Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom ... for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussions • Those Students Who Participate Too Much ByMaryellenWeimer,PhD

Tips for Encouraging StudentParticipation in Classroom

Discussions

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2 Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussions • www.FacultyFocus.com

Tips for Encouraging Student Participationin Classroom Discussions

Motivating students to participate in classroom discussions is a subject unto itself.The words “excruciating,” “agonizing,” and “mentally draining” may come to mind.There are some students who seem to assume that as long as the assigned work iscompleted on time, test scores are good, and attendance is satisfactory, they shouldn’t beforced to participate. It’s not that they don’t think participation improves the classroomexperience, they just prefer that other students do the participating.

Of course we all have a few over-participators who are eager to volunteer every answer(sometimes to the point of dominating the discussion, which creates its own problems foreducators and fellow students alike) but a good number of students prefer to listen,observe, or daydream rather than engage in the class discussion. Whether they’re shy,unprepared, or simply reluctant to share their ideas, getting students to participate is aconstant struggle.

This special report features 11 articles from The Teaching Professor that highlight effectivestrategies for establishing the expectation of participation, facilitating meaningful discus-sion, using questions appropriately, and creating a supportive learning environment.

Articles you will find in this report include:• Putting the Participation Puzzle Together• Student Recommendations for Encouraging Participation• To Call on or Not to Call on: That Continues to Be the Question• Creating a Class Participation Rubric• Those Students Who Participate Too Much

There is some debate in the literature as to whether students have the right to remainsilent in a class, but if you’re looking for ways to facilitate more effective discussions,Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussions will help.

Maryellen WeimerEditor

The Teaching Professor

3Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussions • www.FacultyFocus.com

Table of Contents

Assessing Class Participation: One Useful Strategy ......................................................................................................4

Participation Blues from the Student Perspective ......................................................................................................5

Roll the Dice and Students Participate ......................................................................................................................6

Those Students Who Participate Too Much................................................................................................................7

Teaching How to Question: Participation Rubrics ......................................................................................................8

Student Recommendations for Encouraging Participation ........................................................................................9

Is There a Place for Games in the College Classroom? ............................................................................................10

Discouraging Over Participators ..............................................................................................................................11

Putting the Participation Puzzle Together................................................................................................................12

To Call On or Not to Call On: That Continues to Be the Question ............................................................................13

Creating a Class Participation Rubric ......................................................................................................................14

It Costs to Cut Class ..................................................................................................................................................16


One of the changes we haveseen in academia in the last 30years or so is the shift from

lecture-based classes to courses thatencourage a student-centeredapproach. Few instructors wouldquibble with the notion thatpromoting active participation helpsstudents to think critically and toargue more effectively. However, eventhe most savvy instructors are stillconfounded about how to bestevaluate participation, particularlywhen it is graded along with more tra-ditional assessment measures, such asessays, exams, and oral presentations.Type the words “class participation”and “assessment” intowww.google.com/, and you will getclose to 700,000 hits.Providing students with a clear, fair,

and useful assessment of their classparticipation is challenging for eventhe most seasoned educator. Evenwhen I provide a rubric that distin-guishes every category of participationfrom outstanding to poor, students areoften still confused about preciselywhat it is that I expect from them. It isnot unusual, for example, for studentsto believe that attendance and partici-pation are synonymous. On the otherhand, when we attempt to spell outtoo precisely what it is we expect inthe way of contributions, we run therisk of closing down participation. Inone online site that offers assessmentguidelines, for example, the course in-structor characterizes “unsatisfactory”participation as follows:“Contributions in class reflect inade-

quate preparation. Ideas offered areseldom substantive, provide few if anyinsights and never a constructivedirection for the class. Integrativecomments and effective challenges areabsent. If this person were not amember of the class, valuable airtimewould be saved.” The language usedin the description—“inadequate,”“seldom,” “few,” “never,” and“absent”—hardly encourages positiveresults. The final sentence is both dis-missive and insensitive. Shy studentsare unlikely to risk airing an opinionin a classroom climate that is nega-tively charged. Certainly, the samepoint can be made by simplyinforming students, in writing, that in-frequent contributions to class discus-sions will be deemed unsatisfactoryand merit a “D” for the participationgrade.While there are a number of con-

structive guidelines online for generat-ing and assessing participation, thedichotomy between the students’ per-ception of their contributions and theinstructor’s assessment of participa-tion is still often a problem. One toolthat I have found particularly effectiveis to administer a brief questionnaireearly in the semester (as soon as Ihave learned everyone’s name), whichasks students to assess their own par-ticipation to date. Specifically, I askthat students do the following: “Pleasecheck the statement below that bestcorresponds to your honest assess-ment of your contribution to class dis-cussion thus far:_____ I contribute several times

during every class discussion. (A)_____ I contribute at least onceduring virtually every class discus-sion. (B)

_____ I often contribute to class dis-cussion. (C)

_____ I occasionally contribute toclass discussion. (D)

_____ I rarely contribute to class dis-cussion. (E)”

I then provide a space on the formfor the student to write a briefrationale for their grade, along withthe option to write additionalcomments if they so choose. Finally, Iinclude a section on the form for in-structor response. I collect the forms,read them, offer a brief response, andreturn them at the next class meeting.This informal self-assessment

exercise does not take long, and italways provides intriguing results.More often than not, students willaward themselves a higher participa-tion grade than I would have. Theirrationale often yields insight into whythere is a disconnect between my per-ception and theirs. For example, astudent may write, “I feel that I haveearned a ‘B’ so far in class participa-tion. I know that I’m quiet, but Ihaven’t missed a class and I always domy reading.” Using the “InstructorResponse” space, I now have an op-portunity to disabuse the student’snotion that preparation, attendance,and participation are one and thesame. I also offer concrete measuresthat the student can take to improvehis or her participation.When this exercise is done early in

the semester, it can enhance both theamount and quality of participation. Ithelps to build confidence and remindsstudents that they have to hold them-selves accountable for every part oftheir course grade, includingparticipation.

