationaddressingthetraining,licensingandbehaviorsofschoolbusdrivers.Connecticut’snewlawincreasesthepenaltyforDUIwhendrivingaschoolbus,makingthisanewoffense.Thenewlawincludeslongermandatoryprisonterms,increasedmaximumfinesandalicensesuspensionof45days.Indiana’snewlawallowsadriver’scertificateofcompletionoftheschoolbusdriversafetyeducationtoberevokedincertaininstances,includingwhenthedriverendangersthesafetransportationofstudents.

Georgia’snewlawmodifiesthebanoncellphoneusebyschoolbusdriverstospecifythatphoneuseispermittedifthephoneisusedinawaysimilartoatwo-wayradioinordertocommunicatewithschoolorpublicsafetyofficials.Tennesseeexpandedthestate’sprohibitionofcellphoneusebyschoolbusdrivers,applyingthebantoawiderrangeofportableelectronicdevicesbeyondsimplycellphones.

RhodeIslandpassedalawrequiringthatannualtrainingforschoolbusdriversincludeNHTSA’sschoolbusdriverin-servicetrainingseries.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 38

Pedestrian and Bicyclist SafetyPedestrianandbicyclistfatalitiesbothincreasedsignificantlyin2015accordingtothemostrecentdatafromNHTSA,andhadthemostdeathsforbothgroupsinayearsincethemid-1990’s.

Pedestriandeathsincreasedsignificantlyin2015,from4,910in2014to5,376in2015,apercentagein-creaseof9.5percent.Theoverallfatalitypercentageincreasewas7.2percentin2015.Thiswasthemostpedestrianswholosttheirlivesintrafficcrashessince1996.Pedestriantrafficinjuriesalsoasawlargespikeof7.7percent,anincreaseofaround5,000injuries.

Therewasalargeincreaseinbicyclistdeathsin2015,from729in2014to818in2015,anincreaseof12.2percent.Thisafull5percentagepointshigherthantheoverallfatalitypercentageincreaseof7.2percentin2015andthelargestincreaseforanygroup.Itwasalsothelargestamountofbicyclistdeathssince1995.However,unlikepedestrianinjures,overallbicyclisttrafficinjuriesdiddecline10percent,adecreaseofaround5,000injuries.

Other notable statistics from 2015 pedestrian and bicyclist traffic safety data

Pedestrianandbicyclistdeathsnowmakeup18percentofoveralltrafficfatalitiesintheU.S.,comparedto13percentjustnineyearsagoin2006.Thisdynamicislikelyacombinationofafewfactors,includingincreasedtripsbyfootandbikeandaresurgenceofvehiclemilestraveledbymotorists.

Thepercentageofschoolchildrenwhowalkedtoandfromschoolrespectivelybothincreasedbyaround3percentbetween2007and2013.

Thirtyeightpercentofpedestriansand22percentofbicyclistskilledin2015(overage16)hadaBACof.08orhigher.

Sources: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 2015 Motor Vehicle Crashes Overview and National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Fatalities in the U.S. and Bicycling and Walking in the United States 2016 Benchmarking Report.

State LegislationStatelegislaturescontinuedtotakevariedapproachestoincreasebicyclingandwalkingsafetyin2016.Thesenewlawsincluded:enactingsafebicyclepassing,operationandequipmentlaws;enhancingpenal-tiesforcrashesinvolvingbicyclistsandpedestrians;enactingsafetyandequipmentstandardsforelectricbicyclesandsupportingbicycleandpedestrianinfrastructure.

Safe Bicycle Passing and Bicycle Operation and EquipmentOhiobecamethe27thstatetoestablisha3feetpassingrequirementformotoristswhenovertakingabi-cyclist.Ohio’snewlawrequirestheoperatorofavehicleovertakinganothervehicletopasstotheleftatasafedistance,threefeetorgreater,andtonotagaindrivetotherightuntilsafelyclearoftheovertak-enbicyclist.NorthCarolinacreateda2feetpassingrequirementformotoristsovertakingbicyclists,andalso allowspassinginano-passzoneifamotoristleaves4feetofclearance.Failuretodosocanresultinafineofatleast$200,andatleast$500iftheviolationresultsinpropertydamageorinjurytothebicyclist.NorthCarolina’slawalsoincludesnewlightingrequirementsforthefrontandrearofbicycles. Twostateshavelawsthatgobeyonda3-feetpassinglaw.Pennsylvaniahasa4-feetpassinglaw,whileSouthDakotahasatwo-tieredpassinglawwithathreefeetpassingrequirementonroadswithpostedspeedsof35mphorlessandaminimumofsixfeetseparationforroadswithspeedlimitsgreaterthan35mph.

39 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Figure 6. States with Safe Bicycle Passing Laws

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2-feetpassinglaw;4feetinano-passzone

3-feetminimumpassingdistance

4-feetminimumpassingdistance

General“safedistance”passingrequirements

3feetwhenbelow35mph;6feetwhenabove35mph

Nospecificdistancerequiredforpassing

Source: NCSL, 2016.

Nebraskaeliminatedtherequirementforbicyclestouseabicyclepathifoneisavailableadjacenttoahighwayandalsoclarifiedsomeofitspedestrianandbicyclecrossinglaws.TheIllinoislegislatureclarifiedthatabicyclisthasalltherightsapplicabletoadriverofavehicle,includingthoseregardingavehicle’sright-of-way.

TennesseecreatedaClassCmisdemeanorforoperatingamotorvehiclewithinabicyclelaneandpro-hibitingovertakingorpassinganothervehiclebyusingabicyclelaneorotherportionoftheroadwaysetasidefortheexclusiveuseofbicycles.Connecticutincreasedthepenaltyforfailingtoyieldtoapedestri-anandfailuretoexerciseduecaretoavoidcollidingwithapedestrianorabicyclisttoamaximumfineof$500.

Bicycle and Pedestrian Infrastructure Afewstatesactedtogivefurtherstudyorresourcestobicycleandpedestrianinfrastructureandpro-gramming.NewHampshireestablishedacommitteemadeupoffivelawmakerstostudy,inconjunctionwithmunicipalitiesandthedepartmentoftransportation,thefeasibilityofacompletestreetsprogram.TheWyominglegislaturecreatedataskforcetostudythebenefitsandopportunitiesofbicycleandpedestrianpathwaysandnaturalsurfacetrailsinthestate.PennsylvaniaauthorizedthestatedepartmentoftransportationtodesignandissueaSharetheRoadlicenseplateuponrequestofamotorist.Thereisa$40feefortheSharetheRoadplateinadditiontotheregistrationfee.ProceedsfromthesaleoftheseplatesmustbeusedexclusivelytomaintainPennDOT’scentralofficepositionofBicycleandPedestrianCoordinatorandtofundhighwaybicyclistsignage.

Electric bicycles Statelegislatureshavebeguntograpplewithhowtodifferentiateanddefineelectricbicycles,otherwiseknownas“e-bikes,”andregulatetheiroperationandequipmentstandardsonroadwaysandtrailsintheirrespectivestates.Onechallengeisdistin-guishingbetweenothermotorizedvehiclessuchasscootersandmopedsinresponsetotheburgeoningmarketandinterestine-bikesasacost-effectiveandenvironmen-tallyfriendlytransportationoption.

In2016,fourstates—NorthCarolina,Tennessee,UtahandVermont—enactedlegislationconcerninge-bikes.

TennesseeenactedSB 1705,definingan“electricbicycle”tomean“adeviceuponwhichanypersonmayride,thatisequippedwithtwoorthreewheels,anyofwhichismorethan20inchesindiameter,fullyoperablepedalsforhumanpropulsionandanelectricmotoroflessthan750watts.”

UTSB121included“electricassistedbicycles”underbicyclesandclarifiedthattheydonotqualifyasmopeds,motorassistedscootersandothersimilardevices.

TennesseeandUtahbothjoinedCaliforniaastheonlystateswithathree-tieredclassificationsystemfore-bikesintendedtodiffer-entiatebetweenmodelswithvaryingspeedcapabilities.California,TennesseeandUtah’sclassificationsystemallincludealmostexactlythesamedefininglanguage,aswellassimilarsafetyandoperationrequirements:

Class 1 electric bicycle

A bicycle equipped with a motor that provides assistance only when the rider is pedaling, and that ceases to provide assistance when the bicycle reaches the speed of 20 mph.

Class 2 electric bicycle

A bicycle equipped with a motor that may be used exclusively to propel the bicycle, and that is not capable of providing assistance when the bicycle reaches the speed of 20 mph.

Class 3 electric bicycle

A bicycle equipped with a motor that provides assistance only when the rider is pedaling, and that ceases to provide assistance when the bicycle reaches the speed of 28 mph, and is equipped with a speedometer.

Tennesseerequirestheoperatorandallpassengersofaclassthreeelectricbicycle,regardlessofage,towearprotectiveheadgear,whileUtahrequiresonlyariderunderage18towearprotectiveheadgear.

TennesseeandUtahbothexemptane-bikefromregistration,licen-sure,andinsurancerequirements,anotherkeywaylegislaturesaredifferentiatingbetweene-bikesandothermotorizedvehiclessuchasmopedsandscooters.Theyalsorequireane-biketobeaffixedwithalabelthatstatestheclassificationnumber,top-assistedspeedandmotorwattage.

TennesseeandUtahdodifferwithregardstoagerestrictionstoop-erateane-bike.InUtah,anindividualundertheageof16maynotoperateaClass3electricbicycle;theagelimitis14inTennessee.InUtah,thoseunderage14maynotoperateanyelectricbicyclewiththeelectricmotorengagedonanypublicproperty,highway,path,orsidewalkunlessunderthesupervisionoftheindividual’sparentorguardian.Additionally,inUtah,thoseunderageeightmaynotoperateanelectricbicyclewiththeelectricmotorengagedonanypublicproperty,highway,path,orsidewalk.

Additionally,NorthCarolinaandVermontenactedlawsregardinge-bikesin2016.TheNorthCarolinalegislaturedefinedan“electricassistedbicycle”as“abicyclewithtwoorthreewheelsthatisequippedwithaseatorsaddleforusebytherider,fullyoperablepedalsforhumanpropulsion,andanelectricmotorofnomorethan750watts,whosemaximumspeedonalevelsurfacewhenpoweredsolelybysuchamotorisnogreaterthan20milesperhour.”

Vermontdefineda“motor-assistedbicycle”asabicycleortricyclewithpedalsandmotorwithoutputofnotmorethan1,000wattsandatopspeedof20mphfora170-poundperson.Thenewlawspecifiesthattheyaregovernedasbicyclesandsubjecttothesamerightsanddutiesofbicyclists.Operationonsidewalksisprohibitedandnooneundertheageof16mayoperateamotor-assistedbi-cycleonahighway.Motor-assistedbicyclesandtheiroperatorsareexemptfrommotorvehicleregistrationandinspectionandlicenserequirements.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 40

41 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

TheMichiganLegislature,attherequestoftheChairoftheCompleteStreetsAdvisoryCouncil,dissolvedthe Councilin2016.TheChairindicatedthatthetwoprimarychargestothecouncil,to“provideeduca-tionandadvicetothestatetransportationcommission,countyroadcommissions,municipalities,interestgroups,andthepubliconthedevelopment,implementation,andcoordinationofcompletestreetspolicies”andto“advisethestatetransportationcommissionontheadoptionofmodelpolicies…”hadbeenaccomplished.

Federal ActionTherewereafewsignificantactionsregardingbicyclistandpedestriansafetybythefederalgovernmentin2016.Perhapsmostnotably,anewFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)safetyperformance measurerulerequiresstatestotrackandworktowardsreducingbicyclistsandpedestriantrafficinjuriesanddeaths.Statesmustnowlookattheirfive-yearrollingaveragesforthenumberofnon-motorizedfa-talitiesandnon-motorizedseriousinjuriesandthensettargetsforimprovement.StatesthatfailtomeetormakesignificantprogresstowardstheirgoalswillhavetospendmoreHighwaySafetyImprovementProgram(HSIP)fundsonbicycleandpedestriansafety.

NHTSAcreatedanewquietcarsafetystandardfornewhybridandelectriclight-dutyvehiclesbyrequiringthemtomakeaudiblenoiseinordertoenablepedestriansandbicycliststodetectthepresenceofsuchvehicles.

D.C. addresses street safety

TheDistrictofColumbiaenactedalawthatmadeanumberofsignificantadditionsandchangestotheirexistingbicycleandpedestriansafetylawsandprogramsin2016.D.C.requiredtheDistrictDepartmentofTransportation(DDOT)todesignatecorridorsas“PriorityAreas”,takingintoaccountfactorssuchasusebybicyclistsandpedestrians,frequencyandseverityofcolli-sionsinvolvingapedestrianorbicyclistandothersafetydata.PriorityareadesignationsmustlastforatleastfiveyearsandtheremustbeanannualreportcatalogingwhyeachPriorityAreawasselected;asummaryoftheimprovementsmadeinthepreviousyeartoeachPriorityArea,includingtheuseofautomatedtrafficenforcement,trafficcontrolofficers,temporarytrafficsafetyimprovementsandlong-termmodificationsandadescriptionofDDOTrecommendedmodificationstotrafficpatternsandinfrastructuresuchasreducedspeedlimitsandtheinstalla-tionofprotectedbicycleinfrastructure.

