Top Ten Sites of the Celtic Tiger

8/8/2019 Top Ten Sites of the Celtic Tiger

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current archaeology|www.archaeology.co.uk

IRELAND Celtic Tiger archaeology

October 2010|

imagine also that these excavations were fiercely

regulated to control their quality. This sounds like

an archaeo-utopia: but for a short time it existed.

This was Irelands Celtic Tiger archaeology.

Current Archaeology last published a special

issue on Irish archaeology in September 1970 (CA

22). The sites reported on then by Andrew Selkirk

(Knowth, Newgrange, Navan Fort and Ballyglass)

remained state-of-the-art for the following 30

12

When the Celtic Tiger

During the Celtic Tiger economic boom, Ireland experienced a period ofprosperity which led to an unprecedented golden age for commercialarchaeology. In a four-part series, Brendon Wilkins examines the top sites,

finds and controversies that defined over a decade of discovery.

the golden years of commercialarchaeology in Ireland

Imagine a place where the term million-

aire archaeologist would not sound

ridiculous, and where young archae-

ology students could look forward to

excellent career prospects with salaries

equivalent to any other profession.

Imagine hundreds of excavations up and down

the country crying out for help, willing to pay

handsomely, even for inexperienced diggers;PHOTO:HeadlandArchaeology(Ireland)Ltd

ABOVE Frosty morning:looking south on the N9/N10 motorway projectat Russellstown, CountyCarlow.

When the Celtic Tiger


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war reconstruction boom happened long before

such restrictions were commonplace.

Weighing up the legacy of the Celtic Tiger eco-

nomic boom, it is clear that it was a golden age for

archaeologists; however, was it also a golden age

for archaeology? And, what insight does that giveus into how archaeology is practised in the UK?

Rumsfeldian archaeology

The majority of archaeologists in both Britain

and Ireland are employed to work on develop-

ment-led (commercial) projects. Embedding

archaeology in the planning process has been

called Rumsfeldian Archaeology, because it is

best explained by a somewhat mystifying speech

given by the former US Secretary of State for

Defence, Donald Rumsfeld:

As we know,

There are known knowns.

There are things we know we know.

We also know

There are known unknowns.

That is to say

We know there are some things

We do not know.

But there are also unknown unknowns,

The ones we dont know

We dont know.12 February 2002,

Department of Defence news briefing

In both Britain and Ireland, large-scale devel-

opments are preceded by an impact assessment

where archaeological remains are a material con-

sideration (the known knowns). In the case of

road schemes, these known sites are avoided, and

a desk-based study of maps, documents and other

non-invasive techniques is used to assess the land

adjacent to these sites: the known unknowns. If

these have archaeological potential, test-trencheswill be excavated to evaluate whether full excava-

tion should proceed.

In Ireland, these trenches are not just focused

around known areas of potential. The entire road

corridor is comprehensively tested, with a centre-

line trench running from start to finish, designed

to find the unknown unknowns; sites that would

otherwise fall through the net. This represents

a considerable investment in the front end of

archaeological works prior to construction, com-

pared to Britain where a much smaller percentage

of the road corridor is tested.

Archaeologists have never quite shared in soci-

etys wealth, no matter how successful the wider

economy. In Ireland, however, the archaeology

boom was fuelled by longer-term trends: gen-

erous European structural funding, attractive taxincentives and, crucially for archaeology, a com-

prehensive National Development Plan designed

to fix the countrys inadequate infrastructure.

With an annual budget of 1.5bn, the road

building programme in Ireland initiated some

of the largest infrastructure archaeology projects

undertaken anywhere in the world. Irish archae-

ology benefitted significantly from this unprec-

edented investment, underwritten by a cast-iron

legal framework designed to protect the historic

environment from development impact a situ-

ation that differed from Britain, where the post-



October 2010|14

ABOVE Todays news,tomorrows chip paper:whenever archaeologyis in the news in the UK,it is a positive story; in

contrast, during the CelticTiger, archaeology madeheadlines in Ireland for allthe wrong reasons.


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resourced; not so much preservation by record

as destruction in denial. But they may respond

by citing the law of diminishing returns, insisting

that the sampling approach is more cost-effective

and a better way of filtering out the irrelevant,

compared to the indiscriminate information-gathering of the Irish model. Is it precisely this

indiscriminate approach, however, that safe-

guards archaeology from commercial pressure?