Denise D. Knight is a DistinguishedTeaching Professor of English at SUNYCortland.

Assessing Class Participation:One Useful Strategy

By Denise D. Knight

5

Editor’s note: The following article iswritten by a beginning collegestudent—I know his writing is nottypical of most first-year students. Buthis description of a course with “lack-luster” participation is so compelling.Classes with forced and superficialexchanges are torturous for everybody!

Participation is an extremelycrucial element for learning. It isa proven fact that students learn

better and retain more when they areactive participants. Learning is anactive process and should involvetalking.I do recognize that motivating

college students can prove to be adaunting task. Motivating students toactively participate is a subject untoitself; the words “excruciating,”“agonizing,” and “mentally draining”come to mind. Most students seem tooperate assuming that as long as theassigned work is completed on time,test scores are deemed acceptable, andattendance is satisfactory, participationis just not that important.But when participation does not

occur in a class, its absence has achilling effect on efforts to learn, moti-vation, and one’s general attitudetoward that course. Take one of myclasses, for example. During each class,the professor briefly outlines the nextassignment’s criteria and then explainsit in depth throughout the period. Ifthere was an assignment due from theprevious class, the teacher askseveryone to take it out. A typical as-signment might have been to read aselection in the book and decide on the

author’s main points. After reading thismaterial, the instructor might have usselect the main points from a list ofpoints and then defend that choice.Here’s how participation happens in

this class. After completing an exerciselike the one I’ve just described, theprofessor asks for a volunteer to startus off and usually the request isfollowed by dead silence. After aboutfive seconds, one hand goes up andthe professor says, “Yes, you.” (Thisprofessor does not use student names,and I think this in part accounts for thelimited participation. I do not knowany of my classmates’ names. Wedon’t communicate very much witheach other). The student provides avery brief response—sometimes noteven a complete sentence. With addi-tional prodding from the professor, thereluctant student adds more to theanswer. Then the professor asks forsomeone else to volunteer for the nextquestion and no one responds. Finally,the same student volunteers again.Eventually maybe four differentstudents answer questions during agiven class period. The proverbialsaying “It’s like pulling teeth” to getsomeone to speak certainly applies tothis class. The majority of individualsin this class have never answered orasked a question, offered theirthoughts or opinions on class assign-ments, or spoken up about classroomactivities.At the end of this particular class, we

got together in small groups toevaluate an essay assignment that weare working on. We exchanged papers,

read them, and suggested correctionswe thought the paper needed. We weresupposed to explain these proposedcorrections and why we felt they werenecessary. In our group, talking wasvery limited. At first we all just lookedat each other, not saying anything. Itwas very awkward. Finally someonespoke up and we each took turns,quietly reading our essays to eachother and explaining the reasons. Youcould tell from the silence throughoutthe room that our group was typicaland that there was very little exchangeof information going on.When we finished this group

activity, our professor asked if therewere any questions. There were none.Class concluded with the instructorremarking that there seemed to havebeen very little dialogue going onwithin the groups. We needed toimprove that in future classes.Although students in lower grades

can generally be encouraged to partici-pate by simple reward systems likestickers, more recess or homeworkpasses, college students are a muchtougher audience. Incentives have tobe extremely tantalizing to make themsit up and notice. To help invigoratethe lackluster participation of studentsin my class, I think the instructorneeds to offer a grade-related incentive.Students do care about their gradesand will do things to improve them.Those students who do already con-tribute would more than likely pick uptheir pace, and those students lookingfor ways to improve their grades wouldbe more inclined to participate. I thinkthe participation problem in this classis so severe that the instructor needs tothink outside the box—maybe certifi-cates redeemable for a cup of coffee orsome other goody given to thosestudents who participate four times aperiod. At this point in the semester itmay be too late for incentives, but Iknow for sure that I really hope I don’thave other classes where student par-ticipation is this absent and awkward.

Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussions • www.FacultyFocus.com

Participation Blues from theStudent Perspective

By Jon Cieniewicz

6

Irecently ran into a former studentat a local restaurant. We talked fora few minutes about how his

classes were going this semester andwhat his plans were following gradu-ation. After we talked, it occurred tome that I had heard him speak moreduring this short conversation thanhe had during the entire semester hetook my course. I was somewhatappalled, being that I’m an instructorwho prides himself on engaging (orat least attempting to engage)students in active classroom partici-pation. Here was a student who haddone well overall in the course butwho had evidently made it throughmy class with only a modicum ofvocal participation.I wonder if your experience is like

mine. I find that some studentseagerly volunteer answers and oftendominate discussions, while otherslisten, observe, or daydream whiletheir classmates hold forth. I havealways been somewhat hesitant tocall on inattentive students for fear ofembarrassing them or creating anawkward or uncomfortable classroomatmosphere. However, I have alsofound that those reluctant tovolunteer often have quite worth-while and interesting things to saywhen called upon.I regularly teach a course in statis-

tics, and a few semesters ago I beganusing index cards with students’names to randomly select them forvarious tasks, such as workinghomework problems on the board. Iused this approach to reinforce the

concepts of probability and sampleselection, but I found that when Ishuffled the cards prior to randomlydrawing names, a wave of interestand excitement rippled through theclass. Based on this favorableresponse, I started using the cardsduring classroom discussions and inother courses as well. Previouslysome students were justifiablyconfident that I would not call onthem if they did not volunteer, butthe cards suddenly made everyone“fair game” every time.It was my wife who suggested that