ThelawdirectsDDOTtocreateaCompleteStreetspolicy,incorporatingitintoexistingplanningprocessesandrequiringanannualreportfromDDOTtotheCouncil.Thenewlawalsorequiresthemonthlypublicationoftrafficsafetydata,includingonbicycleandpedestrianinjuriesandfatalitiesanddetailssuchaslocation,timeofdayandcontributinghumanfactorsthatledtothecrash.

Thelawalsomandatedthemayordevelopauniversalstreetsafetyeducationcurriculumforchildreninthefirstthroughfifthgradesregardingthesafeuseofpublicstreetsandbypedestri-ansandbicyclists.

Lastly,thelawalsorequiredallheavy-dutyvehiclesregisteredintheDistrictbeequippedwithblind-spotmirrorsorablind-spotcamerasystemandreflectiveblind-spotwarningstickers.Furthermore,effectiveJanuary1,2019,allheavy-dutyvehiclesregisteredintheDistrictmustbeequippedwithside-guardstopreventbicyclists,othervehiclesorpedestriansfromslidingunderrearwheels.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 42

Slow and Medium Speed VehiclesState LegislationIn2016,atleast17statesconsideredlegislationrelatedtoslowandmedium-speedvehicles,with12billsenacted in 11 states.

Fivebillswerepassedaddressinggolfcarts.AlabamapassedabillproposinganamendmenttothestateconstitutionthatwouldpermitBaldwinCountytoallowtheoperationofgolfcartsonpublicroadsinthecountywherethespeedlimitisunder25mph.Thebillspecifiesthatthecartscanonlybeoperatedduringdaylight,theoperatormusthaveadriver’slicenseandthatthegolfcartmusthavecertainequip-ment,suchasawindshieldandbrakelights.Louisiananowallowsoperationofgolfcartswithinacertainstateparkduringdaylightiftheoperatorhasadriver’slicenseandinsurance.Similarly,MarylandrequiresgolfcartoperatorsinthecityofCrisfieldtooperateonlyduringthedayandtopossessadriver’slicense.SouthCarolinanowallowscertainlocalitiestopermitgolfcartoperationatnight.

Twostatesenactedtwobillsaddressingmopeds.Hawaiinowrequiresannualregistrationandinspectionofmopeds.Theannualregistrationfeeissetat$27.NorthCarolinaclarifiedthedefinitionofmopedtoincludethosepoweredbyelectricityoralternativefuel.LegislationwasvetoedinSouthCarolinathatwouldhavedevelopedanumberofregulationsformopeds,includingregistrationandlicensingrequire-mentsaswellasoperationallimitations.

Georgiaenactedlegislationaddressingfarmvehicles,includingall-terrainvehiclesbeingusedforfarmpurposes.Thelegislationauthorizesthesevehiclesonpublicroadsiftheyhavetheproperemblemandarebeingusedforcertainpurposes.Italsoallowslocalitiestolimitwherethefarmvehiclescanbeoper-atedonpublicroads.

Tennesseeenactedlegislationdefiningall-terrainvehiclesandoff-highwayvehiclesandrequiringregistra-tionofthesevehicles.Thelawalsospecifieswherethevehiclescanbeoperatedandrequiredequipmentifcertainclassesofoff-highwayvehiclesaregoingtobeoperatedoncountyroads.Thelawrequirestheoperatorbeatleast16yearsoldwithavaliddriver’slicense.Tennesseealsoenactedanewlawrequiringthatmediumspeedvehicles,meaningthosethathaveatopspeedbetween30and35mph,onlybeoperatedonstreetswithaspeedlimitof40mphorless.

Virginiamodifiedthedefinitionoflow-speedvehicletoclarifythatavehiclemaybeelectricallypoweredorgas-powered.Washingtonallowsneighborhoodelectricvehiclesandmedium-speedelectricvehiclesonstatehighwayswithspeedlimitsof30mphorless.

Links for Further InformationAAA Foundation for Traffic Safety www.aaafoundation.orgAmerican Institute for Public Safety www.aipsnews.comAmerican Motorcyclist Association www.amadirectlink.comFederal Highway Administration www.fwha.dot.govGovernors Highway Safety Association www.ghsa.orgInsurance Institute for Highway Safety www.iihs.orgMotorcycle Riders Foundation www.mrf.orgMotorcycle Safety Foundation www.msf-usa.org

NCSL/NHTSA Traffic Safety Legislative Tracking www.ncsl.org/research/transportation/ state-traffic-safety-legislation-database.aspx

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) www.nhtsa.gov

National Transportation Safety Board www.ntsb.govTraffic Injury Research Foundation www.trafficinjuryresearch.comU.S Department of Transportation www.dot.gov

43 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Appendix A National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Regional Offices

New England Region (Region 1) (Conn.,Maine,Mass.,N.H.,R.I.,Vt.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA VolpeNationalTransportationSystemsCenter KendallSquare,Code8E 55Broadway Cambridge,MA02142 Phone:(617)494-3427 Fax:(617)494-3646 Region1@dot.gov

Eastern Region (Region 2) (N.Y.,N.J.,Pa.,P.R.,V.I.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA 245MainSt.,Suite210 WhitePlains,NY10601 Phone:(914)682-6162 Fax:(914)682-6239 Region2@dot.gov

Mid-Atlantic Region (Region 3) (Del.,D.C.,Ky.,Md.,N.C.Va.,W.Va.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA 10S.HowardSt.,Suite6700 Baltimore,MD21201 Phone:(410)962-0090 Fax:(410)962-2770 Region3@dot.gov

Southeast Region (Region 4) (Ala.,Fla.,Ga.,S.C.,Tenn.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA AtlantaFederalCenter 61ForsythSt.,S.W. Atlanta,GA30303 Phone:(404)562-3739 Fax:(404)562-3763 Region4@dot.gov

Great Lakes Region (Region 5) (Ill.,Ind.,Mich.,Minn.,Ohio,Wis.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA 4749LincolnMallDrive,Suite300B Matteson,IL60443-3800 Phone(708)503-8822 Fax(708)503-8991 Region5@dot.gov

South Central Region (Region 6) (La.,Miss.,N.M.,Okla.,Texas,IndianNations) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA 819TaylorSt.,Room8A38 FortWorth,TX76102 Phone:(817)978-3653 Fax:(817)978-8339 Region6@dot.gov

Central Region (Region 7) (Ark., Iowa, Kan., Mo., Neb.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA 901LocustSt.,Room466 KansasCity,MO64106 Phone:(816)329-3900 Fax:(816)329-3910 Region7@dot.gov

Rocky Mountain Region (Region 8) (Colo.,Nev.,N.D.,S.D.,Utah,Wyo.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA 12300WestDakotaAve.,Suite140 Lakewood,CO80228 Phone:(720)963-3100 Fax:(720)963-3124 Region8@dot.gov

Western Region (Region 9) (Ariz.,Calif.,Hawaii,AmericanSamoa, Guam,N.MarianaIslands) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA JohnE.MossFederalBuilding 650CapitolMall,Suite5-400 SanFrancisco,CA95814 Phone:(916)498-5058 Region9@dot.gov

Northwest Region (Region 10) (Alaska,Idaho,Mon.,Ore.,Wash.) RegionalAdministrator,NHTSA 3140JacksonFederalBuilding 915SecondAve. Seattle,WA98174 Phone:(206)220-7640 Fax:(206)220-7651 Region10@dot.gov

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 44

Appendix BSafety Belt Laws 2016

State/ Jurisdiction

Primary Enforcement Who Is Covered? In What Seats? Maximum Fine First Offense?

Alabama Yes Ages15+infrontseat $25Alaska Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $15

Arizona No Ages8+infrontseat;ages8through15inall seats

$10

Arkansas Yes Ages15+infrontseat $251(pluscourtcostsandcity/countyjailfines)

California Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $20($20fine+$142inpenaltiesandassess-ments)

ColoradoNo(primaryfor

occupants underage18)

Ages16+infrontseat$71

Connecticut Yes Ages7+infrontseatAges18andyounger:$92($50fine+$7fee+$35surcharge);ages18+:$120($75fine+$10fee+$35surcharge)

Delaware Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $25

Florida Yes Ages6+infrontseat;ages6through17inall seats

$30

Georgia Yes Ages8through17inallseats;ages18+infrontseat

$153

Hawaii Yes Ages 8+ in all seats $112(includingadministrativefees)

IdahoNo(primaryfor

drivers underage18)

Ages 7+ in all seats$10(driversunder18pay$51.50,includingcourtcosts)

Illinois Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $25(pluscourtfees)Indiana Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $25Iowa Yes Ages18+infrontseat $127.50(includingcourtcosts)

Kansas

Yes(secondary forrearseat

occupantsyoung-erthanage18)

Ages14+inallseats

Ages1-17:$60;Ages18+:$10

Kentucky Yes Ages7andyoungerandmorethan57”inallseats;ages8+inallseats

$25

Louisiana Yes Ages 13+ in all seats $25Maine Yes Ages 18+ in all seats $50

MarylandYes

(secondaryforrearseats)

Ages 16+ in all seats$83(finepluscourtcosts)

Massachusetts No Ages 13+ in all seats $254

Michigan Yes Ages16+infrontseat $25

Minnesota Yes Ages7andyoungerandmorethan57”inallseats;ages8+inallseats

$25(plusapprox.$75courtfee)

Mississippi Yes Ages7+infrontseat $25

45 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction

Primary Enforcement Who Is Covered? In What Seats? Maximum Fine First Offense?

Missouri

No(primaryforchildren

ages 16 and younger)

Ages16+infrontseat

Ages8through15inallseats:$50;ages16andyoungerinfrontseats:$10

Montana No Ages 6+ in all seats $20Nebraska No Ages18+infrontseat $25Nevada No Ages 6+ in all seats $25NewHampshire Nolaw Nolaw Nolaw

NewJersey

Yes (secondaryforrearseatoccu-

pants)

Ages7andyoungerandmorethan57”;ages 8+ in all seats

$46(includingcourtcosts)

NewMexico Yes Ages 18+ in all seats $252

NewYork Yes Ages16+infrontseat $505

NorthCarolina

Yes (secondaryforrearseatoccu-

pants)

Ages 16+ in all seats

$25+$135.50incourtcosts;$10+nocourtcostsforrearseats

NorthDakota No Ages18+infrontseat $20

Ohio No Ages8through14inallseats;ages15+infrontseat

$30driver;$20passenger

Oklahoma Yes Ages9+infrontseat $20Oregon Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $130

PennsylvaniaNo(primary

forages18andyounger)

Ages8through17inallseats;ages18+infrontseat

$10

RhodeIsland Yes Ages 18+ in all seats $40SouthCarolina Yes6 Ages 6+ in all seats $25SouthDakota No Ages18+infrontseat $25Tennessee Yes Ages16+infrontseat $25

Texas Yes Ages7andyoungerandmorethan57”;ages 8+ in all seats

Ages15andyoungerorpassenger:$50;ages18+$200driver

Utah Yes8 Ages 16+ in all seats $45Vermont No Ages 18+ in all seats $25Virginia No Ages18+infrontseat $25Washington Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $124

WestVirginia Yes Ages8+infrontseat;ages8through17inall seats

$25

Wisconsin Yes Ages 8+ in all seats $10Wyoming No Ages 9+ in all seats $257driver;$10passenger

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 46

State/ Jurisdiction

Primary Enforcement Who Is Covered? In What Seats? Maximum Fine First Offense?

District ofColumbia Yes Ages 16+ in all seats $502

PuertoRico Yes Ages9+orchildrentallerthan57” $50U.S. VirginIslands Yes Allagesinfrontseat $25-$250

Notes:1 Arkansasrewardsbeltusebyreducingthefinefortheprimaryviolationby$10.2 Thisjurisdictionassessespointsforviolations.3 InGeorgia,themaximumfineis$25ifthechildisbetweentheagesof6and18.4 DriversinMassachusettscanbefined$25forviolatingthebeltlawthemselvesand$25foreachunrestrainedpassengerage12to16.5 NewYorkassessespointsonlywhentheviolationinvolvesachildunderage16.6 PoliceareprohibitedinSouthCarolinafromenforcingsafetybeltlawsatcheckpointsnotdesigned forthatpurpose.However,safetybeltviolationsmaybeissuedatlicenseandregistration checkpointstodriverscitedforotheroffenses.7 Wyomingrewardsbeltusebyreducingthefinefortheprimaryviolationby$10.8 Utahhasenactedathree-yearpilotprogrampermittingpeaceofficerstoissuecitationsonlyifthe personhasbeenpreviouslyissuedawarningthattheoperationoforbeingapassengerinavehicle withoutwearingaproperlyadjustedandfastenedsafetybeltisprohibited,effective5/12/2015- 7/1/2018.