Students of excavation theory will recognise an

echo in this debate that harks back to the foun-

dations of archaeology as a scientific discipline:

General Pitt-Rivers believed everything should be

recorded, irrespective of perceived significance,

because fresh problems in archaeologyare con-

stantly arising; while Flinders Petrie advocated a

discriminatory approach because the excavator

does not find anything he does not look for.But this does not explain how these different

methods were adopted in Britain and Ireland. For

that, we must look back to see how commercial

archaeology evolved in each country.

Ground Zero

Commercial archaeology in the UK is a legacy of

the Rescue Revolution a reaction to post-war



October 2010|16

Nowhere were these tactics more apparent than during the

excavations on the M3 as it passed through the Tara-Skryne valley in

Co. Meath. The Hill of Tara is a complex of earthworks dating from the

Neolithic to the early Medieval period, and according to tradition was

the seat of the High King of Ireland. The distance between the new

motorway and the exact site of the hill is 2.2 km (1.37 miles), and the

preferred route was selected from a number of different options, all of

which attempted to steer clear of known archaeological sites.

Nevertheless, in such a rich archaeological landscape it was inevitable

that entirely new sites would be unearthed, and when a highly significant

Iron Age enclosure was discovered at Lismullin, the excavation rekindled

debate in the media on the proposed route. The site was seized upon by

pressure groups opposed to development, and the motorway

was widely reported as being built through the hill of Tara. The

perception at home and abroad was that Ireland was riding

roughshod over its past, blatantly bulldozing one of its most iconic

monuments. Public opinion was polarised, and commercial field

archaeologists, engaged by the NRA, were caught in the crossfire.The fiercest critics of Celtic Tiger archaeology object on

principle. Condemning the development at all costs agenda, the

Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney criticised modern day Irelands

pursuit of the secular above the sacred. In an interview with

the BBC in March 2008, he said, If ever there was a place that

deserved to be preserved in the name of the dead generations

from pre-historic times up to historic times up to completely

recently it was Tara. His call to arms was echoed by Jonathan

LEFT The Hill of Tara ceremonial complex. The new motorwayis further away from the monument than the existing roadway,

shown at the bottom of the photo.

treated as potentially unique,

requiring 100% excavation

and preservation by record.

A legal framework under-

writes all decisions that

may potentially impact on

the archaeological heritage,and any proposed develop-

ment must be preceded by full

excavation of all sites and features.

But, digging larger quantities means larger

costs. If this is undertaken in the public interest,

one has to ask: does digging more equal value

for money? Who does it better, the British or

the Irish? Initially, it appears the British are the

losers, with excavations understaffed and under-

ABOVE This stoneartefact, broken duringmanufacture and thenreused probably as afishing weight, was foundadjacent to the BronzeAge trackway at Site 34,Newrath.

PHOTO:He

adlnadArchaeology(Ireland)Ltd

PHO

TO:MichaelFox/Knowth.c

om


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IRELAND Prehistoric wetland archaeology

November 2010|

On a misty morning 8,000 years

ago, two young women pushed

their way through the head-

high reeds of a tidal estuary, 6m

below the busy streets of what

is now modern Dublin. As they

stepped onto the shifting mud flats, their baskets,

wattle work and fishing ground came into view,

and they could see, even from this distance, that

it had been a bountiful evening.

They belonged to the period known as the

Mesolithic, and were the first people known to

36

From ancientwaterways

to modernhighways

As Irelands land-hungry Celtic Tiger economicboom targeted wetland landscapes oncethought too boggy for modern development,it became clear these sites had been home tovibrant prehistoric communities, settled alongwhat would have been ancient thoroughfares.Brendon Wilkins explains the evidence.

Irelandsprehistoricbeginnings

PHOTO:HeadlandArchaeologyLtd.


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www.archaeology.co.uk|current archaeology|Issue 248 37

microbacterial decay are slowed to a halt. In late

2004, Melanie McQuade, a Site Director for Mar-

garet Gowen and Co., excavated just such a site.