I use dice rolls to simplify andexpedite the selection process. Sheactually found some many-sided diceat a local game store that are perfectfor the smaller-sized classes at my in-stitution. However, dice rolls can alsobe easily adapted to larger class sizesby breaking the section list intoseveral smaller subsections (forexample, groups of 10 to 20) and thenusing two dice rolls—one to pick thesubsection and one to pick thestudent.I found that using the dice rolls fre-

quently to elicit student responses invarious contexts has severalimportant advantages: (1) it providesa convenient avenue for looking pastthe overeager student who partici-pates too frequently; (2) it removesthe awkwardness associated with in-tentionally calling on inattentivestudents; (3) it generates a sense ofanticipation and attention becauseany student can be called upon atany time; (4) it provides a convenient

method of calling on somebody whennobody seems willing to volunteer ananswer; and (5) it generates greatervariety in student responses.While I do not have any rigorous

empirical analysis to prove thatfrequent use of random selectionimproves overall learning outcomes,my personal experience has beenoverwhelmingly positive. Studentsseem very receptive and good-humored toward random selection. Iam certain that it improves studentattention, which is often the greatestchallenge. Moreover, most studentsseem to welcome the dice roll as analternative to discussions dominatedby a few classmates. On the otherhand, responses are more frequentlywrong or at least not well formulated.But these types of responses actuallystimulate greater and deeper discus-sion because we, as a class, can stopand analyze the responses.I still use “open” discussion quite

often, but the dice rolls are veryeffective at initiating or changing thepace of a discussion. I roll the dicewhenever I need to select or assignstudents to a task. In fact, I now usethe dice rolls so often in class that astudent this semester asked, “Sir, doyou always carry that thing around inyour pocket?” I don’t—but maybe Ishould. I have a feeling it could comein handy unexpectedly, like when Ican’t decide which spaghetti sauce tobuy.

Kurtis J. Swope PhD is an associateprofessor in the department ofeconomics at the U.S. Naval Academy.


Roll the Dice and StudentsParticipate

By Kurtis J. Swope, PhD

7

What would we do withoutthose few students who arealways ready to speak—

who make a stab at an answer whenno one else will, who ask for clarifi-cation when they are confused, whoeven respond to things other studentssay in class? Most of those studentswe would like to clone. But thenthere are those who communicate toexcess. They would answer everyquestion if we let them. They wouldhappily dominate every classroomdiscussion if allowed. We call thesestudents the over-participators; in theresearch literature they are known ascompulsive communicators, and re-searchers estimate that a bit morethan 5 percent of students fall intothis category.The rest of the class loves and

hates these classmates. They areloved because they take the pressureoff everyone else. They are hatedbecause they speak so much. Theirendless contributions soon boreothers. And they are hated becausethey make those who struggle to con-tribute feel woefully incompetent.Their behavior also presents all

sorts of problems for the teacher,who would love to call on somebodyelse, but often that familiar hand isthe only one in the air. Generallyover-participators are bright students.They care about the content and havethe level of motivation a teacherwould like to see in all students. Buttheir determination to keep them-selves always at the center of discus-sion tests in most of us the patience

and commitment to participate.Generally teachers do not rebuke

the over-participator in public.Researchers in the study mentionedbelow asked students what theyexpected teachers to do about fellowclassmates who over-participated.

They found that students expectteachers to manage compulsive com-municators through managementstrategies that are not rude ordemeaning. Students “do not want towitness a fellow student subjected tonegative sanctions when it comes tothis particular transgression.” (p. 28)When teachers do not address the

problem, according to this research,students rate them lower onmeasures of credibility and affect orliking. In fact, doing nothing aboutcompulsive communicators results ineven more negative student percep-tions than does addressing the

problem punitively.What’s the best advice, based on

this research? Address the problemusing positive and constructive com-munication strategies. It helps tohave a discussion early in the courseabout the characteristics of effectivediscussion and teacher-studentexchanges. If students are asked todescribe those conversations thathold their attention and help themlearn, they are usually quick to namethe over-participation problem andstate preferences for dialogue inwhich many people participate.Teachers should design participationactivities that require the contribu-tions of many: small groups present-ing brief reports, sharing examples,or offering summaries.It may be useful to talk privately

with the student who is participatingtoo much. It may help to make clearhow and why too much communica-tion from one student inhibits thelearning of others. Perhaps thestudent could be encouraged to movehis or her participation to the nextlevel by not just answering questions,but asking them; by not just makingcomments, but specifically respond-ing to things other students say inclass.Participation norms are established

early in the course. If a teacher holdsfast to hearing from lots of studentsright from the start, that norm will beestablished and can be maintainedthroughout the course.

Reference: McPherson, M. B., andLiang, Y. (2007). Students’ reactionsto teachers’ management of compul-sive communicators. CommunicationEducation, 56 (1), 18-33.

Maryellen Weimer, PhD, professoremerita of teaching and learning atPenn State - Berks, is the editor of TheTeaching Professor.


Those Students Who ParticipateToo Much

By Maryellen Weimer, PhD

Perhaps the student could be

encouraged to move his or

her participation to the next

level by not just answering

questions, but asking them;

by not just making

comments, but specifically

responding to things other

students say in class.