Sources: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2016; Governors Highway Safety Association, 2016.

47 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Appendix CState Laws on Child Restraint Use 2016

State/ Jurisdiction Must Be in Child Restraint Adult Safety Belt Permissible

Maximum Fine First Offense

Alabama14

Youngerthanage1orlessthan20poundsmustbeinarear-facinginfantseat;ages1through4or20-40poundsinaforward-fac-ingchildrestraint;age5butnotyetage6inaboosterseat

Ages6through14;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $251

Alaska

Childrenyoungerthanage1orlessthan20poundsinarear-facinginfantseat;ages1through3andmorethan20poundsinachildrestraint;ages4through15whoareeithershorterthan57”orwhoweighmorethan20poundsbutlessthan65poundsinaboosterseat

Ages4through7whoareatleast57”or65+pounds;ages7through15whoareshorterthan57”orweighlessthan65pounds;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$501

Arizona Ages4andyounger;ages5through7whoare57”orshorter

Ages5through7whoaretallerthan57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $50

Arkansas14 Ages5andyoungerandlessthan60pounds Ages6through14or60+pounds;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $100

California

Youngerthanage2andlessthan40poundsandlessthan40”inarear-facinginfantseat(effective01/01/2017);ages7andyoungerwhoarelessthan57”2

Ages8through15oratleast57”;ages7andyoungerwhoarelessthan57”mustbeinrear seat

$1001

Colorado

Youngerthanage1andlessthan20poundsinarear-facinginfantseat;ages1through3and20-40poundsinachildsafetyseat;ages4through7inaboosterseat

Ages8through15;childrenage1andyoung-erandlessthan20poundsmustbeinrearseatifavailable

$82

Connecticut

Youngerthanage1orlessthan20poundsinrear-facingrestraint;ages1through6andlessthan60poundsinachildrestraintsystem(boosterseatscanbeusedonlyinaseatingpositionthathasalapandshoulderbelt)

Ages7through15and60+pounds;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $923

Delaware Ages7andyoungerandlessthan66pounds4Ages8through15or66+pounds;4childrenages11andyoungerand65”orlessmustbeinrearseatifpassengerairbagisactive

$25

Florida Ages5andyounger Notpermissible;5lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat $601

Georgia Ages7andyoungerand57”orlessinrearsearifavailable

Morethan57”;childrenage7andyoungermustbeinrearseatifavailable6 $501

HawaiiAges3andyoungerinachildsafetyseat;ages4through7mustbeinaboosterseatorchild restraint

Ages4through7whoaretallerthan4’9”;ages4through7whoareatleast40poundsseatedinarearseatwhere,iftherearenoavailablelap/shoulderbelts,theycanberestrainedbyalapbelt;lawstatesnoprefer-enceforrearseat

$1007

Idaho Ages6andyounger Notpermissible;lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat $79

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 48

State/ Jurisdiction Must Be in Child Restraint Adult Safety Belt Permissible

Maximum Fine First Offense

Illinois Ages7andyounger

Ages8through15;childrenwhoweighmorethan40poundsseatedinrearwhereonlyalapbeltisavailable;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$75($200forsubsequentoffenses)

Indiana Ages7andyounger8 Ages8through15;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $251

IowaYoungerthanage1andlessthan20poundsinarear-facingseat;ages1through5inachildrestraintorbooster

Ages6through17;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$195(includingcourtcosts)

Kansas

Allchildrenages3andyoungermustbeinachildrestraint;childrenages4through7whoweighlessthan80poundsandchildrenages4through7whoarelessthan57”mustbeinachildrestraintorboosterseat

Allchildrenages8through13;childrenages4through7whoweighmorethan80pounds;childrenages4through7whoaretallerthan57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$60

KentuckyChildren40”orlessmustbeinachildre-straint;ages7andyoungerwhoarebetween40”and57”mustbeinaboosterseat

Ages6andyoungerwhoaretallerthan57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$50childrestraint;$30boosterseat

Louisiana

Youngerthanage1orlessthan20poundsinarear-facingchildsafetyseat;ages1through3or20-39poundsinaforward-facingsafetyseat;ages4through5or40-60poundsinachildboosterseat

Ages6through12ormorethan60pounds;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $100

MaineLessthan40poundsinachildsafetyseat;40-80poundsandyoungerthanage8inachildrestraintorboosterseat

Ages8through17oryoungerthanage18andmorethan4’9”;ages11andyoungerandlessthan100poundsmustbeinrearseatifavailable

$50($250forsubsequentoffenses)

Maryland Ages7andyoungerandlessthan57” Ages8through15;childrenwhoareatleast57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $50

Massachusetts Ages7andyoungerandlessthan57” Ages8through12;childrenwhoareatleast57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $25

Michigan Ages7andyoungerandlessthan57”Ages8through15orchildrenwhoareatleast57”;ages3andyoungermustbeintherearseatifavailable

$10ifchildisage4oryoung-er;$25ifchildisbetweenages4through8andunder4’9”

Minnesota Ages7andyoungerandlessthan57” Notpermissible $50

Mississippi14Ages3andyoungermustbeinachildrestraint;ages4through6andeitherlessthan57”orlessthan65poundsmustbeinaboosterseat

Ages 6 and older who weigh more than 65 poundsorareatleast57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$25

49 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction Must Be in Child Restraint Adult Safety Belt Permissible

Maximum Fine First Offense

Missouri

Ages3andyoungermustbeinchildrestraint;allchildrenwhoweighlessthan40poundsmustbeinachildrestraint;ages4through7whoweighatleast40poundsbutlessthan80poundsandwhoare4’9”orshortermustbeineitherachildrestraintorboosterseat;childrenages4andolderwhoweighatleast80poundsorwhoareatleast4’9”mustbeineitheraboosterseatorsafetybelt

Allchildrenages8through16;allchildrenages4andolderwhoweigh80poundsormoreorwhoaretallerthan4’9”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$50;$10forvi-olationsinvolv-ing children tallerthan4’9”or who weigh more than 80 pounds

Montana Youngerthanage5andlessthan60pounds Notpermissible;lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat $100

Nebraska Ages5andyounger Ages6through17;9lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $251

Nevada Ages5andyoungerand60poundsorless Notpermissible;lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat

$50010($100minimum)

New Hampshire Ages6andyoungerandlessthan57”Ages7through17;ages7andyoungerwhoareatleast57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat

$50

New Jersey

Youngerthanage2andlessthan30poundsinarear-facinginfantseat;ages4andyoung-erwhoarelessthan40poundsinarear-fac-ingchildseatuntilthechildoutgrowsthemanufacturer’smaximumheightorweightrecommendationsorinaforward-facingchildsafetyseat;ages8andyoungerandlessthan57”,seatedinforward-facingchildseatuntilchildoutgrowsthemanufacturer’smaximumheightorweightrecommendationsoraboosterseat

Notpermissible;childrenages7andyoungerwhoarelessthan57”mustbeintherearseatifavailable;nochildshallbesecuredinarear-facingchildrestraintinthefrontseatofanyvehiclethatisequippedwithanactivepassenger-sideairbag

$75

New Mexico

Youngerthanage1inarear-facinginfantseat,seatedintherearseatifavailable;chil-drenages1through4orlessthan40poundsinachildsafetyseat;ages5through6orlessthan60poundsinboosterseat

Ages7through17 $25

New York

Ages3andyoungerunlessachildweighsmorethan40poundsandisseatedwherethereisnoavailablelap/shoulderbelt;ages4through7unlessachildisseatedwherethereisnoavailablelap/shoulderbelt

Ages8through15;childrenwhoweigh40poundsormore;childrenages4through7inaseatingpositionwherethereisnoavailablelap/shoulderbelt;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$1001

North Carolina Ages7andyoungerandlessthan80pounds

Ages8through15andchildren40-80poundsinseatswithoutshoulderbelts;childrenages4andyoungerwhoweighlessthan40poundsmustbeintherearseatunlessthefrontpassenger-sideairbagisdeactivatedorthechildsafetyseatisdesignedforusewithairbags

$251($188courtfees)

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 50

State/ Jurisdiction Must Be in Child Restraint Adult Safety Belt Permissible

Maximum Fine First Offense

North Dakota Ages6andyoungerandlessthan57”orlessthan80pounds

Ages7through17;ages6andyoungerandatleast57”andatleast80pounds;ages6andyoungerandatleast40pounds;ifnolap/shoulderbeltisavailable,canberestrainedbylapbeltonly;lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat

$251

Ohio14

Ages3andyoungerorlessthan40poundsinchildrestraint;ages4through7whoweighmorethan40poundsandareshorterthan57”mustbeinboosterseat

Ages8through14;11lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $751

Oklahoma14

Youngerthanage2oruntilachildoutgrowsthemanufacturer’smaximumheightandweightrecommendationsinarear-facingchildrestraint;childrenages4andyoungerinachildrestraint;ages4through7,iflessthan4’9”,inachildrestraintorboosterseat12

Age8;childrenwhoaretallerthan4’9”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$50(maximum$207.90withcourtfees)

Oregon

Childyoungerthanage1regardlessofweightor20poundsorlessmustbeinarear-facingchildsafetyseat;ages7oryoungerwhoare40poundsorlessmustbeinchildsafetyseat;morethan40poundsbut4’9”orlessmustbeinaboosterseat

Ages8through15;childrentallerthan4’9”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $110

Pennsylvania Ages7andyounger Notpermissible;lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat $75

Rhode IslandAges7andyoungerandlessthan57”andlessthan80pounds;childrenages7andyoungermustbeinrearseatifavailable

Ages8through17;ages7andyoungerwhoeitherweighmorethan80poundsorwhoaretallerthan57”;childrenage7andyoung-ermustbeinrearseatifavailable

$85;$40forchildrenbe-tween ages 8 through17

South Carolina

Youngerthanage1orlessthan20poundsinarear-facinginfantseat;ages1through5and20-39poundsinaforward-facingchildsafetyseat;ages1through5and40-80poundsinaboosterseatsecuredbylap-shoulderbelt

Ages1through5andmorethan80poundsoranychildage5andyoungerifthechild’skneesbendovertheseatedgewhensittingupstraightwithhis/herbackfirmlyagainsttheseatback;childrenages4andyoungermustbeinrearseatifavailable

$150

South Dakota Ages4andyoungerandlessthan40poundsAges5through17;allchildrenwhoweighmorethan40poundsregardlessofage;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat

$25

Tennessee

Youngerthanage1orlessthan20poundsinarear-facinginfantseat;ages1through3whoweighmorethan20poundsinafor-ward-facinginfantseat;ages4through8andlessthan4’9”inaboosterseat

Ages9through15;ages12andyoungerand4’9”ormore;childrenage8andyoungerandlessthan4’9”mustbeinarearseatifavailable

$50

Texas Ages7andyoungerandlessthan57” Notpermissible;lawstatesnopreferenceforrear seat

$25minimum(maximumunlisted)

Utah Ages7andyoungerandlessthan57” Ages8through15;childrentallerthan57”;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $45

51 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction Must Be in Child Restraint Adult Safety Belt Permissible

Maximum Fine First Offense

Vermont

Youngerthanage1orlessthan20poundsinarear-facinginfantseat;ages1through7andmorethan20poundsinchildrestraintorboosterseat

Ages8through17andmorethan20pounds;childrenage1andyoungerorlessthan20poundsmustbeinrear-facingseatunlessthefrontpassenger-sideairbagisdeactivated

$25

Virginia Ages7andyounger

Ages8through17;13childreninrear-facingdevicesmustbeinarearseatifavailable;ifarearseatisnotavailable,thenchildrenmaybeplacedinfrontseatonlyifpassenger-sideairbagisdeactivated

$50

Washington Ages7andyoungerandlessthan4’9”

Ages8through15;ages7andyoungerand4’9”ortaller;childrenwhoweighmorethan40poundsinaseatingpositionwhereonlyalapbeltisavailable;ages12andyoungermustbeinrearseatifpractical

$124

West Virginia Ages7andyoungerandlessthan4’9” Ages7andyoungerand4’9”ortaller;lawstatesnopreferenceforrearseat $20

Wisconsin

Childrenyoungerthanage1andallchildrenwhoweighlessthan20poundsmustbeinarear-facinginfantseat;ages1through3whoweighatleast20poundsbutlessthan40poundsmustbeinaforward-facingchildsafetyseat;childrenages4through7whoweighatleast40poundsbutlessthan80poundsandwhoarelessthan57”tallmustbeinaforwardfacingchildrestraintorboost-er seat

Ages8andyoungerandmorethan80poundsand57”ortaller;ages3andyoungermustbeinarearseat,ifavailable

$173.50if passengerisage4or younger;$150.10if passenger isage4through8

Wyoming Ages8andyounger Notpermissible;ages8andyoungermustbeinrearseat,ifavailable $50

