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Topic 9
Memory Storage & Information Processing
How the MIND worksHave you ever wondered
how you manage to remember information for a test?
How you are able to create new memories, store them for periods of time, and recall them when they are needed.
This is due to our MEMORY.But what exactly is memory? And How are
memories formed?
What is memory?Memory refers to the processes that are
used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information.
There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage and retrieval.
What is memory?
Encoding or registration (receiving, processing and combining of received information)
Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information)
Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity)
◦ In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding.
◦ Once information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.
◦ Most of the stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it.
◦ The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.
Memory is the core to most of our cognitive process. Because….◦ Memory is the storing of learned information, and the
ability to recall that which has been stored.◦ The mental faculty of retaining and recalling past
experience. Research indicates that the ability to retain
information is fairly uniform among normal individuals what differs is the degree to which persons learn or take account of something to begin with and the kind and amount of detail that is retained.
What is Memory?
Memory and learning are the basis of all our knowledge and abilities.Learning – is the process of
acquiring new knowledge, while….Memory – helps retain the learned
knowledge.
Thus, memory is the brain’s ability to acquire, store, retain and retrieve information.
How does Memory relate to learning?
Memory can be classified into 2 primary types:Explicit memory - Declarative memory (conscious
memory)Implicit memory – procedural memory (automatic &
unconscious)
Types of memory
Explicit Memory (can be divided into STM & LTM)It allows a person to recall consciously & describe
verbally information, e.g. facts, people etcTypes of memory that contains info regarding specific
events that happen at a specific time & place.Forming & storing memory are associated with past
experience/knowledge.
Implicit Memory (repetition priming, conditioning & motor skills)Previous experience assist a person to perform task
without any conscious awareness of the past experience. Through repetition priming & skill learning – a person
would become better on task performance
Explicit Memory & Implicit Memory
SENSORY MEMORY
Long Term Memory
Information Processing Model: The Stage Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
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Types of Memory
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Sensory register/sensory memoryPart of memory that receives all the information a
person senses from the environment and stores it fleetingly.
Short term memoryA part where new information is stored temporarily,
until it is either lost or placed into long term memoryAlso known as working memory, where a decision
must be made to discard information or to transfer it to permanent storage, in long-term memory.
Long Term memoryPart of memory which has unlimited capacity & can
hold information indefinitely. the encyclopedic mental processing unit in which
information may be stored permanently and from which it may be later retrieved.
Sensory memory holds a visual image, like a lightening bold, for a fraction of a second – just long enough for you to perceive a flow of movement.
Sensory memory
Short term memoryA temporary storage area that is used for
unprocessed visual or auditory information that last up to 30 sec.
STM -limited capacity - up to 7 pieces of independent information.
Memory loss is due to decaying of information.
3 basic operations in STM:Iconic memory –ability to hold visual imageAcoustic memory – the ability to hold soundsWorking memory –process that temporarily
store & manipulate information for immediate use
Long Term memoryPart of memory which has unlimited
capacity & can hold information indefinitely.
LTM can be divide into :Episodic memory – memory of specific
events or episodes that an individual experienced
Semantic memory – memory that includes knowledge of words meaning and is an essential element of language.
How Is Information Organized In Memory?
The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to◦ make decisions, ◦ interact with others,◦ solve problems, etc
Exactly how are information organized in memory is unclear, but researchers do know that these memories are arranged in groups.
Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow
How Is Information Organized In Memory?
Clustering is used to organize related information into groups.
Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall.
For example, consider the following group of words: Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow Spend a few seconds reading them, then look
away and try to recall and list these words. How did you group the words when you listed
them? Most people will list using three different
categories: color, furniture and fruit.
How Is Information Organized In Memory?
One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the semantic network model.
This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories i.e. a memory of a specific place might activate memories about related things that have occurred in that place. For example, thinking about a certain campus
building might trigger memories of attending classes, studying and socializing with peers.