8

Atthe heart of the Socratic method—the icon of theinquiry-based learning approach—is the art ofasking the “right” question. Indeed, when we

engage in casual conversation with friends, our dialogue isoften animated and enjoyable—interspersed with questionsthat force us to engage in a spontaneous and free-flowingexchange of knowledge, ideas and reflection. In an educa-tional context, however, without the markers of personalfamiliarity and natural interest, the institutional forum ofthe “seminar” often feels foreign, stilted and intimidating.After years of teaching large first-year classes with

multiple seminar sections and a cohort of new TA seminarleaders each year, I have developed two evaluation rubrics.One is designed to assess student participation, and theother aims to assess student facilitation. Both follow thisarticle. In each case, principles that relate to the skills ofasking good questions are embedded within evaluationrubrics. Their presence helps to both frame and assess theteaching and learning environment of the seminar.Students are assessed on a weekly basis with the partici-

pation rubric and are assigned a value out of 20 marks foreach seminar. These values are averaged over the 12-weekterm to yield an average seminar performance rating. Thisrating is converted to a value of 20 percent of their finalgrade. During the course of the term, each student is alsoasked to facilitate a seminar on a given topic (with apartner, if desired). The facilitation evaluation also consistsof five levels of assessment with qualitative ratings andcorresponding numeric values. This assessment is markedout of 20 and converted to a value of 5 percent of the finalgrade in the course. Seminars range in number from 15 to20 students.These evaluation rubrics grew out of my belief that the

seminar is a critical component of inquiry-based learning.As a forum for immediate interpersonal interaction,students benefit from the opportunity to ask questions,observe the enabling effect of these questions on others

and assess the overall impact of this exchange of ideas inthe teaching and learning context. Students must have theopportunity to both participate and facilitate in thisacademic exchange with clear and explicit criteria for ex-cellence. In an age when “PowerPoint” presentationsprevail in classrooms, the art of spontaneous, interactive,face-to-face dialogue that teaches students how to questionand respond in the seminar environment is imperative.

Editor’s note: The author has graciously granted permis-sion for faculty to reproduce these rubrics for use in classwithout requesting permission.

SEMINAR PARTICIPATION EVALUATIONRating: Poor (1) Satisfactory (2) Very Good (3) Superior (4)

Student Name ________________________________________ Preparation - Evidence shows preparation for theseminar (has prepared notes and/or recalls thereadings without the use of the open text)._____ Engagement - Quality of engagement is active,respectful & inclusive.

_____ Initiative - Questions asked focus, clarify &summarize discussion.

_____ Response - Quality of response reflectsknowledge, comprehension & application of thereadings._____ Discussion - Quality of response extends the dis-cussion with peers and reflects analysis, synthesis &evaluation._____ Total/20

Anecdotal Comments:_____________________________

SEMINAR FACILITATION EVALUATIONStudent Facilitators: 1. ____________ 2. ____________Date: _____________

Rating: Poor (1) Satisfactory (2) Very Good (3) Superior (4)

1. Facilitation Skills: (1) (2) (3) (4)• Facilitators ask questions and use strategies thatdraw out knowledge of theory/experience; facilita-tors are knowledgeable and offer correction &guidance when necessary.

2. Organization: (1) (2) (3) (4)• Seminar is structured in a clear & logical sequence.

3. Originality: (1) (2) (3) (4)• Visual and written aids are interesting, innova-tive/creative & helpful.


Teaching How toQuestion: ParticipationRubrics

By Anna H. Lathrop, EdD

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9

Weregularly revisit topics inthe newsletter, especiallythose that represent perplex-

ing instructional problems, and gettingstudents participating in class iscertainly one of those. Across theyears we highlighted work of variouskinds that analyze the issues andpropose solutions, all of it pertainingto the undergraduate classroom. Arethere significant differences in thegraduate classroom?A recent qualitative study generated

and analyzed responses from studentsin two graduate management account-ing courses. Class context here wasan important part of the study. Inboth courses the development ofcritical-thinking skills that apply tomanagement situations were empha-sized. Class discussion occurredmostly around case studies. “Studentsin these classes were told orally and inthe syllabus to expect to be called onwhen their hands were not raised.” (p.106) And, participation was graded in

these courses. On the last day of theclass students completed a question-naire that asked what professors do orsay that increases student participationand what professor do or say thatincreases or decreases the effective-ness of discussion. (p. 106) Thequestions used to solicit responses onthese topics included both closed andopen questions.Responses clustered in six areas and

identified a variety of facultybehaviors or characteristics thatstudents said influenced participationand discussion.• Required/graded participation —Students suggested that both par-ticipation and discussion werepositively impacted when partici-pation was required, when itcounted for a significant part ofthe grade and when instructorsused “cold-calling,” as in callingon students regardless of whetheror not they volunteered. [Thisfinding is different than other

research highlighted in thenewsletter where undergraduatestudents reported that beingallowed to volunteer motivatedthem to participate more. Seereference below]

• Incorporating ideas and experi-ence into discussion — Studentsvalue instructor responses thatelaborate on their ideas, takingthem further and applying them tocourse content. They also believeparticipation and discussionbenefit when they include real-lifeexamples and experience.

• Active facilitation — A variety ofstrategies were grouped in thiscategory, including challengingstudents to answer more in depth,not letting people dominate thediscussion, and stopping folkswho are just participating for thesake of participating.

4. Engagement: (1) (2) (3) (4)• Facilitators generate a high degree of studentinterest; respectful & inclusive; all students en-couraged to participate.

5. Discussion: (1) (2) (3) (4)• Discussion is focused, relevant & engaging;theory (readings) related to experience; applica-tions & implications clear and accurate.

TOTAL : 20 marks _______________________________

NOTE: Student cofacilitators may receive similar ordifferent grades, depending upon their level of preparationand contribution.

Anna H. Lathrop, EdD, is Interim Dean, Faculty ofApplied Health Sciences, at Brock University.