Mesolithic Fisher-Foragers

During routine archaeological monitoring

development works at North Wall Quay in Dub-

lins Docklands, McQuade and her team found

the remarkably preserved remains of seven Late

Mesolithic fish traps dating to between 6100 and

5700 BC. These are the earliest securely dated

have lived in Ireland, between 8000 and 4000 BC

(there is as yet no evidence for Palaeolithic occu-

pation in Ireland). The majority of artefacts were

organic and perishable, rarely surviving the life-

time of the people who made them. But it is not

just the durability of the artefacts or activities that

take place on a site that determines how much

is found. What survives is also a product of the

burial environment, which on some lucky occa-

sions can be exceptionally favourable to archaeo-

logical remains: either because it is waterlogged,

frozen, or so dry that the natural processes of

ABOVEPre-excavationshot of the multi-periodPrumplestown Lower site.The Early Bronze Age pitcircle is visible at centre.

IRELAND

Granny

Dublin

Prumplestown


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November 2010|

fish traps in Ireland or the UK, and are also someof the earliest examples recorded in Europe. Wet

boggy sites adjacent to rivers known as estua-

rine and alluvial wetlands provide a wealth

of scientific information, but it is the record of

human presence in these landscapes that makes

them special. The fish trap remains illustrate the

value of this 70m stretch of the Liffey Estuary,

which was in use over almost three millennia of

Irish prehistory, as well as

the technological skill of

their makers and raise

several points concerningthe social implications of

trap fishing.

At this time in Ire-

land, the population was

heavily reliant on fish, due

to the fact that the limited

native fauna provided little

opportunity for hunting.

The importance of fishing is shown by the con-

centration of Mesolithic material recovered from

lakeside, riverine and coastal settings, and is also

highlighted by the high percentage of fish bonewithin assemblages of that period. In contrast to

Britain, the Irish Mesolithic was a fisher-forager

society, rather than one of hunter-gatherers.

The fishing ground

The fish traps were buried within estuarine silts,

where most of the remains were preserved in situ

at depths of 4m to 6m below sea level. They were

set to the south of a gravel shoreline about 30m

north of the existing quay wall, which repre-

sented either the northern bank of the prehistoric

channel of the Liffey, or the shore of a tidal islandwithin the estuary.

The fish traps and the pieces of stakes and wattle

scattered across the site were the remains of struc-

tures that operated on the principle of passive

fishing: fish in the incoming or outgoing tides

were caught in traps, and then retrieved at low

tide when the traps were accessible. The system

is separated into weirs of wattle work designed to

guide the fish, and traps

designed to catch them.

Most of the remains from

North Wall Quay wereparts of ebb weirs, which

caught fish that drifted

with the falling tide. Ebb

weirs are typically con-

structed of large wooden

fences (or stone walls) that

form a V-shape, with a

basket set at the junction

to trap the fish.

Four of the ebb weir pieces were Late Mesolithic

in date. In addition to the ebb weirs, Late Meso-

lithic dates were also obtained on a C-shaped fishtrap and a basket fragment. Evidence for a Middle

Neolithic fish trap was also discovered, which

comprised a beautifully preserved section of a

wattle weir (4.41m by 4.16m), found at the edge of

the shore where it had probably been washed up

by the tide. All the remains were so closely dated

that they could have been used by the same or

successive generations of fishermen.

The high level of preservation enabled detailed

analysis of the wood used in their construction.

The traps were made almost exclusively of hazel,

with small amounts of birch, ash and fruitwood

38

1

2

3

4

5cms

ABOVEA Late MesolithicC-shaped fish trap.

ABOVE RIGHTThissection of beautifullypreserved wattle weir waspart of a Neolithic fishtrap that had been left onthe shores edge, probablywashed up by the tide.

RIGHTEarrings and blueglass beads discovered at

Prumplestown.

BELOW The wedge-cutpointed end of a LateMesolithic fish trap.

PHOTO:MargaretGowenandCoLtd.


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www.archaeology.co.uk|current archaeology|Issue 248

also used. The selection of hazel was an obvious

one, since it is a pliable wood, ideal for use as

wattling and withies. It grows in dryland areas,

however, and is unlikely to have grown in the

estuarine environment of this site thus, the

wood must have been sourced elsewhere. Manyof the stakes from the Late Mesolithic fish traps

displayed worked ends, with most cut to a point

on the end.