Memory Retrieval Memory retrieval is important for our daily life, e.g. from
remembering where you parked your car to learning new skills.
Once information has been encoded and stored in memory, it must be retrieved in order to be used.
There are many factors that can influence how memories are retrieved from long-term memory.
In order to fully understand this process, it is important to understand exactly what retrieval is and what are the factors that can impact how memories are retrieved.
Memory Retrieval is a process of accessing stored memories.
Retrieval cues can be use can have an impact on how information is retrieved.
A retrieval cue - a clue/prompt used to trigger the retrieval of longterm memory.
What Is Memory Retrieval? Four basic ways in which information can be pulled from long-
term memory. ◦ Recall: Type of memory retrieval involves being able to access
the information without being cued. For example, answering a question on a fill-in-the-blank test is a good example of recall.
◦ Recollection: Type of memory retrieval involves reconstructing memory, often utilizing logical structures, partial memories, narratives or clues. For example, writing an answer on an essay exam often involves remembering bits on information, and then restructuring the remaining information based on these partial memories.
◦ Recognition: This type of memory retrieval involves identifying information after experiencing it again. For example, taking a multiple choice quiz requires that you recognize the correct answer out of a group of available answers.
◦ Relearning: This type of memory retrieval involves relearning information that has been previously learned. This often makes it easier to remember and retrieve information in the future and can improve the strength of memories.
Problems with RetrievalNot every retrieval process works perfectly. Have you ever felt like you knew the answer to a
question, but couldn't quite remember the information? This phenomenon is known as a 'tip of the tongue'
experience. You might feel certain that this information is stored somewhere in your memory, but you are unable to access and retrieve it.
Schacter (2001) said that these experiences are extremely common, typically occurring at least once each week for most younger individuals and two to four times per week for elderly adults.
Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips
1. Focus your attention on the materials you are studying.
2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.
3. Structure and organize the information you are studying.
4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information.
5. Elaborate and rehearse the information you are studying.
6. Relate new information to things you already know.
7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall.
8. Teach new concepts to another person.
9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.
10. Vary your study routine.
Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips
1.Focus your attention on the materials you are studying.
Attention is a major components of memory. For information to move from short-term memory into long-term memory need to actively attend to this information. Try to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music and other diversions.
2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.According to Bjork (2001), studying materials over a number of session's gives you the time you need to adequately process the information. Those who study regularly remember the material far better than those who did all of their studying in one marathon session.
3. Structure and organize the information you are studying.
Researchers have found that information is organized in memory in related clusters. S0, structure & organize the materials you are studying. Try grouping similar concepts and terms together, or make an outline of your notes/textbook readings to help group related concepts.
Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember
information.◦ A mnemonic is simply a way to remember informatio a
technique used to aid in recall. For example, you might associate a term you need to remember with a common item that you are very familiar with (rhyme). Use a rhyme, song/joke to help remember.
5. Elaborate & rehearse the information you are studying.◦ In order to recall information, you need to encode what
you are studying into long-term memory use elaborative rehearsal. An example of this technique would be to read the definition of a key term, study the definition of that term and then read a more detailed description of what that term means. After repeating this process a few times, your recall of the information will be far better.
Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips
6. Relate new information to things you already know. Establishing relationships between new ideas and
previously existing memories, When you are studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how this information relates to things that you already know.
7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall. Many benefit from visualizing the information they study
focus on the photos, charts, graphics etc. If you do not have visual cues to help, try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the margins of your notes/use highlighter/pens in different colours to group related ideas in your notes.
8. Teach new concepts to another person. Research suggests that reading out loud can improves
memory of the material or teaching new concepts to others enhances understanding and recall. You can use this approach in your own studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend or study partner
Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips
9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.◦ Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember
information at the beginning or end of a chapter? Researchers have found that the position of information can play a role in recall, which is known as the serial position effect. While recalling middle information can be difficult, you can overcome this problem by spending extra time rehearsing this information. Another strategy is to try restructuring the information so it will be easier to remember. When you come across an especially difficult concept, devote some extra time to memorizing the information.