District of Columbia Ages7andyounger Ages8through15;lawstatesnopreference

forrearseat $751

Puerto Rico

Ages4andyoungermustbeinachildsafetyseat;childrenages4through8orlessthan57”mustbeinaboosterseat;childrenyoungerthanage12mustbeinarearseat

Ages9andolderor57”ortaller $100

U.S. Virgin Islands Ages5andyounger Childrenages3andyounger;lawstatesno

preference $25-$250

Notes:1 Thisstateassessespointsforviolations.2 InCalifornia,childrenweighingmorethan40poundsmaybebeltedwithoutaboosterseatiftheyareseatedintherearseatofa vehiclenotequippedwithlap/shoulderbelts.TheCaliforniarearseatrequirementdoesnotapplyif:thereisnorearseat;therear seatsareside-facingjumpseats;therearseatsarerear-facingseats;thechildpassengerrestraintsystemcannotbeinstalledproperly intherearseat;allrearseatsarealreadyoccupiedbychildrenunderage12;ormedicalreasonsnecessitatethatthechildnotridein therearseat.Achildmaynotrideinthefrontseatofamotorvehiclewithanactivepassengerairbagifthechildisridinginarear facingchildrestraintsystem.3 ThefineinConnecticutis$15ifthechildisage4to16and40poundsormore.Connecticutalsorequiresachildrestrainteducation programforfirstorsecondviolations.4 InDelaware,childrenyoungerthanage12or65”orlessmustberestrainedinarearseatifavehiclehasapassengerairbag,unlessthe airbageitherhasbeendeactivatedordesignedtoaccommodatesmallerpeople.Exceptions:Ifthereisnorearseatorrearseatis occupiedbyotherchildrenyoungerthanage12or65”orless.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 52

5 InFlorida,thechildrestraintdevicerequirementdoesnotapplytochildrenages4through5,whenasafetybeltisusedandthechild iseitherbeingtransportedbyanoperatorwhoisnotamemberofthechild’simmediatefamily,inanemergencyorhasadocumented medicalconditionthatnecessitatesanexception.6 InGeorgia,childrenweighingmorethan40poundscanberestrainedinthebackseatofavehiclebyalapbeltifthevehicleisnot equippedwithlapandshoulderbeltsorwhenthelapandshoulderbeltsarebeingusedbyotherchildrenwhoweighmorethan40 pounds7 Hawaiidriversarecharged$50foramandatorychildrestrainteducationprogramand$10forasurchargethatisdepositedintoa neurotraumaspecialfund.8 InIndiana,childrenweighingmorethan40poundscanberestrainedbyalapbeltifthevehicleisnotequippedwithlapandshoulder beltsorifalllapandshoulderbeltsotherthanthoseinthefrontseatarebeingusedtorestrainotherchildrenwhoareyoungerthan age 16.9 Nebraska’slawissecondaryforthosechildrenwhomaybeinsafetybeltsandstandardforthosewhomustbeinachildrestraint device.10 InNevada,theminimumfineis$100.Analternativetothefineisatleast10hoursbutnotmorethan50hoursofcommunityservice.11 InOhio,thelawissecondaryforchildrenages4through14.12 InOklahoma,childrenweighingmorethan40poundscanberestrainedinthebackseatofavehiclebyalapbeltifthevehicleisnot equippedwithlapandshoulderbeltsorwhenthelapandshoulderbeltsarebeingusedbyotherchildrenwhoweighmorethan40 pounds13 InVirginia,childrenatleastage4butyoungerthanage8maybebeltedifanylicensedphysiciandeterminesthatuseofachild restraintsystembyaparticularchildwouldbeimpracticalbyreasonofthechild’sweight,physicalfitnessorothermedicalreason, providedthatanypersontransportingachildsoexemptedshallcarryonhispersonorinthevehicleasignedwrittenstatementofthe physicianidentifyingthechildsoexemptedandstatingthegroundsforthedetermination.14 InArkansas,AlabamaandOhio,15-year-oldsridingintherearseat;inMississippi,childrenages7andolderridingintherearseat;and inOklahoma,childrenages13through15ridingintherearseatarenotcoveredbyeitheradultsafetybeltlawsorchildsafety seat laws.

Sources: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, AAA and NCSL, 2016.

53 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Appendix DRestrictions on Riding in Cargo Areas of Pickup Trucks

State/ Jurisdiction Restrictions in Cargo Areas Gaps in CoverageAlabama NostatelawAlaska NostatelawArizona Nostatelaw

Arkansas Law1 Employeesonduty;thoseridingwithintruckbodiesinaspaceintendedformerchan-dise

California LawIfthepersonisrestrainedbyafederallyapprovedrestraintsystem;farmer-ownedvehicleusedexclusivelywithinfarminglandoronemileofhighwaybetweenoneparttoanother;paradeifnotmorethan8mph;emergencysituations

Colorado Law Thosesittinginthecargoareaifitisfullyorpartiallyenclosedonallfoursides

Connecticut Law Anyoneage16andolder;anyoneage15andyoungerifbelted;parades;farmingoperations;hayridesAugustthroughDecember

Delaware Nostatelaw

Florida Law

Anyoneage18andolder;anyoneage17andyoungerinenclosedcargoarea;anyoneage17andyoungeronnon-limitedaccessroadsunlesslocallawexemptsthemfromtheprohibitiononminorsridingthecargoareasofpickuptrucksandflatbeds;anyoneage17andyoungeronnon-limited-accessroadsinaseatfittedwithasafetybeltthathasbeenaddedtothepickuporflatbed;employeesonduty

Georgia Law Anyoneage18andolder;anyoneage17andyoungerinpickuptruckswithcoveredcargoareas;anypickuptruckofftheinterstate

Hawaii Law

Peoplecanrideinbackofpickuptrucksifnoseatsareavailableinthecabandthesideracksandtailgatearesecurelyclosed;thepassengersmustbeseatedonthefloorandmaynotattempttounlatchcargo;parades,employeesonduty;life-threateningemergencies

Idaho NostatelawIllinois NostatelawIndiana NostatelawIowa Nostatelaw

Kansas Law Anyoneage14andolder;parades;employment;doesnotapplytovehiclesnotbeingoperatedonthestatehighwaysystemorwithinthecorporatelimitsofacity

Kentucky Nostatelaw

Louisiana LawAnyoneage12andolderifthetruckisbeingusedonanon-interstatehighway;pa-radesmovinglessthan15mph;emergenciesifthechildiswithanadultinthecargoarea;emergenciesoninterstatehighway

Maine LawAnyoneage19andolder;agriculturalworkersandhuntersage18andyounger;parades;thoseinoriginalequipmentmanufacturer-installedseatsoutsidepassengercompartment

Maryland Law

Anyoneage16andolder;anyoneage15andyoungerifthevehicleistraveling25mphorless;employeesbeingtransportedtoworksitesorthoseengagedinfarmingoperations;exceptionsdonoteliminaterequirementstousechildrestraintsorbelts;notapplicabletopickuptruckswithcoveredcargoareas

Massachusetts Law Anyoneage12andolder;anyoneage11andyoungerifthevehicleisbeingdrivenlessthanfivemilesandlessthan5mph;parades;farmingactivities

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 54

State/ Jurisdiction Restrictions in Cargo Areas Gaps in Coverage

Michigan Law Age18andolder;thoseages17andyoungerifthevehicleismoving15mphorless;parades;militaryvehicles;emergencysituations;farming;construction

Minnesota NostatelawMississippi Nostatelaw

Missouri Law

Anyoneage18andolder;thoseages17andyoungerifthevehicleisnotbeingoperat-edonahighwaythatispartofthestateorfederalhighwaysystemorwithinthecor-poratelimitsofanycity;exceptionsforemployment;agriculturalactivities;parades;wherethereisadevicetokeepthepassengerfrombeingthrownorfallingoutofthevehicle;specialevents;assistingpeopleinarecreationalactivity;family-ownedtruckwithinsufficientroomforallpassengers;notapplicabletopickuptruckswithcoveredcargo areas

Montana NostatelawNebraska Law Anyoneage18orolder;parades

Nevada LawAnyoneage18orolder;thoseyoungerthanage18whenthevehicleisusedinfarmingorranchingorifvehicleisusedinanauthorizedparade;vehiclesoperatedonunpavedroads;thoseinridingareasenclosedbyacampershell

New Hampshire NostatelawNew Jersey Law EmployeesengagedintheirdutiesNew Mexico Law Anyoneage18orolder

New York Law

Notapplicabletotripsoffivemilesorless;notapplicabletotripsofmorethanfivemilesifone-thirdorfewerofthepassengersarestandingorifsuitableseatsarese-curelyattachedandtherearesiderailsandatailgate;notapplicabletotripsofmorethanfivemilesiftherearefewerthanfivepeopleages17oryoungerinthecargoareaorifatleastonepersonage18orolderisinthecargoarea

North Carolina LawAnyoneage16andolder;thoseages15andyoungerifasupervisingadultispresentincargoarea;whenthechildisbelted;emergencies;parades;vehiclebeingusedinagriculture;vehicleswithpermanentoverheadstructures

North Dakota Nostatelaw

Ohio Law

Anyoneage16andolder;thoseages15andyoungerifthevehicleisdrivenlessthan25mphorifthepersonisbeltedandseatedinanoriginalequipmentmanufacturerseatingposition;emergencies;notapplicabletopickuptruckswithcoveredcargoareas

Oklahoma Nostatelaw

Oregon Law

Anyoneage18orolder;minorssecuredwithasafetybeltorharness;parades;minorsseatedontheflooroftheopenbedofamotorvehicleinwhichallavailablepassengerseatsareoccupiedbyminors,thetailgateissecurelyclosedandtheminorisbeingtransportedeitherinthecourseandscopeofemploymentorbetweenahuntingcampandhuntingsiteorbetweenhuntingsitesduringhuntingseasonandtheminorhasahuntinglicense

Pennsylvania LawAnyoneage18orolderifthevehicleistravelinglessthan35mph;notapplicabletooccupantsages17andyoungerifthecargoareaisenclosed;parades;huntingandfarmoperations

Rhode Island Law Anyoneage16orolder;thoseage15andyoungerwhoaresecuredinthecargoarea

South Carolina Law

Anyoneage15orolder;thoseages15andyoungerwhenanadultispresent;whenthechildisbelted;parade;emergencysituation;agriculturalactivities;hunting;vehi-clehasasecuredmetaltailgateandoperatedatlessthan36mph;vehicleoperatedinacounty

55 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction Restrictions in Cargo Areas Gaps in CoverageSouth Dakota Nostatelaw

Tennessee LawAnyoneage12orolder;thoseages6to11inavehiclebeingoperatedofftheinter-stateorstatehighwaysystem;paradesifvehicleisgoinglessthan20mph;agriculturalactivities;oncityorcountyroadsunlessprohibitedbylocalordinanceorresolution

Texas LawAnyoneage18orolder;vehiclesthataretheonlyvehiclesownedbymembersofthehousehold;vehiclesinparades;hayrides,onbeaches,orbeingusedinanemergency;vehiclesinfarmoperationsusedtotransportpeoplefromfieldtofieldoronfarm

Utah Law1 Off-highwayoperation;employeesperformingtheirduties;thoseridinginavehiclespacethatisintendedforanyload

Vermont Nostatelaw

Virginia Law Anyoneage16orolder;farmerswhencrossingahighwaywhengoingfromfieldtofield

Washington NostatelawWest Virginia Nostatelaw

Wisconsin Law1 Notapplicabletoenclosedareas;farmoperations;parades;deerhunting;employees;thoseridingintruckbodiesinspacesintendedformerchandise

Wyoming NostatelawDistrict of Co-lumbia Law1 Employeesonduty;thoseridingwithintruckbodiesinaspaceintendedformaterials

Total 31

Note 1 Thisprovisionisdesignedtoprohibitridingonhoods,fendersandotherplacesnotdesignedforpassengers.Theexemptionforpeople inthebodyofatruckappliestoenclosedareassuchasthecargoareaofastraighttruckorvan.