Student Recommendations forEncouraging Participation


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FROM PAGE 8

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• Asking effective questions —This is related to the old adageabout the quality of the questionsbeing predictive of the quality ofthe answers. But there was alsothis student observation about aresponse that decreases discus-sion: “when a facilitator islooking for specific answers anddoes not consider alternativeconcepts.” (p. 109)

• Supportive classroom environ-ment — The word “encourage”appears in many studentcomments as well as admonitionsto be patient with students,giving them time to find theirway to a right or better answer.

• Affirm contributions andprovide constructive feedback— Recommendations here rangedfrom stressing how the classbenefits from wrong answers tomaking reference subsequently tostudent answers or writing goodstudent responses on the board.

The authors raise a number of in-teresting questions about the “cold-calling” strategy: Is it inherentlyundemocratic because it takes away astudent’s right to choose whether ornot they should participate? Or is itdemocratic because it equalizes theamount of participation acrossstudents? How should an instructoruse the strategy? Does the approachinfluence students’ comfort levels,perhaps even their learning? Do

different student populations responddifferently to being called on?

Reference: Dallimore, E. J.,Hertenstein, J. H., and Platt, M. B.(2004). Classroom participation anddiscussion effectiveness: Student-generated strategies. CommunicationEducation, 53 (1), 103-115.Reference on volunteering from an

earlier issue: Auster, C. J., andMacRone, M. (1994). The classroomas a negotiated social setting: Anempirical study of the effects offaculty member’s behaviors onstudents’ participation. TeachingSociology, 22 (4), 289-300.



It is not always easy to get eachstudent to participate on a dailybasis, but I’ve found that when I

incorporate games into the classroom,new attitudes emerge and new person-alities blossom. Those once inhibitedlearners open their mouths and con-tribute to the class. Because I teach aforeign language, participation and in-volvement may be more important formy students, but I still think there’s aplace for games in many disciplines.I use games as warm-ups at the

beginning of class and as ways forstudents to get to know each other.They are an effective review sessiontool as well. When my students areout of their seats gathering informa-tion, they are more motivated andwilling to present their findings. If

there is a prize at stake or simply thedesignation “winner,” the competitionbecomes cutthroat. Let me illustratewith some examples.Frequently I use the game of

Jeopardy to help students review foran upcoming exam. I select differentcategories with material appropriatefor review (vocabulary, verb conjuga-tions, culture, idiomatic expressions,numbers, etc). In other courses thecategories might include importantfigures, key terms, important events ordiscoveries, theories or principles,processes or functions, etc. I dividestudents into teams so that theycompete as groups rather than as indi-viduals.My goal is to create a cooperative

learning environment where individu-

als easily overwhelmed in front oftheir peers will feel less pressure andare more likely to contribute. Whenstudents work together as a team, asense of solidarity results. By the timefinal Jeopardy begins and the wagershave been written down, studentshave reviewed material from a givenchapter or several chapters. They areready to be crowned winners andprepared for the kind of individualreview they need to complete on theirown.I use group games to accomplish

other learning goals as well. Take, forexample, a game I’ve dubbed “VerbBattleship” and a version of traditionalbingo. For Verb Battleship, students

FROM PAGE 9

Is There a Place for Games in the College Classroom?

By Stacey Beth-Mackowiak Ayotte

PAGE 11�

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Over the years I have had con-siderable success in encourag-ing student participation in my

senior seminars. As advised in TheTeaching Professor, I have a discus-sion early in the course about thosecharacteristics that make discussioneffective.Last semester, however, I was

blessed by the presence of identicaltwins—I’ll call them Harv and Marv—who were embroiled in the mostintense case of sibling rivalry I haveencountered in three-and-a-halfdecades of university teaching. Eachhad a seemingly compulsive need tomake a comment; offer an opinion;or, most often, contradict whatever it

was his brother had just said. Theseunnervingly frequent interruptionswere disruptive and annoying foreveryone, and it was not long beforemy students—first individually andeventually en masse—complained tome. I responded, again trying severalof the nonverbal and verbal sugges-tions that have appeared in this publi-cation. My attempts to quell theverbal tide fell on deaf ears.I was at a loss as to what to try

next, until one day the students tookmatters into their own hands. As soonas Harv or Marv opened his mouth,one of his classmates tossed twopennies directly at him (a differentstudent each time). Finally, after

several repetitions of being sotargeted, Marv asked, “What are youguys doing?” The response, in chorus:“You both have so much to say, wefigured this was the only way wecould get our two cents in!”Happily, the twins took this admo-

nition graciously, and the classproceeded smoothly thereafter,leaving me thoroughly grateful forthis clever demonstration of studentingenuity.

Nicholas F. Skinner PhD is aprofessor in the psychology departmentat King’s University College, TheUniversity of Western Ontario

are given a game board on which theinfinitives of several verbs areprovided down the left-hand columnof the page. Across the top in the firstrow are the different subject pronouns.Depending on the recently taught verbform (present, subjunctive, pluper-fect), the students are asked to select averb and its correct form and then toproperly conjugate it as a means offinding and destroying their opponentsships. The first student who seeks outand destroys his opponent’s ships bycorrectly conjugating verbs is namedthe champion. I hear students callingout with enthusiasm, “Tu as coulémon bateau!” (You sank my ship).With bingo, students use a game

board containing rows and columns ofboxes, each filled with differentcriteria or situations. For example,they may need to find someone in theclass who can define a particular

concept or term, or use a certain partof speech correctly. They circulatearound the classroom looking forstudents who fit the particular infor-mation in each box. The first studentto find a vertical, horizontal, ordiagonal line yells “bingo” and isnamed the winner. To verify whether a“true” bingo has been achieved, I askthe “winner” to explain his or herbingo line. I then follow up with eachof the students named on the bingoline so that they can share with theclass the correct answer or the desiredterm, date, concept, etc.Learning a new language (whether

it’s a foreign one or the complicatedlanguage of many disciplines) is hardwork and much of it isn’t fun. Gameslike these offer a welcome respite.Often my students don’t even realizethey are learning the language becausethey are having so much fun. Gamesalso shift the focus offered by the tra-ditional textbook exercises and get

students working and communicatingwith others in the classroom. Whenworking on one of these games, mystudents eagerly use the newlanguage, enjoy participating, andbeam with pride upon being namedthe “winner.”Games are not just fun for the sake

of fun. They should be designed toreinforce or review topics covered inclass, they should be organized, andthey should be used to add variety toour college classrooms. As for theanswer to the question in the title—Isay yes, resoundingly, and gentlyremind that even faculty who’ve beenaround a while aren’t too old to havesome fun with games.