10. Vary your study routine.◦ Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your
study routine. If you are accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot to study. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning reviewing the information you studied the previous night. By adding an element of novelty to your study sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of your efforts and significantly improve your long-term recall.
Three Kinds of Memory TasksRecall
producing required information by searching memory
Retrieval CueAny stimulus or bit of information
that aids in retrievalRecognition
Identifying material as familiar or as having been encountered before
Only requires that you recognize it, not recall all the information
RelearningRetention expressed as the
percentage of time saved when material is relearned.
Recognition
Are you better at remembering faces than names?
Have you wondered why?
It’s because the task involves recognition rather than recall.
You must recall the name but merely recognize the face.
The Nature of RememberingReconstruction
an account of an event pieced together from a few highlights.
May or may not be accurateSchemas
integrated framework of knowledge and assumptions about people, objects, and events
Affect how the person encodes and recalls informationMay or may not be accurateMemories are usually reconstructed, shorter, and more
consistent with an individual’s viewpointPuzzling features are adapted to fit expectations or familiar
objectsPositive Bias
Pleasant events are remembered more than unpleasant eventsAids with current emotional well-being
Reconstruction
When people recall an event, such as a car accident, they are actually reconstructing it from memory by piecing together bits of information that may or may not be totally accurate.
The Nature of RememberingEyewitness Testimony
Is highly subject to error and should be viewed with cautionU.S. Department of Justice prepared national guidelines for
collecting eyewitness evidence in 1999Minimize identification of suspects errors by first describing
the perpetrator and then searching for photos to match the description
Lineup errors are minimized through sequential viewingViewing members of lineup one at a time rather than all
togetherMistakes are more likely if person is of another race or if a
weapon was used in the crimeMisinformation Effect – misleading information supplied
after the event confounds a witnesses memoryStress of the event does not lessen ability to remember
critical details while less important details may be lostConfidence of eyewitnesses has much to do with ease of
recall not accuracy of information.
Recovering Repressed Memories Controversy initially surrounded sex abuse victims and the
idea: “if you think you were abused and your life shows the symptoms,
then you were” removed responsibility of establishing proof May be false “recovered” memories influenced by suggestions. Hypnosis techniques often used to aid in recovery of memories
Hypnosis does not improve the accuracy of memory only the confidence in what was remembered.
Persons asked to Imagine a fictitious event develop a false memory of the event.
Repeated exposure to suggestions of false memories can create them
Individual differences in suggestibility may also play a role Infantile amnesia – the inability to recall events from the first
few years of life likely due to limited language and hippocampus development
APA & AMA both agree repressed memories exist and that false memories can be constructed.
Flashbulb MemoriesAn extremely vivid memory of the conditions surrounding one’s
first hearing the news of a surprising, shocking, or highly emotional event.News of the death or injury of a family member or friendNews of a catastrophe
Easily recalled due to high Emotionality Consequentiality – importance of the consequences of the eventRehearsal – how often people think or talk about the events
afterward Appear to be forgotten at about the same rate and ways as
other kinds of memories Eyewitnesses to the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the
Pentagon almost certainly formed flashbulb memories of the witnessed events.
Do you remember where you were and what you were doing when you heard the news on September 11, 2001?
Memory and CultureThe matter and manner of recall are often
predominantly determined by social influences.Swazi herdsman recall minute individual
differences of every cowHistory of a tribe preserved orally by specialists
Impressive memory feats possible because its an integral and critically important part of the culture in which they live Other memory components usually no different
Stories set in own cultures more easily remembered than those set in other cultures
Culturally based schemas may also influence memory and recall
Serial Position EffectThe finding that, for information learned in a
sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence
Primacy effect The tendency to recall the first items in a
sequence more readily than the middle itemsRecency effect
The tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle
Poorer recall of information in the middle of a series because it is no longer in short-term memory
Serial position effect supports notion of separate systems for short and long-term memory
Context dependent memory. Information is easier to recall when a person is
in the same environmental context they were in when they learned it.