Source: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2016.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 56

Appendix ELicensing Procedures for Older Drivers

State/ Jurisdiction

Length of Renewal Cycle Accelerated Renewal Other Provisions

Alabama Fouryears None NoneAlaska Fiveyears None Mailrenewalnotavailabletopeopleage69andolder

Arizona Untilage651 Fiveyearsforpeopleage65and older Peopleage70andoldercannotrenewbymail1

Arkansas Fouryears None None

California Fiveyears None Atage70,mailrenewalisprohibited;nomorethantwosequentialmailrenewalsarepermitted,regardlessofage

Colorado 10years Fiveyearsforage65andolder

Mailorelectronicrenewalnotavailabletopeopleage66andolder,unlessoptometristcertifieseyeexampassedwithinthelastsixmonths;nomailrenewalforthosewhosepriorrenewalwasbymailorelectronic

Connecticut Fourorsixyears Twoorsixyearsforage61and older Mailrenewalrequiresdemonstrationofhardship2

Delaware Eightyears None None

Florida Eightyears Sixyearsforpeopleage80and older

Renewalapplicantsage80andoldermustpassavisiontestadministeredatanydriver’slicenseofficeor,ifapplyingbymailorelectronically,mustpassavisiontestadministeredbyalicensedphysicianoroptometrist3

Georgia Eightyears Fiveyearsforpeopleage60and older

Visiontestrequiredatrenewalfordriversolderthanage64;mail-inoronlinerenewalprohibitedforages64andolder

Hawaii Eightyears Twoyearsforpeopleage72 and older

Driversarelimitedtotwoconsecutivemail-inrenewals,regardlessofage

Idaho Fouroreightyearsforages21through62

Driversage63andolderwillreceiveafour-yearlicense

Peopleage70andolderarenotpermittedtorenewonlineorbymail

Illinois FouryearsTwoyearsfordriversages81to86;oneyearfordriversage87andolder

Renewalapplicantsage75andoldermusttakearoadtest;mailandelectronicrenewalarenotavailabletoages75and older

Indiana SixyearsThreeyearsfordriversage75through84;twoyearsfordriversage85andolder

Mailandelectronicrenewalarenotavailabletopeopleage75andolderortothosewhosepriorrenewalwasbymail or electronic

Iowa Fiveyears4 Twoyearsfordriversage70and older Peopleage70andoldermaynotrenewonline

Kansas Sixyears Fouryearsfordriversage65 and older None

Kentucky Fouryears None None

Louisiana Sixyears None Mailrenewalnotavailabletopeopleage70andolderandtothosewhosepriorrenewalwasbymail5

Maine Sixyears Fouryearsfordriversage65 and older

Visiontestrequiredatfirstrenewalafterdriver’s40thbirthdayandateverysecondrenewaluntilage62;thereafter,ateveryrenewal;ages62andolderprohibitedfromelectronicormail-inrenewal

57 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction

Length of Renewal Cycle Accelerated Renewal Other Provisions

Maryland Eightyears None Visiontestrequiredatage40andolderateveryrenewal6

Massachusetts Fiveyears None Renewalapplicantswhoareage75andoldermustapplyinperson6

Michigan Fouryears None NoneMinnesota Fouryears None Nonethataresafety-related6

Mississippi Fouroreightyears None None

Missouri Sixyears Threeyearsfordriversage70 and older None

Montana Eightyears Fouryearsfordriversage75 and older Nonethataresafety-related7

Nebraska Fiveyears None Applicantsage72andoldermaynotrenewelectronically

NevadaFouryears;8yearsalllicensesstartingin2018

Fouryearsfordriversage65 and older Nonethataresafety-related6,8

New Hampshire Fiveyears None Roadtestrequiredforpeopleage75andolder;onlinerenewalisavailabletoages75andolder

New Jersey Fouryears 2or4yearsforpeople70andolder,personaloption None

New Mexico Fouroreightyears

Fouroreightyearsatdriver’soptionfordriver’sunderage67;fouryearsfordriversolderthanage67;annuallyfordriversage75and older

Applicantsage75andoldermaynotrenewbymailorelectronically

New York Eightyears None None

North Carolina Eightyears Fiveyearsfordriversage66and older Nonethataresafety-related9

North Dakota Sixyears Fouryearsfordriversage78 and older None

Ohio Fouryears None NoneOklahoma Fouryears None Nonethataresafety-related10

Oregon Eightyears None Visionscreeningisrequiredeveryeightyearsfordriversage50 and older

Pennsylvania Fouryears2yearsor4yearsforpeople65andolder,personaloption

None

Rhode Island Fiveyears Twoyearsfordriversage75and older None

South Carolina 10years Fiveyearsfordriversage65and older Mail-inrenewalavailable

South Dakota Fiveyears NonePeopleage65andoldermustsubmitavisionstatementsignedbyanoptometristorophthalmologistifapplyingonlineorbymail

Tennessee Fiveyears Noexpirationforpeopleage 65 and older Nonethataresafety-related11

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 58

State/ Jurisdiction

Length of Renewal Cycle Accelerated Renewal Other Provisions

Texas Sixyears Twoyearsfordriversage85and older

Mailorelectronicrenewalnotavailabletopeopleage79and older

Utah Fiveyears None Visiontestrequiredforpeopleage65andolderVermont Fouryears None None

Virginia Eightyears Fiveyearsfordriversage75and older

Renewalapplicantsage75andoldermustapplyinpersonandpassdepartmentvisionrequirementsorpresentavisionstatement,noolderthan90days,fromanoptometristorophthalmologist

Washington Sixyears None Mailoronlinerenewalnotpermitted70andolderWest Virginia Eightyears None NoneWisconsin Eightyears None NoneWyoming Fouryears None None

District of Columbia Fiveyears None

Atage70ornearestrenewaldatethereafter,avisiontestisrequiredandareactiontestmayberequired;applicantsmustprovideastatementfromapracticingphysiciancertifyingtheapplicanttobephysicallyandmentallycompetenttodrive12

Puerto Rico Sixyears None NoneU.S. Virgin Islands Fiveyears Noinformation Noinformation

Notes1 InArizona,thelicenseisvaliduntilage65.Anyoneage65andolderwhoisrenewingbymailmustsubmitavisiontestverification

form,providedbythedepartment,orverificationofanexaminationoftheapplicant’seyesight.Thevisiontestorexaminationmustbeconductednotmorethanthreemonthsbefore.

2 InConnecticut,peopleage65andoldercanchooseatwo-yearorsix-yearrenewalcycle.Apersonalappearanceatrenewalgenerallyisrequired.Uponshowingahardship,peopleage65andoldercanrenewbymail.

3 InFlorida,onlytwosuccessiverenewalscanbemadeelectronicallyorbymail,regardlessofage.4 BeginningJan.1,2014,andcontinuingthroughDec.31,2018,Iowawilltransitionfromastandardfive-yearlicensetermtoaneight-

yearlicenseterm.Duringthistime,Iowadriver’slicenseswillbeissuedwitharandomlyassignedexpirationdateofbetweenfiveandeightyears.

5 InLouisiana,beginningAugust1,2015,apersonage70andoldercanrenewbymailoronlineifheorsheismedicallydiagnosedwithadisabilitythatprecludesthatdriverfromrenewinginpersonandheorshesubmitsaswornaffidavitbyaphysiciancertifyingthatthepersonpossessesallcognitivefunctionsreasonablynecessarytobeaprudentdriver.

6 Somestatelicensinglawsspecificallyprohibitlicensingadministratorsfromtreatingpeopledifferentlysolelybyvirtueofadvancedage.Marylandlawspecifiesthatagealoneisnotgroundsforreexaminationofdrivers;applicantsforaninitiallicensewhoareage70andoldermustprovideproofofprevioussatisfactoryoperationofavehicleoraphysician’scertificateoffitness.Massachusettslawprohibitsdiscriminationbyreasonofagewithregardtolicensing.MinnesotaandNevadalawspecifythatagealoneisnotajustificationforreexamination.

7 InMontana,adrivermustrenewinpersonafterrenewingoncebymailorelectronically,regardlessofage.8 InNevada,applicantsformailrenewalage70andoldermustincludeamedicalreport.9 InNorthCarolina,peopleage60andolderarenotrequiredtoparallelparkintheroadtest.10 InOklahoma,thelicensefeeisreducedfordriversages62to64andiswaivedfordriversage65andolder.11 InTennessee,feesarereducedfordriversage60andolderandlicensesissuedtopeopleage65andolderdonotexpire.12 TheDistrictofColumbiaspecificallystatesthatanapplicantshallnotberequiredtoretakethewrittenorroadtestbasedsolelyon

advancedage.

Sources: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, AAA, and NCSL, 2016.

59 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Appendix FTeen Driving Restrictions

State/ Jurisdiction

Minimum Age for a Learner’s Permit

Learner Stage with a Minimum Amount of Supervised Driving Required

Intermediate Stage with a Nighttime Driving Restriction1

Intermediate Stage with Passenger Restrictions1 (family members excepted unless otherwise noted)

Alabama 15 50hours(nonewithdrivereducation)

Midnight-6a.m. (secondary)

Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassenger(secondary)

Alaska 1440hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnightorininclement weather

1a.m.-5a.m. Firstsixmonths:nopassengersyoungerthan21

Arizona 15,sixmonths

30hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight(nonewithdrivereducation)

Midnight-5a.m. (secondary)

Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage18(secondary)

Arkansas 142 None 11p.m.-4a.m. Untilage18:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage21

California 15,sixmonths3

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

11p.m.-5a.m.(secondary)

First12months:nopassengersyoungerthanage20(secondary)

Colorado 15 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

Midnight-5a.m. (secondary)

Firstsixmonths:nopassengers; secondsixmonths:nomorethanonepassenger(secondary)

Connecticut 1640hours(mandatorydrivereducationforthoseunderage18)

11p.m.-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths:nopassengerotherthanparentsordrivinginstructor;secondsixmonths:nopassengersotherthanparents,drivinginstructorormembersofimmediatefamily

Delaware 16 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 10p.m.-6a.m. Firstsixmonths(anduntilissuanceofaclassD

operator’slicense):nomorethanonepassenger

Florida 15 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

11p.m.-6a.m.(age16);1a.m.-5a.m.(age17)

None

Georgia 15 40hours,sixofwhichmustbeatnight

Midnight-5a.m.(secondary)

Firstsixmonths:nopassengers; secondsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage21;untilage18:nomorethanthreepassengers(secondary)

Hawaii 15,sixmonths

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 11p.m.-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths(atleast):nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage18(householdmembersexempted)

Idaho 14,sixmonths

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight Sunsettosunrise

Firstsixmonths:licenseesage16andyoungercanhavenomorethanonepassengeryoungerthan age 17

Illinois 15 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

Sun.-Thur.:10p.m.-6a.m.,Fri-Sat:11p.m.-6a.m.

First12months(oruntilage18):nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage20

Indiana 15 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

Firstsixmonths:10p.m.-5a.m.;thenSun.-Fri.:11p.m.-5a.m.,Sat.-Sun.:1a.m.-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths(oruntilage18):nopassengers

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 60

State/ Jurisdiction

Minimum Age for a Learner’s Permit

Learner Stage with a Minimum Amount of Supervised Driving Required

Intermediate Stage with a Nighttime Driving Restriction1

Intermediate Stage with Passenger Restrictions1 (family members excepted unless otherwise noted)

Iowa 14 20hours,twoofwhichmustbeatnight 12:30a.m.-5a.m. Parentaldiscretion4

Kansas 14

25hoursinlearnerphase;25hoursbeforeage16;10ofthe50hoursmustbeatnight

9p.m.-5a.m. Firstsixmonths(oruntilage17):nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage18

Kentucky 16 60hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight Midnight-6a.m.

Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage20unlesssupervisedbyadrivinginstructor(secondary)

Louisiana 155 50hours,15ofwhichmustbeatnight 11p.m.-5a.m.

Untilage17:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage21betweenthehoursof6p.m.-5a.m.;nootherpassengerrestrictions

Maine 156 70hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight Midnight-5a.m. Firstninemonths:nopassengers

Maryland 15,ninemonths

60hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight Midnight-5a.m. Firstfivemonths:nopassengersyoungerthan

age18(secondary)

Massachusetts 16 40hours7

12:30a.m.–5a.m.(secondarybetween12:30a.m.–1:00a.m.and4:00a.m.–5:00a.m.)

Firstsixmonths(oruntilage18):nopassengersyoungerthanage18(secondarybetween12:30a.m.–1:00a.m.and4:00a.m.–5:00a.m.)

Michigan 14,ninemonths

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 10:00p.m.-5a.m. Firstsixmonthsandage17(oruntilage18):no

morethanonepassengeryoungerthanage21

Minnesota 15 40hours,15ofwhichmustbeatnight8 Midnight-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage20;secondsixmonths:nomorethanthreepassengersyoungerthanage20

Mississippi 15 NoneSun.-Thur.:10p.m.-6a.m.,Fri.-Sat.11:30p.m.-6a.m.