Stacey Beth-Mackowiak Ayotte is anassistant professor of French in the de-partment of English and ForeignLanguages at the University ofMontevallo.


Discouraging Over Participators

By Nicholas F. Skinner, PhD

FROM PAGE 10

12

Participation continues to be themost common method facultyuse to get students involved and

active in their learning. As previousresearch has documented, faculty useparticipation strategies with limitedsuccess. On average only 25 percent ofstudents in a course participate, andhalf of the group who make contribu-tions in class do so to the extent thatthey dominate the discussion.A host of studies across the past 30

years have isolated factors and condi-tions that affect participation: thingslike the size of the class (obviously,the bigger the class the less opportu-nity for individual participation);faculty authority (that makes studentsfear faculty criticism); age (olderstudents tend to participate more);gender (some early work describing a“chilly” climate for women in class-rooms); student preparedness; andstudent confidence.Up to this point, no research has

attempted to put these various piecestogether, to make individual findingsan integrated and coherent whole.Fortunately, the study referencedbelow begins this needed work. Itbegins with this premise: “the collegeclassroom, like any other workplace, isa social organization where power isasserted, tasks are assigned and nego-tiated, and work is accomplishedthrough the interplay of formal andinformal social structures. The presentstudy … relates a variety of otherwiseunconnected variables and concepts tothe broader theoretical framework ofsocial organizations.” (p. 579). Using

survey data collected from 1,550 un-dergraduate and graduate students at amedium-sized, urban university, re-searchers used a path model to assessdirect and indirect influences on classparticipation.Based on previous research, they

used the path model to test 10 hy-potheses about participation. Each hy-pothesis and a brief summary of thefindings from this research are listedbelow. This is a large, complexanalysis—more findings and informa-tion about them are contained in thearticle.• Students’ perception of large classsize and lack of opportunity nega-tively affect self-reported participa-tion both directly and indirectly byincreasing fear of peer disapprovaland of professor’s criticisms.Contrary to other findings, thepath coefficients reported in thisstudy fail to support the hypothe-sis. Not only was the coefficientinsignificant, it pointed in thewrong direction.

• Students’ perception of facultyauthority negatively affects self-reported participation bothdirectly and indirectly by increas-ing fear of peer disapproval and ofprofessors’ criticisms and by de-creasing level of confidence.Results showed that perceptions ofthe professor as an authority ofknowledge had “a moderatenegative direct effect.” (p. 586).Said another way, “the morestudents perceive the professor asthe authority of knowledge, the

less likely it is that they will par-ticipate in class.” (p. 586)

• Students’ self-reported rates of in-teraction with faculty positivelyaffected reported participationboth directly and indirectly by de-creasing fear of peer disapprovaland of professor’s criticisms andby increasing level of confidence.Faculty-student interaction has thelargest direct, indirect, and totaleffects on self-reported participa-tion. “We suggest … that facultymembers not only indirectly shapeclassroom dynamics … but alsodirectly influence students’behaviors in class through the re-lationship they develop with theirstudents during out-of-class activi-ties.” (p. 591)

• Students’ self-reported fear of peerdisapproval negatively affectsreported participation bothdirectly and indirectly by decreas-ing level of confidence. Fear ofpeer disapproval was the thirdlargest factor affecting participa-tion. And this fear of peerresponse also had the largestnegative effect on student confi-dence.

• Students’ self-reported fear of pro-fessors’ criticisms negativelyaffects reported participationdirectly and indirectly by decreas-ing level of confidence. This feardid not exert important effects onstudents’ reports of their participa-tion.

• Student’s self-reported rates ofpara-participation (includingnonverbal feedback and informaldiscussions with the instructorbefore or after class) have apositive, direct effect on reportedclass participation. This hypothe-sis was confirmed: “Para-participa-tion increases the likelihood ofmore conventional participation inthe classroom.” (p. 588)


Putting the Participation PuzzleTogether


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13

• Students’ age positively affectsself-reported class participation,both directly and indirectly viaconfidence and diminished fear ofpeer disapproval and ofprofessor’s criticisms. Theseresults confirmed earlier findings:“As age increases, so doesstudents’ self-reported participa-tion.” (p. 588). To illustrate, tradi-tional age students, those 18 to 24were 2.5 times more likely toreport that they never or seldomparticipated in class. Non-tradi-tional students were three timesmore likely to report that theyalways participated.

• Male students will report greaterlevels of class participation, willreport higher levels of confidence,and are less likely to developfeelings of fear of peer disapproval

and professor’s criticism thanfemale students are. “Our resultsindicate that gender has little orno effect on self-reported partici-pation rates.” (p. 590)

• Students’ reported lack of prepara-tion has negative, indirect effectson participation by increasing thefear of peer disapproval and ofprofessors’ criticisms and by de-creasing confidence. The resultspartially supported this hypothe-sis. The direct effect is weak andunexpectedly in the negativedirection, meaning being prepareddecreases participation. But theindirect effects were positive. Lackof preparation did influence partic-ipation by effecting confidenceand fears. (p.590)

• Students’ confidence positivelyaffects self-reported participationrate. This hypothesis wasconfirmed.