Elements of the physical setting where information is learned are encoded along with the memory
State dependent memory. The tendency to recall information better if one is in the
same pharmacological or psychological state as when the information was encoded
Students exposed to spider and/or snakes while learning a list of words recalled more words when the creatures were present during recall
Depressed adults recall more negative life experiencesMore likely to recall parents as unloving and rejecting
Depression impairs memoryYounger depressed patients more impaired than olderNegative recall tendency reverses itself when
depression lifts
LearningThe process by which experiences change our nervous
system and hence our behavior.
Stimulus-response learningLearning to automatically make a particular response in
the presence of a particular stimulus; includes classical and instrumental conditioning.
Classical conditioningA learning procedure; when a stimulus that initially
produces no particular response is followed several times by an unconditioned stimulus that produces a defensive or appetitive response. This type of learning involves:
Unconditioned stimulusUnconditioned responseConditioned stimulusConditioned response
Biology and Memory: The Nature of Learning
Hebb ruleThe hypothesis proposed by Donald Hebb that the
cellular basis of learning involves strengthening ofa synapse that is repeatedly active when thepostsynaptic neuron fires.
Instrumental conditioningA learning procedure whereby the effects of a
particular behavior in a particular situation increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish) the probability of the behavior; also called operant conditioning.
Reinforcing stimulusAn appetitive stimulus that follows a particular
behavior and thus makes the behavior become more frequent.
Punishing stimulusAn aversive stimulus that follows a particular behavior
and thus makes the behavior become less frequent.
The Nature of Learning
Motor learningLearning to make a new response.
Relational learningInvolves learning the relationships among
individual stimuli such as becoming familiar with the contents of a room.
The Nature of Learning
Induction of long-term potentiation
Long-term potentiationA long-term increase in the excitability of a neuron
to a particular synaptic input caused by repeated high-frequency activity of that input.
Hippocampal formationA forebrain structure of the temporal lobe,
constitutingan important part of the limbic system; includes the hippocampus proper (Ammon’s horn), dentate gyrus,and subiculum.
Biology & Memory: Learning & Synaptic Plasticity
Biology & Memory: Learning & Synaptic Plasticity
Role of NMDA receptors
Associative long-term potentiationA long-term potentiation in which concurrent
stimulation of weak and strong synapses to agiven neuron strengthens the weak ones.
NMDA receptorA specialized ionotropic glutamate receptor that
controls a calcium channel that is normally blockedby Mg2+ ions; involved in long-term potentiation.
Biology & Memory: Learning & Synaptic Plasticity
Role of NMDA receptorsAP5
2-Amino-5-phosphonopentanoate; a drug that blocks NMDA receptors.
AMPA receptorAn ionotropic glutamate receptor that controls a
sodium channel; when its open, it produces EPSPs.
Role of NMDA receptorsDendritic spike
An action potential that occurs in the dendrite of some types of pyramidal cells.
Biology & Memory: Learning & Synaptic Plasticity
Mechanisms of synaptic plasticityCaM-KII
Type II calcium-calmodulin kinase, an enzyme that must be activated by calcium; may play a role in the establishment of long-term potentiation.
Nitric oxide synthaseAn enzyme responsible for the production of nitric
oxide.
Long-term depression (LTD)A long-term decrease in the excitability of a neuron
to a particular synaptic input caused by stimulation of the terminal button while the postsynaptic membrane is hyperpolarized.
Reinforcement: Neural circuits involved in reinforcementMedial forebrain bundle (MFB)
A fiber bundle that runs in a rostral-caudal direction through the basal forebrain and lateral hypothalamus; electrical stimulation of these axons is reinforcing.