None

Missouri 15 40hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 1a.m.-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage19;thereafter:nomorethanthreepassengersyoungerthanage19

Montana 14,sixmonths

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 11p.m.-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage18;secondsixmonths:nomorethanthreepassengersyoungerthanage18

Nebraska 1550hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight(nonewithdrivereducation)

Midnight-6a.m.(secondary)

Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage19(secondary)

Nevada 15,sixmonths

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

10p.m.-5a.m.(secondary)

Firstsixmonths:nopassengersyoungerthanage18(secondary)

New Hampshire 15,sixmonths9

40hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 1a.m.-4a.m. Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassenger

youngerthanage25

New Jersey 16 None 11p.m.-5a.m.First12months(oruntilage21):nomorethanonepassenger(exceptionlimitedtothedriver’sdependents)

New Mexico 1510 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight Midnight-5a.m. First12months(oruntilage18):nomorethan

onepassengeryoungerthanage21

61 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction

Minimum Age for a Learner’s Permit

Learner Stage with a Minimum Amount of Supervised Driving Required

Intermediate Stage with a Nighttime Driving Restriction1

Intermediate Stage with Passenger Restrictions1 (family members excepted unless otherwise noted)

New York 16 50hours,15ofwhichmustbeatnight

9p.m.-5a.m. (prohibitedatalltimesinNYCandNassauandSuffolkcountieswithsomeexceptions)

Untilage17withdrivereducationoruntilage18:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage 21

North Carolina 1511

60hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnightduringthelearnerphase;12hours,sixofwhichmustbeatnight,duringintermediatephase

9p.m.-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths(oruntilage18):nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage21;ifafamilymemberyoungerthanage21isalreadyapassenger,thennootherpassengersyoungerthanage21whoarenotfamilymembers

North Dakota 14 50hoursifunderage16

Restrictedlicenseholdermayonlydriveacarbelongingtoaparentorguardianandmaynotdrivebetweenthelaterofsunsetor9p.m.and5a.m.

None

Ohio 15,sixmonths

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

Midnight-6a.m.(age16),1a.m.-5a.m.(age17)(secondary)

Untilage17:nomorethanonepassenger(effective01/01/17)

Oklahoma 15,sixmonths

50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 10p.m.-5a.m.

Firstsixmonthswithdrivereducation,first12monthswithout(oruntilage18):nomorethanonepassenger

Oregon 15 50hours(100hourswithoutdrivereducation) Midnight-5a.m.

Firstsixmonths:nopassengersyoungerthanage20;secondsixmonths:nomorethanthreepassengersyoungerthanage20

Pennsylvania 16

65hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnightandfiveofwhichmustbeininclement weather

11p.m.-5a.m.Firstsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage18;thereafter,nomorethanthreepassengers

Rhode Island 1612 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 1a.m.-5a.m. First12months:nomorethanonepassenger

youngerthanage21

South Carolina 15 40hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

6p.m.-6a.m.EST,8p.m.-6a.m.EDT

First12months:nomorethantwopassengersyoungerthanage21(drivingtoandfromschoolexcepted)

South Dakota 14 None 10p.m.-6a.m. None

Tennessee 15 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 11p.m.-6a.m. First12months(oruntilage18):nomorethan

onepassenger

Texas 15 30hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

Midnight-5a.m.(secondary)

Untilage18:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage21(secondary)

Utah 15 40hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight Midnight-5a.m. Firstsixmonths(oruntilage18):nopassengers

(secondary)

Vermont 15 40hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight None

Firstthreemonths:nopassengerswithoutexception;secondthreemonths:nopassengerswithfamilyexception

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 62

State/ Jurisdiction

Minimum Age for a Learner’s Permit

Learner Stage with a Minimum Amount of Supervised Driving Required

Intermediate Stage with a Nighttime Driving Restriction1

Intermediate Stage with Passenger Restrictions1 (family members excepted unless otherwise noted)

Virginia 15,sixmonths

45hours,15ofwhichmustbeatnight

Midnight-4a.m.(secondary)

First12months:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage21;thereafter:nomorethanthreepassengersyoungerthanage21(secondary)13

Washington 15 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight

1a.m.-5a.m.(secondary)

Firstsixmonths:nopassengersyoungerthanage20;secondsixmonths:nomorethanthreepassengersyoungerthanage20(secondary)

West Virginia 1550hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight(nonewithdrivereducation)

10p.m.-5a.m.Firstsixmonths:nopassengersyoungerthanage20;secondsixmonths:nomorethanonepassengeryoungerthanage20

Wisconsin 15,sixmonths14

30hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight Midnight-5a.m. Firstninemonths(oruntilage18):nomorethan

onepassenger

Wyoming 15 50hours,10ofwhichmustbeatnight 11p.m.-5a.m. Firstsixmonths(oruntilage17):nomorethan

onepassengeryoungerthanage18

District of Columbia 16

40hoursinlearner’sstage,10hoursatnightinintermediate stage

September–June:11p.m.-6a.m.Sun.–Thur.,12:01a.m.-6a.m.Sat.–Sun.;July–August:12:01a.m.-6a.m.

Firstsixmonths:nopassengers;thereafter:nomorethantwopassengers

Puerto Rico 16U.S. Virgin Islands15 16 None None None

Notes1 Statelawsthatprohibitpolicefromstoppingyoungdriverssolelyforviolatingnightdrivingorpassengerrestrictionsarelabeled

secondary.2 InArkansas,thoseage14candrivewithaninstructionpermitafterpassingawrittentest.Afterpassingaroadtest,theyareeligiblefor

alearner’slicense.Unsuperviseddrivingisnotpermittedbyholdersofeithertheinstructionpermitorlearner’slicense.Thecombinedholdingperiodforthepermitandrestrictedlicenseissixmonths.

3 InCalifornia,studentsenrolledindrivereducationmaydrivewhilesupervisedbyaninstructor.Licenseapplicantswhodonottakedrivereducationmustwaituntilage18foralicense.Theyarenotrequiredtogothroughanintermediatelicensestage.

4 InIowa,parentsarepermittedtowaiveatthetimeoflicensureadiscretionarysix-monthpassengerlimitofnomorethanoneunrelatedpassengeryoungerthanage18.

5 InLouisiana,drivereducationisrequiredforapermitandanintermediatelicenseiftheapplicantisyoungerthanage18.6 InMaine,drivereducationisrequiredforapermitandalicenseiftheapplicantisyoungerthan18.7 InMassachusetts,therequirementforsuperviseddrivingis30hoursforapplicantswhohavesuccessfullycompletedadriverskills

developmentprograminaclosed,off-roadcourselicensedbytheRegistrarofMotorVehicles.8 InMinnesota,licenseapplicantsyoungerthanage18mustprovideproofthataparenthastakenacourseforparentsofteendriversor

performanadditional10certifiedpracticehours.9 InNewHampshire,learner’spermitsarenotissued.Atage15andsixmonths,apersoncandrivewhilesupervisedbyalicenseddriver

age 25 or older.10 InNewMexico,permitapplicantsyoungerthanage18mustbeenrolledindrivereducation.11 InNorthCarolina,drivereducationisrequiredforpermitapplicantsyoungerthanage18.12 InRhodeIsland,drivereducationisrequiredofpermitapplicantsyoungerthanage18.13 InVirginia,theholderofalearner’spermitcannothavemorethanonepassengerinthevehiclethatisunderage21.14 InWisconsin,enrollmentindrivereducationisrequiredforpermitapplicantsyoungerthanage18.15 TheU.S.VirginIslandshasnograduateddriver’slicensingsystem;learner’spermitscanbegrantedatage16.

Sources: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and National Conference of State Legislatures 2016.

63 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Appendix GState Aggressive Driving Laws

State/ Jurisdiction Definition of Aggressive Driving

Maximum Imprisonment or Jail Sanction

Maximum Fine Sanction

Maximum Licensing Action

Arizona

Apersoncommitsaggressivedrivingifboththefollowingoccur:1)if,duringa“courseofconduct,”heorsheviolateseithertheBasicSpeedRuleorthe“ExcessiveSpeed”lawplustwoofthefollowingminordrivingoffenses:a)failuretoobeytrafficcontroldevices;b)overtakingandpassinganothervehicleontherightbydrivingoffthepavementormaintraveledportionoftheroadway;c)unsafelanechange;d)followingavehicletooclosely;ande)failuretoyieldtheright-of-way;and2)hisorher“drivingisanimmediatehazardtoanotherpersonorvehicle.”“Courseofconduct”means“aseriesofactscommittedduringasingle,continuousperiodofdriving.”

Six months1 $2,500 30days2

California

Californiadoesnothaveaperseaggressivedrivinglaw.However,inadditiontotheusualcriminalsanctions,thelawprovideslicensingsanctionsagainstapersonwhocommitsacriminalassaultusingamotorvehicle(commonlyknownas“roadrage”)againsteitheranothermotorvehicle,anoperatorofabicycleorapedestrian.

Fouryears $10,000 Six months

Delaware

Nopersonshalldriveanyvehicleinanaggressivemanner.Aggressivedrivingisdefinedascontinuousconductthatviolatesthreeormoreofthefollowingrulesoftheroad:failingtoobeyatraffic-controldevice;overtakingontheright;failingtodrivewithinamarkedlanefortraffic;followingtooclosely;failingtoyieldtheright-of-waytoapproachingtrafficwhenturningleft;failingtoyieldtoapproachingtrafficwhenenteringorcrossingaroadway;failingtosignalwhenturningorstopping;failingtostopatstopsignsoryieldatyieldsigns;overtakingandpassingastoppedschoolbuswithflashinglights;failingtoobeythebasicspeedrule;andfailingtoaobeyapostedspeedlimit.

30days3 10days mandatory3

$3003 $100mandatory3

None4 30daysforsub-sequentoffenseswithin three years

Florida

Aggressivecarelessdrivingmeanscommittingtwoormoreofthefollowingactssimultaneouslyorinsuccession:1)exceedingthepostedspeed,2)unsafelyorimproperlychanginglanes,3)followinganothervehicletooclosely,4)failingtoyieldtheright-of-way,5)improperlypassingand6)violatingtrafficcontrolandsignaldevices.5

None None None

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 64

State/ Jurisdiction Definition of Aggressive Driving

Maximum Imprisonment or Jail Sanction

Maximum Fine Sanction

Maximum Licensing Action

Georgia

Apersoncommitstheoffenseofaggressivedrivingwhenheorsheoperatesanymotorvehiclewiththeintenttoannoy,harass,molest,intimidate,injureorobstructan-otherperson,whileviolatingmotorvehiclecodesections,includingovertakingandpassinganothervehicle;trafficlaneviolations;followingtooclosely;turnsignal,lanechange,slowingorstoppingviolations;impedingtrafficflows;orrecklessdriving.Apersonconvictedofaggres-sivedrivingshallbeguiltyofamisdemeanorofahighandaggravatednature.

12 months $5,000 None

Indiana

Apersonengagesinaggressivedrivingif,duringoneepi-sodeofcontinuousdrivingofavehicle,thepersoncom-mitsatleastthreeofthefollowing:1)followingavehicletooclosely,2)unsafeoperationofavehicle,3)overtakinganothervehicleontherightbydrivingofftheroadway,4)unsafestoppingorslowingavehicle,5)unnecessarysoundingofthehorn,6)failuretoyield,7)failuretoobeyatrafficcontroldevice,8)drivingatanunsafespeedand9)repeatedlyflashingthevehicle’sheadlights.

Oneyear $5,000 None

Maryland

Apersonisguiltyofaggressivedrivingifthepersoncom-mitsthreeormoreofthefollowingoffensesatthesametimeorduringasingleandcontinuousperiodofdrivinginviolationof:trafficlightswithsteadyindication,over-takingandpassingvehicles,passingonright,drivingonlanedroadways,followingtooclosely,failuretoyieldrightofway,andexceedingamaximumspeedlimitorpostedmaximumspeedlimit.

None None None6

Nevada

Apersoncommitsaggressivedrivingif,duringacourseofonemile,heorshe,inanysequence,doesallofthefollowing:1)violateseithera)thebasicspeedrules,b)thespeedlimitinaschoolzone,c)thepostedspeedlimitord)theprohibitionagainstdriving>75mph.2)Commitstwoormoreofthefollowingoffenses:a)failingtoobeyatrafficcontroldevice;b)overtakingandpassinganothervehicleontherightbydrivingoffthepavedportionofthehighway;c)drivingunsafelyorimproperlyuponahighwaythathasmarkedlanesfortraffic;d)followinganothervehicletooclosely;ore)failingtoyieldtherightofway.3)Createsanimmediatehazard,regardlessofitsduration,toanothervehicleorperson.

Six months3 $1,0003

30days2 Oneyearonsecondoffense

65 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction Definition of Aggressive Driving

Maximum Imprisonment or Jail Sanction

Maximum Fine Sanction

Maximum Licensing Action

New Jersey

NewJerseyenforcesagainstaggressivedrivingbychargingunder39:4-97(CarelessDriving),39:4-97.2(OperatingavehicleinanUnsafeManner)oranyotherstatuteatthediscretionoftheofficer. Assaultbyautoorvesselisacrimeofthethirddegreeifthepersonpurposelydrivesavehicleinanaggressivemannerdirectedatanothervehicleandseriousbodilyinjuryresultsandisacrimeofthefourthdegreeifthepersonpurposelydrivesavehicleinanaggressivemannerdirectedatanothervehicleandbodilyinjuryresults.Forpurposesofthisparagraph,“drivingavehicleinanaggres-sivemanner”shallinclude,butisnotlimitedto,unexpect-edlyalteringthespeedofthevehicle,makingimproperorerratictrafficlanechanges,disregardingtrafficcontroldevices,failingtoyieldtherightofwayorfollowingan-othervehicletooclosely.