This research article is long and themethodology sophisticated, but thegeneration of the hypotheses and dis-cussion of results are clear and acces-sible. In addition to being animpressive example of the scholarshipthat integrates, the article is exception-ally well referenced. It contains anamazingly more complete list ofresearch and theory on and related toparticipation.

Reference: Weaver, R. R., and Qi,Jiang (2005). Classroom organizationand participation: College students’perceptions. Journal of HigherEducation, 76 (5), 570-601.


Ask a question and no one vol-unteers: should you call on astudent? You have a quiet but

capable student who rarely or neverparticipates: should you call on thatstudent?Views on the value of cold calling,

as it’s referred to in the literature, aremixed. Faculty who do call on astudent whose hand is not raised doso for a variety of reasons. Notknowing when they might be calledon keeps students more attentive andbetter focused on the content. Beingcalled on and successfully responding

may help develop students’ confidenceand motivate them to participate more.The quality of discussion improveswhen more people participate, andbecause research has documentedwhat most of us have experienced—that only a few students regularly par-ticipate—calling on students adds tothe conversation.Some of those who don’t call on

students unless they volunteer do sobecause they want to encouragestudents to start taking responsibilityfor the quality of discussions thatoccur in class. More often, they

hesitate because they know theprocess provokes considerable anxiety.Often the process diminishes confi-dence and the motivation to talk morein class.In an interesting study of several

aspects of the cold-calling approach,researchers solicited from faculty whodo call on students a variety of strate-gies they use to make cold calling less“icy.” Here’s a brief summary of whatthey suggest:• Establish the expectation of partic-ipation—Warn students that you


PAGE 14�

FROM PAGE 12

To Call On or Not to Call On:That Continues to Be the Question


14

will cold call. Discuss the impor-tance of participation in class.Attach a grade to participation.

• Provide opportunities for reflectingand responding—Give studentstime to prepare. Use appropriateamounts of wait time. Maybe letstudents write some ideas and/orshare them with another studentfirst.

• Skillfully facilitate the discus-sion—Set ground rules. Discusswhat makes a “good” answer.Don’t let a few students monopo-lize the discussion. Let studentslook at their notes or the text.

• Use questions appropriately—Askopen-ended questions. Call onthose students who might haverelevant experiences or back-ground knowledge.

• Create a supportive learning envi-ronment—Let the classroom be asafe place where honest attemptsto answer are supported and en-couraged.

• Respond respectfully to students’contributions—Use wrong answersas teaching moments. Get othersinvolved in understanding miscon-ceptions and errors.

Neither cold calling nor waiting forvolunteers is “right” in an absolute,

definitive sense. As the researchindicates, the success or failure of par-ticipation techniques is a function ofhow they are used.

Reference: Dallimore, E. J., J.H.Hertenstein, and M.B. Platt. 2004.Faculty-generated strategies for “coldcalling” use: A comparative analysiswith student recommendations.Journal on Excellence in CollegeTeaching. 16(1): 23–62.



FROM PAGE 13

After years of stating my expec-tations for tutorial participationorally, I have developed a

rubric that I think both improves myaccountability as an assessor andprovides my students with a clearsense of my expectations for class dis-cussions. It also makes clear my focusin the small group setting: creating a“learners-centered,” as opposed to a“learner-centered,” environment.The rubric was first used in a third-

year Canadian external relationscourse. (I have since incorporated itinto a number of undergraduate andgraduate courses at three different uni-versities). Tutorials were held bi-weekly and were made up of 12 to 15students plus an instructor-facilitator.The students were assigned approxi-mately four readings (60 to 80 pages)per session. The readings usuallycontained two opposing arguments ona Canadian foreign policy issue (forexample, arguments for and against

free trade) and approximately twopieces of primary evidence (House ofCommons speeches, governmentdocuments, etc.).The rubric is accompanied by a

preface explaining my philosophy ofthe roles and values of class participa-tion as well as a post-script (which Icall ‘Beyond the rubric’) that providesstudents with additional informationthat does not quite fit within therubric format. Both of these sectionsare included below.

On class participationUnlike some of the other forms of

learning that take place in this class,participation in the small-group envi-ronment is not an individual activity.How and what you learn fromlistening to a lecture, reading atextbook, doing research, or studyingfor an exam is quite different fromwhat you can gain when you haveimmediate access to approximately 15

different, informed points of view on asingle issue. In tutorial, if you do notprepare effectively and contribute pos-itively, other students miss out on oneof those points of view, and theirlearning experience suffers. For thisreason, my evaluation of your per-formance in tutorial will be based inlarge part on how you have improvedthe learning experience of your peers.Supporting, engaging, and listening toyour peers does not mean that youmust always agree with them. Rather,you should make a sincere effort torespond to their comments.Playing an active role in discussions

involves volunteering your opinion,asking questions, and listeningcarefully.The best discussions are the ones

that move beyond the simplequestions and answers. You will berewarded for bringing up more chal-

Creating a Class Participation Rubric

By Adam Chapnick

PAGE 15�

15

lenging ideas and for trying to dealwith them collaboratively with yourclassmates. To do this effectively, youmust have read all of the assignedmaterial carefully. If you haven’t, itwill become clear quite quickly.

Beyond the rubricAdditional Factors that May AffectYour Grade Positively:• If you show measurable improve-ment as the year goes on, you willbe rewarded significantly.Becoming more active and/ormaking more effective commentsnot only raises the overall level ofdiscussion in the room, it also setsan example for the rest of theclass. By trying, you encourageothers to do the same.