These took the form of chisel (cut on one face),

wedge (two cut faces) and pencil (multiple cuts)

points. The visible tool marks were mostly flat,

although a few were concave, indicating the use

of convex, narrow bladed, smooth stone axes,

comparable to the narrower examples of such

recorded from Late Mesolithic sites.

Catch of the dayIn his seminal 1986 studyReading the Irish Land-

scape, Frank Mitchell argued that dense wood-

land covered Ireland during the Mesolithic,

perhaps explaining why the majority of finds

from this period come from coastal, alluvial and

estuarine sites. The restriction on inland move-

ment meant that people would have travelled

most easily along river valleys, and the fish traps

at North Wall Quay support this picture.

Reconstruction exercises have shown that har-

vesting the raw material and manufacturing aconical fish trap takes at least seven hours a con-

siderable investment in time and resources. While

parts of the traps such as baskets and wattle panels

could have been constructed off-site, they would

have to have been assembled and positioned

during low tide when the estuary was accessible

from the shore; thus, the people fishing at North

Wall Quay must have lived within easy reach of

the traps, so that they could harvest the fish and

carry out any repairs at low tide.

The traps could potentially have caught any of

the fish swimming into estuarine waters, namelyherring, whiting, bass, sole, trout, flounder, plaice

and mullet, as well as seasonal runs of salmon and

eel. Such a wide variety of fish may have facili-

tated year-round fishing; it could then be argued

that the construction of fish weirs may have laid

the foundation for a trend of sedentism and social

complexity. Ireland had become isolated from

Britain since it was originally settled around 8000

BC, developing its own distinctive settlement

pattern and material culture. Whether the drive

towards agriculture came from within the native

population, or without, there were dramatic

39

TOPThe Neolithichouse discovered duringair reconnaissance ofthe route for the N25Waterford Bypass at

Granny in Co. Kilkenny.

ABOVE Cobbles insidethe Neolithic house,representing a floorsurface, during excavation.

LEFT North-west wallof the house, showingpacking stones.

PHOTO:HeadlandArchaeologyLtd


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November 2010|

changes happening beyond the Irish Mesolithic

world such as the wave of colonisation that was

sweeping into central Europe from the Balkans

and Western Asia. As our next site shows an

early Neolithic house from the River Suir valley

prehistoric waterways again came to the fore.

Hearth and home

In 2004 freelance archaeologist Joanne Hughes

had her suspicions, but it wasnt until she got

an excited call from NRA Project Archaeologist

James Eogan just landed from a reconnaissance

helicopter flight along the route of the N25

Waterford Bypass that she was convinced: the

faint square outline gradually appearing beneathher teams busy trowels was the first Neolithic

house discovered in Co. Kilkenny. It has since

turned out to be one of the best examples so far

unearthed in Ireland.

The Neolithic period in Ireland dates broadly

to between 4000 and 2500 BC, and is typified

by a change in stone technology, a reliance on

domesticates, and a transformation in social

attitudes. It was a significant departure from

the Mesolithic life-way. Stable isotopic analysis

of Neolithic human remains indicates a general

shift in this period from marine to a terrestrialdiet, dominated by meat, bread and dairy prod-

ucts. Settlements were much more permanent,

housing small farming communities dependent

on a narrow range of intensively managed food

sources.

This change is expressed at the early Neolithic

house site discovered at Granny, Co. Kilkenny, on

the N25 Waterford Bypass. Surrounded by tilled

fields and penned animals, it was an isolated

dwelling on a south-facing slope overlooking the

River Suir, measuring 6.5m by 7m, and dating to

between 3950 and 3715 BC. It had been built byconstructing a square foundation trench, into

which postholes had been cut at regular intervals

to hold a substantial timber frame supporting

the roof. High quality stone objects, including

chipped flakes and leaf-shaped arrowheads, were

deposited into some of these postholes, before

the posts were packed in and fastened together.

A lighter wall-cladding of split timber planks was

then added, with packing stones wedged against

them in the foundation trench.

Oak charcoal was found throughout the foun-

dation trench, suggesting that planks had been

40

ABOVE Site plan of features on bothsides of the River Lerr, PrumplestownLower and Woodlands West.

ABOVEReconstructionsof how the Neolithichouse at Granny wasconstructed, based onexcavation information.