None

$150.00 $50minimum $250surchargemandatory

None

North Carolina

Anypersonwhooperatesamotorvehicleonastreet,highwayorpublicvehicularareaisguiltyofaggressivedrivingiftheperson:1)violatesspeedlawsorspeedinginschoolzonelaws,and2)drivescarelesslyandheedlesslyinwillfulorwantondisregardoftherightsorsafetyofoth-ers.Thestatemustshowthatthepersoncommittedtwoormoreofthebelowspecifiedoffenseswhileinviolationoftheaforementionedsection):1)runningthrougharedlight,2)runningthroughastopsign,3)illegalpassing,4)failingtoyieldright-of-wayand5)followingtooclosely.ApersonconvictedofaggressivedrivingisguiltyofaClass1misdemeanor.

45days3 Atthediscretionofthecourt3 None

Pennsylvania

Pennsylvaniadoesnothaveanaggressivedrivinglawperse.In2006,thePennsylvaniaHouseofRepresentativespassedaresolutiontoencouragedriverstodrivecourte-ouslyanddefensively,notaggressively.TheHousealsoresolvedtosupportmeasuresthatwouldpromotesafedrivingpracticesintheCommonwealth.

None None None

Rhode Island

“AggressiveDriving”isdefinedasoperatingamotorvehi-cleinviolationofanyspeedlawandaviolationoftwoormoreofthefollowingtrafficlawprovisions:1)obediencetotrafficcontroldevices;2)overtakingontheright;3)drivingwithinatrafficlane;4)followingtooclosely—intervalbetweenvehicles;5)yieldingright-of-way;6)enteringtheroadway;7)useofturnsignals;8)relatingtoschoolbuses,specialstops,stopsignsandyieldsigns;and9)useofemergencybreak-downlanefortravel.

None $500 30days7

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 66

State/ Jurisdiction Definition of Aggressive Driving

Maximum Imprisonment or Jail Sanction

Maximum Fine Sanction

Maximum Licensing Action

Utah

Utahdoesnothaveanaggressivedrivinglawperse,butrecklessdrivingissimilartoaggressivedrivingoffensesinotherstates.Recklessdrivingisdefinedasoperatingave-hicleeither1)“inwillfulorwantondisregardforthesafetyofpersonsorproperty”or2)“whilecommittingthreeormoremovingtrafficviolationsunderTitle41,Chapter6,TrafficRulesandRegulations,inaseriesofactswithinasinglecontinuousperiodofdriving.”

Six months1 $1,0001 Threemonths2,3

Vermont

Thestatuteprohibitsfollowingtooclosely,crowdingandharassment.“Thedriverofavehicleshallnotfollowanothervehiclemorecloselythanisreasonableandpru-dent,havingdueregardforthespeedofthevehiclesandthetrafficupon,andtheconditionsof,thehighway.”

None None None

Virginia

Apersonisguiltyofaggressivedrivingifthepersoni)violatesoneormoreofthefollowing:drivingonrightsideofhighways,failingtoobservelanesmarkedfortraffic,followingtooclosely,notyieldingorstoppingbeforeenteringcertainhighways,evadingtrafficcontroldevices,passingwhenovertakingavehicle,passingontherightwhenovertakingavehicle,notgivingwaytocertainovertakingvehiclesondividedhighway,speedingordangerouslystoppingonhighways;andii)thatpersonisahazardtoanotherpersonorcommitsanoffenseinclause(i)withtheintenttoharass,intimidate,injureorobstructanotherperson.

Six months $1,000

Six months6 10days mandatory

Notes 1 Thissanctionappliestofirstandsubsequentoffenses.2 Licensingactionisintheformofasuspension.3 Thisappliestothefirstoffense.4 Sinceoffendersmaybeprosecutedforandconvictedoftheunderlyingoffenses,theyaresubjecttolicensingactionassociatedwith

violatingsuchoffenses.5 Thelawisadefiningstatutebutdoesnotpermitenforcement.6 Pointsareassessedagainstthedriverforanoffense.7 Thelawprovidesthataperson’slicensemaybesubjecttoaminimum30-daysuspension.Thissanctionappearstoapplyonlytofirst

offenders.

Sources: NHTSA, Governors Highway Safety Association, and NCSL, 2016

67 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

Appendix HState Maximum Posted Speed Limit Laws

State/ Jurisdiction Rural Interstates Urban Interstates

Other Limited Access Roads Other Roads

Alabama 70 65 65 65Alaska 65 55 65 55Arizona 75 65 65 65Arkansas 70 65 651 65California 70;trucks:55 65;trucks:55 70;trucks:55 65;trucks:55Colorado 75 65 65 65Connecticut 65 55 65 55Delaware 65 55 65 55Florida 70 65 70 65Georgia 702 70 65 65Hawaii 603 603 553 453

Idaho 75;80onspecifiedsegments ofroad;4trucks:70

75;80onspecifiedsegmentsofroad;4trucks:65 70 70

Illinois 705 55 65 55Indiana 70;trucks:65 55 60 55Iowa 70 55 70 65Kansas 75 75 75 65

Kentucky 65;70onspecifiedsegments ofroad6 65 65 55

Louisiana 75 70 70 65Maine 75 75 75 60Maryland 70 70 70 55Massachusetts 65 65 65 55

Michigan 70(65trucks);75(65trucks) onspecifiedsegmentsofroad 70 70 55

Minnesota 70 65 65 60Mississippi 70 70 70 65Missouri 70 60 70 65Montana 80;trucks:65 65 day:70;night:65 day:70;night:65Nebraska 75 65 65 60Nevada 80 65 70 70

New Hampshire 65;70onspecifiedsegments ofroad7 65 55 55

New Jersey 65 55 65 55New Mexico 75 75 65 55New York 65 65 65 55North Carolina 70 70 70 55North Dakota 75 75 70 65

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 68

State/ Jurisdiction Rural Interstates Urban Interstates

Other Limited Access Roads Other Roads

Ohio 70 65 70 55Oklahoma 758 70 70 70

Oregon

65;70onspecifiedsegments ofroad;trucks:55or65onspecifiedsegmentsofroad(effective03/01/16)

55 65 65

Pennsylvania 70 70 70 55Rhode Island9 65 55 55 55South Carolina 70 70 60 55South Dakota 80 8010 70 70Tennessee 70 70 70 65

Texas 75;80or85onspecifiedsegments11 75 75 75

Utah 75;80onspecifiedsegments12 65 75 65Vermont 65 55 50 50Virginia 70 70 65 55

Washington 70;75onspecifiedsegments ofroad13;trucks:60 60 60 60

West Virginia14 70 55 65 55Wisconsin 70 70 70 55

Wyoming 75;80onspecifiedsegments ofroad15

75;80onspecifiedsegments ofroad15 70 70

District of Columbia n/a 55 n/a 25

Guam16 n/a n/a n/a n/aPuerto Rico 65 65 n/a n/aU.S. Virgin Islands 40 55 20 n/a

Keyn/a=notapplicable Notes1 InArkansas,thespeedlimitmayberaisedto65mphonparticulartwo-laneorfour-lanehighwaysifbasedontrafficandengineering

studies.2 Georgia’s“SuperSpeederLaw”adds$200instatefeesforanydriverconvictedofspeedingatmorethan75mphonanytwo-laneroads

oratmorethan85mphonmultiple-laneroadsanywhereinthestate.3 InHawaii,themaximumspeedlimitisestablishedbycountyordinanceorbythedirectoroftransportation.4 InIdaho,thespeedlimitmaybeincreasedto80mphonspecificsegmentsofhighwayonthebasisofanengineeringandtraffic

investigation.5 TheIllinoislawallowsCook,DuPage,Kane,Lake,Madison,McHenry,St.ClairandWillcountiestooptoutbyadoptinganordinance

thatsetsalowermaximumspeedlimit,empoweringcountiestomakeadjustmentsbasedonlocalneeds.Thesecountieshaveamaximumlargetruckspeedlimitof60mphoutsideurbandistrictsand55mphinsideurbandistricts.

6 InKentucky,thespeedlimitmaybeincreasedto70mphonspecificsegmentsofhighwayuponthebasisofanengineeringandtrafficinvestigation.

7 2013legislationraisedthespeedlimitfrom65mphto70mphontheportionofI-93frommilemarker45totheVermontborder.

69 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

8 In2016,OklahomaHouseBill3167requiredtheDOTtoconductengineeringandtrafficinvestigationstodeterminetheappropriatespeedlimits,whichmayresultinspeedlimitsover75mph.

9 RhodeIslandspeedlimitsarenotsetbylaw,butbythestatetrafficcommission.10 InSouthDakota,theTransportationCommissionmayestablishamaximumspeedlimitoflessthan80mphonanyhighwayorportion

ofhighwayunderthejurisdictionoftheDepartmentofTransportation,andanyportionofhighwayunderthejurisdictionofastateorfederalagency.

11 OnsectionsofI-10andI-20inruralwestTexas,thespeedlimitforpassengercarsandlighttrucksis80mph.Speedlimitsmaybeestablishednottoexceed85mphifthehighwayisdesignedtoaccommodatethehigherspeedandithasbeendeterminedbyatrafficandsafetyengineeringstudytobereasonableandsafe.StateHighway130(portionstoll)hasapostedlimitof85mph.

12 InUtah,thespeedlimitmaybeincreasedbeyond75mphonanyfreewayorlimitedaccesshighwayonthebasisofanengineeringandtrafficinvestigation.ThehighestpostedlimitinUtahiscurrently80mph.

13 InWashington,maximumspeedlimitsonhighwaysorportionsofhighwaysmaybepostedashighas75mphifbasedonatrafficandengineeringstudy.

14 WestVirginiaspeedlimits,ingeneral,arenotsetbylaw,butbythecommissioneroftheDivisionofHighways.15 InWyoming,thespeedlimitmaybeincreasedto80mphonspecificsegmentsofhighwayonthebasisofanengineeringandtraffic

investigation.16 Guamdoesnothaveanyinterstates.Themaximumspeedlimitsforcarsandtrucksare35mphinruralareas;15mphinresidential

areas;and15mphor25mphinschoolzones.

Sources: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, AAA, and NCSL 2016.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 70

Appendix IState Policies Regarding Use of Traffic Cameras

State/ Jurisdiction Statute Citation Policy

Alabama SB59(2009) SB411,SB442,HB511(2011)

AuthorizestheCityofMontgomery,inMontgomeryCounty,touseautomatedtrafficlightenforcementintheCityofMontgomeryasacivilviolation.Maximumfineof$100witha$10courtfee;nopointsassessed.AlsoauthorizesthecitiesofCenterPoint,MidfieldandOpelikatouseautomatedtrafficlightenforcement.

Alaska NoStateLaw

Arizona §§28-1201,et seq.(2014)Authorizesuseofcamerastoenforcespeedlawsandredlightviolations.Requiressignswheretheenforcementisused.Maximumfineof$250;two(redlight)andthree(speed)pointsassessed.

Arkansas §27-52-110(2014)Useofphotoradarbycountyorstategovernmentisprohibitedexceptinschoolzonesandatrailroadcrossings.Officermustbepresentandcitationmustbeissuedattimeoftheoffense.

CaliforniaVehicleCode§§210,21455.5and21455.6,40518-40521(West2014)

Establishesconditionsforuseofredlightcamerasandhighway-railcrossingcamerasbylawenforcementagencies.Requiressignswheretheenforcementisused.Basefineof$100,withapproximately$400additionalfees;onelicensepoint.

Colorado §42-4-110.5(2014)

Authorizesuseofphotoradartocatchredlightrunnersandspeeders.Speedradarlimitedtoconstructionandschoolzones,residentialareasoradjacenttoamunicipalpark.Maximumfineof$75forredlightviolation,$80forspeeding;nopointsassessed.1Conspicuoussignnolessthan200feetbeforetheautomatedsystemmustwarnmotoristsofsystem.

Connecticut NoStateLaw

Delaware Tit.21§4101(d)(2014) Authorizesaredlightcameraprogramthroughoutthestate.Maximumfineof$110,nopointsassessedandoffensecannotbeusedbyinsurers.

District of Columbia DCCode§§50-2209.01,et seq.

AuthorizesanautomatedtrafficenforcementprogramintheDistrictofColumbiaforallmovinginfractions.Forspeedviolations,$50-$300maximumfinebasedonthemilesperhouroverthepostedspeedlimit.Redlightviolations$150maximumfine.Nopointsassessed.

Florida §§316.003,316.007,316.0083(2014)

Authorizesuseofcamerasforredlightviolations.Maximumfineof$158,nopointsassessed.