• If you are naturally shy, or have aday when you are not yourself,you may e-mail me relevantcomments, thoughts, andquestions after the discussion.While this method of participa-tion is not ideal (it does notengage the rest of the group), itdoes demonstrate that you havebeen preparing for the class,listening carefully, and respond-ing to your peers.

• If you miss a session completely,you can submit a one-page(single-spaced) typed argumenta-tive summary of the assignedmaterial (this means you mustanalyze and critique the readings,not summarize them). Again,while not ideal, this will confirmthat you have engaged andresponded to the material.

Additional Factors that May AffectYour Grade Negatively:• Not attending tutorial will have asignificant impact on your finalgrade (regardless of the quality ofyour contributions during weekswhen you are there). Obviously,you cannot contribute if you areabsent. More importantly, not

attending sets a poor example foryour peers and encourages themto do the same. Finally, a cohesiveand supportive class dynamic ismost easily developed and main-tained in a relatively predictableand consistent environment. Yourpeers must know you and trustyou to feel comfortable; it is muchmore difficult to build this trust ifyou do not attend tutorialregularly.

• Dominating class discussions isnot helpful. It denies otherstudents the opportunity to con-tribute and therefore restricts thenumber of ideas that might beconsidered. Dominating alsoprevents you from listening, andfrom building effectively on thecomments of your peers.

• Speaking directly to the teachingassistant / tutorial leader is alsohighly discouraged. Tutorial issupposed to be a dialogue amongpeers, not a series of individualone-on-one conversations.

Ignoring your peers — and/or notreferring to them by name — risksalienating them, and creates amuch less supportive groupdynamic.

• Negative, offensive, and disre-spectful comments and actionscan do serious damage to thelearning atmosphere. Suchbehavior will necessarily result ina substantially lower grade.

Editor’s note: When we publishmaterials that instructors use inclasses, we ask them to grant other in-structors permission to use thesematerials in their courses. ProfessorChapnick has given this permission.Please note this is permission forclassroom use only.

Adam Chapnick is the deputydirector of education at the CanadianForces College and an assistantprofessor at the Royal Military Collegeof Canada.


FROM PAGE 14

The following rubric sets out the criteria upon which you will beevaluated: A guide to grading your class participation

A+ A B C D F

• Actively supports,engages and listensto peers (ongoing)

• arrives fullyprepared atevery session

• plays an activerole in discussions(ongoing)

• comments advancethe level and depthof the dialogue(consistently)

• group dynamicand level ofdiscussion areconsistentlybetter becauseof the student’spresence

• actively supports,engages and listensto peers (ongoing)

• arrives fullyprepared atalmost everysession

• plays an activerole in discussions(ongoing)

• comments occasion-ally advance thelevel and depthof the dialogue

• group dynamicand level ofdiscussion areoften betterbecause ofthe student’spresence

• makes a sincereeffort to interactwith peers(ongoing)

• arrives mostly, ifnot fully, prepared(ongoing)

• participates con-structively indiscussions(ongoing)

• makes relevantcomments basedon the assignedmaterial (ongoing)

• group dynamicand level ofdiscussion are oc-casionally better(never worse)because of thestudent’s presence

• limited interactionwith peers

• preparation, andtherefore level ofparticipation, areboth inconsistent

• when prepared,participatesconstructivelyin discussionsand makesrelevantcomments basedon the assignedmaterial

• group dynamicand level ofdiscussion arenot affected bythe student’spresence

• virtually nointeractionwith peers

• rarely prepared

• rarely participates

• commentsare generallyvague or drawnfrom outside ofthe assignedmaterial

• demonstrates a no-ticeable lackof interest (onoccasion)

• group dynamicand level ofdiscussion areharmed bythe student’spresence

• no interactionwith peers

• never prepared

• never participates

• demonstrates a no-ticeable lackof interest inthe material(ongoing)

• group dynamicand level ofdiscussion aresignificantlyharmed bythe student’spresence


Many studies confirm the rela-tionship between attendanceand grades and the one refer-

enced below is no exception. Thecourse where the data reported in thisstudy were collected was multiple dis-cussion sections of a larger course. Inthese discussion sections attendanceand participation counted for 10percent of the total grade, 5 percentfor each. Another 10 percent of thegrade was determined by regularquizzes also given during the discus-sion sections. Findings were consistentacross all sections: as absencesincreased, grades decreased.In this study, unlike some other

reported findings, the number ofabsences did not correlate significantly

with the day of the week. But thisstudy confirmed what has beenreported elsewhere: classes before 10a.m. and after 3 p.m. did not havemore absences than classes scheduledduring those hours. The number ofabsences did vary by class level, withseniors recording the most and sopho-mores the least. Sophomores had thehighest average grades, but seniors didnot have the lowest grades. First-yearstudents did. Researcher Gump thinksthis might be a “testament” to “experi-ential survival instincts—not as wellunderstood by the first-year students.”(p. 24)This study involved a variation in

the quizzing schedule. Twice thatschedule included six unannounced

quizzes with the top five scores eachcounting 2 percent. In one section theinstructor gave 12 quizzes, one perweek but for the first and last weeks,with the top ten each counting for 1percent. This change in quiz frequencyaffected attendance—it was thehighest for any semester in the study.However, the frequency change didnot have a positive effect on students’course grades. Apparently knowingthat a quiz would be given each weekwas enough to bring students to classeven though the quizzes counted thesame as when there were five. Theseresults illustrate how attendance ispart of what determines the grade, butit is not the entire story.

Reference: Gump, S. E. (2005). Thecost of cutting class: Attendance as apredictor of student success. CollegeTeaching, 53 (1), 21-25.


It Costs to Cut Class


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Documents

Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom ... for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussions • Those Students Who Participate Too Much ByMaryellenWeimer,PhD