PHOTOS:HeadlandArchaeologyLtd

Iron Age ring-

ditch cemetery

Wetlands area

with trackways

Neolithic

timber circle

Early Bronze

Age pit circle

Causewayed

Iron Age ring-

ditch

Neolithic

timber circle

Cow mandibles found here


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IRELAND Iron Age

December 2010|

but we cannot see them, he wrote. Thus we may

truly describe them as the invisible people.

Archaeologists throughout the world will rec

ognise this conundrum: does absence of evidence

equal evidence of absence? Are Iron Age people

invisible because Ireland was plunged into aDark Age of economic and cultural stagnation?

Or are Iron Age people invisible because our

excavation strategies have hitherto been ineffec

tive? As the Celtic Tiger boomed, archaeologists

were presented with a once in a lifetime oppor

tunity to finally find Pearses dead generations.

Changing times, changing fortunes

Perhaps it was his long years as a dairy farmer that

honed Gerry Mullinss acute archaeological sen

sitivity to changes in landscape. As the machinebucket exposed yet another ditch crossing the

road corridor, the excavation director was quick

to notice what a field walking team, desk study

and geophysical survey had failed to discover.

Employed by Cultural Resource Development

Services (CRDS Ltd) to undertake test excava

tions on the N6 Galway to East Balinasloe Road

Scheme, Mullins recognised that a series of four

concentric ditches cut into the flanks of Rahally

hill were the remnants of one of the largest hill

forts ever discovered in Ireland.

Irish hillforts date to the Late Bronze Age, butwere occupied for many centuries after, poten

tially shedding light on the nature of society in

Late Prehistoric Ireland. The number of known

hillforts in Ireland has increased dramatically

in recent years (from estimates of 40 in 1972 to

30

The National Monuments Act was enacted

in 1930, when the nascent state was grasping a

new identity, independent of its former colonialmaster. If the last 700 years could be dismissed

as enslavement to the English garrison, then

archaeology could be called upon to reveal a

Gaelic Ireland that was fully free. But, as archae

ology matured into a professional discipline

focussed on the scientific recovery of information

about the past, evidence for the native Celtic Ire

land, glorified in art and literature, was far from

forthcoming.

The Irish Iron Age is represented by a handful

of high profile royal sites, occasional deposits

of metalwork and an oral tradition of epic sagas.The late Barry Raftery argued in his seminal

1994 book,Pagan Celtic Ireland, that these scant

remains were the trappings of a small aristocratic

elite, shedding little light on how the majority of

the population had lived. These people existed

ABOVE Aerial view ofRahally, showing theprojected outline of the

hillfort ditches.

Dead generationsDebates concerning unRoman Britain should look across the Irish

Sea. Ireland was never brought under Roman control, which means

the country missed out on the gift of a coherent network of long

straight roads. The Gaelic for road is bothar, literally translated

as cowpath, a word that gives some insight into the ineffective

transport network that Ireland inherited at the beginning of

the Celtic Tiger boom. With no topdown reorganisation of the

landscape, Ireland maintained a dispersed rural population long

into the Early Medieval period. There were no major urban centres

until the Vikings arrived, and without the driving thrust of Roman

industrial pottery production, Irish sites are largely ceramicfree

from the later Prehistoric until the later Medieval periods. Without

the conventional bookmarks of 43 AD and 410 AD, archaeologists

have developed a different chronology, based on radiocarbon, that

better reflects the duration of Irish time periods, which retain the

same nomenclature as Britain.

Britain

8000BC 4000BC 2500BC 700BC 43BC AD410 AD1066

Ireland

AngloSaxon Medieval

Early Medieval Late Medieval AngloNormanMesolithic Neolithic BronzeAge Iron Age

AD400 AD850 1150


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IRELAND Iron Age

December 2010|

tool handles and many items of unknown func

tion, is one of the largest collections of woodenobjects ever to be archaeologically recovered from

a raised bog in Ireland, and it is believed to represent

a distinct Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age practice of

votive deposition.