Georgia §40-6-20(2014)

Authorizesuseofphotomonitoringdevicestodetectredlightviolations.Devicescannotbeusedtoproduceanyphotograph,microphotograph,electronicimageorvideotapeshowingtheidentityofanypersoninamotorvehicle.Maximumfineof$70,nopointsassessed.Notamovingviolation;cannotbeusedbyinsurers.

Hawaii NoStateLawIdaho NoStateLaw

71 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction Statute Citation Policy

Illinois Ch.625§§7/10,5/11-1201.1,5/11-612(2014)

UsepermittedstatewideinconstructionzonesorIllinoisTollAuthorityroadstoenforcespeedlaws.Certaincountieswithlocalordinancescanuseittoenforceredlightviolations.AnycountyormunicipalitycanusecamerastoenforcerailcrossingviolationsincooperationwithIL-DOTandIL-CC;ordinancerequired.Localauthoritiescannotusecamerasforotherspeedoffenses(thestatecanuseonlyifanofficerispresent)statewide.Countyormunicipalitymayuseautomatedrailroadgradecrossingenforcementsystematanyrailroadgradecrossingequippedwithacrossinggatedesignatedbylocalauthorities.Maximumfineof$250or25hoursofcommunityserviceforrailcrossingorconstructionortollroadspeeding;$100maximumfineorcompletionofatrafficeducationprogramforredlightoffenders;notamovingviolationorrecordedoffense.Speedinginotherareas,$50if6-10mphoverthelimit;$100ifmorethan10mphoverthelimit.

Indiana NoStateLawIowa NoStateLawKansas NoStateLawKentucky NoStateLaw

Louisiana Rev.Stat.§§32:393(I),32:43(West2014)

LocalmunicipalorparishauthoritiesmaynotuseautomatedspeedenforcementoninterstatehighwaysexceptinDOT-approvedconstructionzoneswhenworkersarepresent.Convictionsresultingfromcameraenforcementcannotbereportedforinclusionindriverrecord.

Maine Tit.29-A§2117(2014) Prohibitsbothspeedandredlightcameraenforcement.

Maryland TransportationCode§21-202.1(2014)

Authorizesuseofredlightcamerasstatewide.Maximumcivilpenaltyof$100,nopointsassessed,notamovingviolationandmaynotbeusedbyinsurers.SchoolzonesandresidentialdistrictsinMontgomeryCounty,PrinceGeorge’sCountyschoolzones,statewideinschoolzonesbylocalordinanceandworkzonesareauthorizedtousephotoenforcementforspeed;$40maximumfine,nopointsassessed.MontgomeryCountyandPrinceGeorge’sCountycanuseautomatedenforcementatrailroadcrossings;$100maximumfine,nopoints.

Massachusetts NoStateLawMichigan NoStateLawMinnesota NoStateLawMississippi HB1568(2009) Prohibitsalllocalitiesfromusingautomatedenforcement.Missouri2 NoStateLaw

Montana §61-8-203(2013) Prohibitsalllocalitiesfromusingautomatedenforcement.Camerasatrailroadgradecrossingsexcepted.

Nebraska NoStateLaw

Nevada §484a.600(2014) Prohibitsuseofcameraequipmentunlessitisheldbyanofficerorinstalledinalawenforcementvehicleorfacility.

New Hampshire §236:130(2014) Automatedenforcementisprohibitedunlessthereisspecificstatutoryauthorization.Itisauthorizedfortollenforcement.

New Jersey §39:4-103.1(2014) Prohibitsuseofcameraradarbylawenforcementofficersoragencies

New MexicoSB861(2007) §66-7-103.1(2014)

Nostatelawauthorizingphotoradaruse.NMDOThasbannedredlightcamerasandmobileenforcementvansonstateandfederalroadways,butstatelawrequirescountiesandmunicipalitiesusingphotoenforcementtopostawarningsignandbeacon.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 72

State/ Jurisdiction Statute Citation Policy

New York Veh&Traf§§1111-a,d,1180-b(McKinney2014)

Authorizesredlightenforcementincitieswithpopulationsofmorethan1millionwithamaximumof150intersections.Maximumfineof$50,nopointsassessedandmaynotbeusedbyinsurers.Authorizesspeedcamerasinschoolzonesincitieswithpopulationsofmorethan1million.Maximumfineof$50,nopointsassessed.CountiesofNassauandSuffolk,citiesofSyracuse,RochesterandBuffalo,bylocalordinance,upto50intersections;Yonkers,bylocalordinance,upto25intersections;Mt.Vernon,bylocalordinance,upto12intersections.

North Carolina §160A-300.1(2014) Authorizescertaincitiestooperatearedlightcameraprogram.Maximumcivilpenaltyof$100,nopointsassessed.

North Dakota NoStateLaw

Ohio2§4511.093,et seq.(Page2014) SB342(2014)

Authorizeslocalauthoritiestooperatetrafficcamerasbutrequireslawenforcementofficersbepresentatthelocationofthecamerainordertoissueaticket.

Oklahoma NoStateLaw

Oregon §§810.438,810.434(2013)Authorizesuseofphotoradarinspecificjurisdictionstodetectspeedviolations;maynotbeusedformorethanfourhoursperday,perlocation.Allowsuseofredlight cameras statewide.

Pennsylvania Tit.75§§3116,3117(2014)AuthorizesuseofredlightcamerasinPhiladelphia,Pittsburghandmunicipalitieswherepopulationexceeds20,000;requireslocalordinance.Maximumfineof$100;notonoperatingrecord.

Rhode Island§31-41.2-1,et seq.(2014) §31-51-2(2014)

Authorizesstatewideuseofredlightcameras.Maximumfineof$85,notacriminalorrecordoffense,andnottobeusedbyinsurersuntilthereisafinaladjudicationoftheviolation.Authorizescamerasforschoolbussafetyenforcement.

South Carolina §56-5-70(2014)

Photoenforcementprohibitedwithexceptions;citationsforviolatingtrafficlawsrelatingtospeedordisregardingtrafficcontroldevicescanbeusedonlywhenthestatedeclaresanemergency.Citationsmustbeservedinpersonwithinonehouroftheviolation.

South Dakota §§32-28-17,32-28-21,22Redlightcamerasareprohibited,andtheDMVdoesnotprovidetootherstatesinformationusedtocollectfinesfromviolationscapturedbyredlightandspeedcameras

Tennessee §55-8-198

Photoenforcementauthorizedstatewidefortrafficviolations.Maximumfineof$50,nopointsassessed.Appropriatesignagemustbelocatedbetween500and1,000feetinadvanceoftheintersection,informingdriversofthepresenceofsurveillancecamerasattheapproachingintersection.Trafficsurveillancecamerasnotallowedoninterstatehighwaysexceptinconstructionzones.

Texas TransportationCode §707.001,et seq.(Vernon2014)

Texasmunicipalitiesnotallowedtousephotoenforcementtoenforcespeedviolations.Photoenforcementauthorizedstatewideforredlightviolations;requireslocalordinance.Maximumfineof$75,notacriminalorrecordoffense.

Utah §41-6a-608(2014)

Limitstheuseofcameraenforcementtoschoolzones,areaswithspeedlimitsof30mphorless,whenapoliceofficerispresent,whensignsarepostedgivingnoticetomotoristsofcamerause,andwhenthecitationisaccompaniedbythephotographproducedbythecameraradar.

Vermont NoStateLaw

73 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

State/ Jurisdiction Statute Citation Policy

Virginia §§46.2-833.1,15.2-968.1(2014)

Authorizescounties,citiesandtownstooperateredlightcamerasatnomorethanoneintersectionforevery10,000residents;requireslocalordinance.Authorizesupto10camerasitesinWashington,D.C.,metroarea.Requiresthattrafficsignalswhereredlightcamerasareoperatedhaveayellowlightphasethatisatleastthreesecondslong.Maximumfineof$50;nopointsassessedandmaynotbeusedbyinsurers.

Washington §46.63.170(2014)Citiesandcountiesstatewideareauthorizedtoenforce,throughphotos,redlightviolationsattwo-arterialintersections,railcrossingsandschoolspeedzones.Localordinancesarerequired.Maximumfineof$250;norecordandnopointsassessed.

West Virginia §17C-6-7a(2014) Allphotoenforcementisprohibited.Wisconsin §349.02 Speedcamerasareprohibited.Wyoming NoStateLaw

Notes1 Drivergivenonlyawarningforfirstphotoradaroffenseifspeediswithin10mphoflimit.2 StatecourtsinMissouriandOhiofoundautomatedtrafficenforcementtobeunconstitutional.

Sources Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and NCSL, 2016.

NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES 74

Appendix JMotorcycle Helmet Use Requirements

All Riders

Specific Segment of Riders (Usually under

age 21 or age 18) No Helmet RequiredAlabama Alaska1 IllinoisCalifornia Arizona IowaGeorgia Arkansas NewHampshireLouisiana ColoradoMaryland Connecticut

Massachusetts Delaware2 Mississippi Florida3

Missouri HawaiiNebraska IdahoNevada Indiana

NewJersey KansasNewYork Kentucky4

NorthCarolina Maine5

Oregon Michigan6

Tennessee Minnesota7

Vermont MontanaVirginia NewMexico

Washington NorthDakota8

WestVirginia Ohio9

American Samoa OklahomaDistrictofColumbia Pennsylvania10

Guam RhodeIsland11

NorthernMarianas SouthCarolinaPuertoRico14 SouthDakota

U.S.VirginIslands Texas12

UtahWisconsin13

Wyoming

Notes

1 Alaska’smotorcyclehelmetuselawcoverspassengersofallages,operatorsyoungerthanage18,andoperatorswithinstructionalpermits.

2 InDelaware,everymotorcycleoperatororriderage19andoldermustcarryanapprovedhelmet.3 Floridalawrequiresthatallridersyoungerthanage21wearhelmets,withoutexception.Those

age21andoldercanridewithouthelmetsonlyiftheycanshowproofofcoveragebyamedicalinsurancepolicy.

75 NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STATE LEGISLATURES

4 Kentuckylawrequiresthatallridersyoungerthanage21wearhelmets,withoutexception.Thoseage21andoldercanridewithouthelmetsonlyiftheycanshowproofofcoveragebyamedicalinsurancepolicy.MotorcyclehelmetlawsinKentuckyalsocoveroperatorswithinstructional/learner’spermits.

5 MotorcyclehelmetlawsinMainecoveroperatorswithinstructional/learner’spermits.Maine’smotorcyclehelmetuselawalsocoverspassengersages17andyoungerandpassengersiftheiroperatorsarerequiredtowearahelmet.

6 Michiganlawrequiresthatallridersyoungerthanage21yearswearhelmets,withoutexception.Thoseage21andoldermayridewithouthelmetsonlyiftheycarryadditionalinsuranceandhavepassedamotorcyclesafetycourseorhavehadtheirmotorcycleendorsementforatleasttwoyears.Motorcyclepassengerswhowanttoexercisethisoptionalsomustbeage21orolderandcarryadditionalinsurance.

7 MotorcyclehelmetlawsinMinnesotacoveroperatorswithinstructional/learner’spermits.8 NorthDakota’smotorcyclehelmetuselawcoversallpassengerstravelingwithoperatorswhoare

coveredbythelaw.9 Ohio’smotorcyclehelmetuselawcoversalloperatorsduringthefirstyearoflicensureandall

passengersofoperatorswhoarecoveredbythelaw.10 Pennsylvania’smotorcyclehelmetuselawcoversalloperatorsduringthefirsttwoyearsoflicensure

unlesstheoperatorhascompletedthesafetycourseapprovedbyPennsylvaniaDOTortheMotorcycleSafetyFoundation.

11 RhodeIsland’smotorcyclehelmetuselawcoversallpassengers(regardlessofage)andalloperatorsduringthefirstyearoflicensure(regardlessofage).

12 Texasexemptsridersage21orolderiftheycaneithershowproofofsuccessfullycompletingamotorcycleoperatortrainingandsafetycourseorcanshowprooftheyhaveamedicalinsurancepolicy.Apeaceofficercannotstopordetainapersonwhoistheoperatoroforapassengeronamotorcycleforthesolepurposeofdeterminingwhetherthepersonhassuccessfullycompletedthemotorcycleoperatortrainingandsafetycourseoriscoveredbyahealthinsuranceplan.

13 MotorcyclehelmetlawsinWisconsincoveroperatorswithinstructional/learner’spermits.14 PuertoRicostrengtheneditsmotorcyclelawin2007.Thelawrequiresriderstowearhelmets,

boots,glovesandreflectivegearwhileridingatnight.Thelawalsoimposednewtestingrequirements.

Sources: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, NCSL, and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, 2016.

William T. Pound, Executive Director

7700EastFirstPlace,Denver,Colorado80230,303-364-7700|444NorthCapitolStreet,N.W.,Suite515,Washington,D.C.20001,202-624-5400

www.ncsl.org

©2017bytheNationalConferenceofStateLegislatures.Allrightsreserved.ISBN1-58024-868-6

NCSLContacts:

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Anne.Teigen@ncsl.org