Ventral tegmental area (VTA)A group of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral midbrain whose
axons form the mesolimbic and mesocortical system; plays a critical role in reinforcement.
Nucleus accumbensA nucleus of the basal forebrain near the septum; receives
dopamine-secreting terminal buttons from neurons of the ventral tegmental area and is thought to be involved in reinforcement and attention.
Nucleus accumbensA nucleus of the basal forebrain near the septum; receives
dopamine-secreting terminal buttons from neurons of the ventral tegmental area and is thought to be involved in reinforcement and attention
Instrumental Conditioning and Motor Learning
Biology and MemoryHippocampal Region
A part of the limbic system which includes the hippocampus and underlying cortical areas
Involved in the formation of semantic memories.
Anterograde amnesia. The inability to form long-
term memories of an event occurring after brain injury or surgery.
Other long and short-term memories usually are intact
Biology and MemoryHippocampus
Especially important in forming episodic memories
Memories can be retrieved without the hippocampus involvement
Is involved in creating intricate neural spatial maps
Semantic MemoriesInvolve the hippocampus and other parts of
hippocampal regionOther long and short-term memories usually are
intact
The posterior (rear) hippocampus of an experienced London taxi driver, shown in red in the MRI scan on the left, is significantly larger than the posterior hippocampus of a research participant who was not a taxi driver, shown in red in the scan on the right.
Biology and MemoryNeuronal Changes and Memory
Aplysia sea snail study mapped neural circuits formed as the animal learned and remembered
Donald Hebb argued in 1940’s that learning and memory must involve the enhancement of transmission at the synapses between neurons.
Long-term Potentiation (LTP)An increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the
synapses that lasts for hours or longerDoes not take place unless sending and receiving are
activated at the same time by intense stimulationReceiving neuron must be depolarized (ready to fire) when
the stimulation occurs
Biology and Memory Hormones and Memory
Strongest and most lasting emotions are usually fueled by emotion
Cahill and McGaugh two pathways for forming memories1. Ordinary information.2. Memories fired by emotion
Adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine into bloodstream
Fight or flight response imprint powerful and enduring memories surrounding threatening situations
Amygdala activates during emotional episodes and may explain the intensity and durability of flashbulb memories
High levels of stress hormone cortisol interferes with memory
Estrogen improves working memory efficiency and the development and maintenance of synapses in the brain
The strongest and most lasting memories are usually fueled by emotion.
That’s why most people have vivid memories of the events and circumstances that surround the experience of falling in love.
Ebbinghaus’s Curve of ForgettingAfter memorizing lists of nonsense syllables retentions was measured after varying intervals of time using the relearning method. Forgetting was rapid at first (58% after 20 minutes and 44% after 1 hour) then tapered off.
Cause of Forgetting Encoding failure
Information is not put into long-term memory
Decay theoryMemories not used will fade with time and ultimately
disappear
A Penny For Your Thoughts
On a sheet of paper draw a sketch of a U.S. penny from memory recall. Show the direction Lincoln’s image is facing and the location of the date, and include all the words on the “heads” side of the penny.
Cause of ForgettingInterference
Information or associations stored hinder the ability to remember it
Proactive InterferenceInformation or experiences all ready stored hinder memory
Retroactive InterferenceNew learning interferes with ability to recall previous learning
Cause of Forgetting Consolidation Failure
Any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory from forming.
Retrograde AmnesiaA loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly
before a loss of consciousnessMotivated Forgetting
Suppression or repression in an effort to protect from material that is painful, frightening, or otherwise unpleasant
RepressionRemoving unpleasant memories from one’s
consciousness, so that one is no longer aware that a painful event occurred
Cause of ForgettingAmnesia
A partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or psychological cause
Prospective ForgettingNot remembering to carry out some intended action
Forgetting to do something that is unimportant or unpleasant
Retrieval FailureNot remembering something one is certain of
knowingTip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Trying to recall some bit of information knowing you knew it but not able to come up with it