The trackways and assemblage would surely be

more than enough to please any archaeologist;

but it would be a hidden gem, found buried in

the base of a large trackway, that would leave

the entire team absolutely amazed: part of a

wooden block wheel, now known to be the

earliest wheel in Ireland. Fragments of three

different wooden wheels, of varying form anddate, were found in total, and represent the

first instance in Ireland where archaeologists

have discovered wheels and trackways in direct

association. The presence of wheels at Eder

cloon is most curious, when taken in light of

the fact that none of the trackways from which

these artefacts were recovered were suited

to the use of wheeled vehicles. Additionally,

there is a broad chronological span between

the three wheel fragments from as early as 1206

BC through to 880 AD which points to a local

tradition of wheel manufacture over many centuries. This evidence combines to indicate that

these wheel fragments were likely to have been

deliberately placed within the trackways as part

of ritual activity, rather than lost as a result of use.

With such breathtaking finds and structures,Edercloon certainly brings the invisible people

a bit closer; but the homes and structures of

the builders are still missing. Even the artefacts

deposited at Edercloon were arguably selected for

symbolic reasons, and are not representative of

daytoday lives in a way that might be expected

at a similarly complex settlement site. If the elusive

Iron Age still cannot be found at one of the best pre

served sites ever excavated in Ireland, then perhaps

it is necessary to look at the most controversial.

Much ado about nothing?

The controversy surrounding the construction

of the M3 as it passed through the TaraSkryne

valley in Co. Meath was described in CA 247.

What is sometimes lost in the polarised debate

about the validity of the road are considerations

of the significance of the archaeology itself.

Taking the invisible people barometer used to

assess the other sites in this article, we might ask:

was the protest about Lismullin much ado about

nothing?

Between January and December 2007, excavations in advance of the DunshaughlinNavan

section of the M3 motorway revealed a large, post

built ceremonial enclosure, dating to the early Iron

Age (6th to 4th century BC), in the townland of

Lismullin, Co. Meath. The excavation was under

taken by ACS Ltd, fielding one of the largest profes

sional archaeology teams ever assembled in Ireland,

including six excavation directors, and managed by

Aiden OConnell. A committee of national experts

from the museum, curatorial and academic sector

were also drafted in to advise on the excavations.

Lismullin was a multiperiod site with evidence

34

If ever there was a place that deserved to be

preserved in the name of the dead generations

from prehistoric times up to historic times

up to completely recently it was Tara.

RIGHT Archaeologistscleaning the outer

enclosure stakeholes atLismullin in preparationfor preliminary drawing.

PHOTO:MaryDeevy


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and the brutal warfare that engulfed the country

during Irish Rebellion.

The End of the Road

In his recent book, Europe Between The Oceans(profiled in CA 229, 230, 231), Barry Cunliffe

assessed how the relatively minor peninsula of

Europe came to dominate world affairs. By the

15th century, Europe was a driving world force,

and the prehistoric origins for this success lay

in the dynamic mix of natural resources, strong

seafaring traditions and continual interaction

between different cultures. The movements and

migrations of people throughout Irish prehis

tory are complex and every bit as convoluted as

the political history of our modern age. As the

westernmost outpost of the European peninsula,Ireland was a rich, fertile ground for travellers

and traders from afar.

When the Celtic Tiger reached the end of the

road, it became clear that the enduring gift of this

neverbeforeseen scale of work has allowed us to

grasp Irelands historical complexity through

Richard OBrien and Ian Russell, 2004. The HibernoScandinavian site of Woodstown 6, County

Waterford. Recent Archaeological Discoveries on Road Schemes 2004, the National Roads

Authority Monograph No. 2, ISBN: 9780954595517.

Matthew Seaver, 2006. Through the mill: excavation of an Early Medieval settlement

at Raystown, County Meath, Settlement, Industry and Ritual, National Roads Authority

Monograph No. 3, ISBN 9780954595524

FURTHER READING !

Ca

ABOVE The only surviving upstanding wall with window of Carrickmines Castle, Co.Dublin, which was incorporated into a later postmedieval structure. This section of thecastle wall has been preserved in situ.BELOWA section of the revetted fosse at the site of Carrickmines Castle, Co. Dublin,preserved in situ under the roundabout of the current motorway interchange.

PHOTOS:RisnBartonMurray

all the site directors and companiesughout these articles. Special thanks toFrank Zac, Ronan Swan and all at the

who have given so generously of their timehe project from start to finish.

Documents

Top Ten Sites of the Celtic Tiger