Tibetan Medicine Plurality - Amend Labamendlab.com/files/Library_File/tibetan_medicine.pdf · Tibetan Medicine Plurality. Eco-nomic Botany 60(3):227–253, 2006. Tibetan medicine

Recent literature extols Tibetan medicine andits plants (Kletter and Kriechbaum 2001; Dash1994), often giving the impression that there isone centralized practice. Like Chinese andAyurvedic medical systems, Tibetan medicinehas a central core of historic literary referenceworks, called “the four Tantras” (rgyud bzhi)which define and describe the Tibetan medicalsystem. This core of literary texts (written intheir present form in the 12th century) togetherwith later commentaries (such as the 17th cen-tury “Blue Beryl treatise”) are still commonlyaccepted as the scholarly foundation of Tibetanmedicine. However, the existence of such a com-monly accepted literary basis does not imply astatic or uniform system of knowledge and prac-tice. Ghimire, McKey, and Aumeeruddy-Thomas

(2005) have broken ground in appreciating varia-tion within Tibetan medical traditions in Nepal.The fact that similar variation has existed formany centuries is evidenced by Tibetan textsfrom the 16th century that bear witness to con-flicting views of the “proper” way of learningand practicing Tibetan medicine (Schaeffer2003). The origin of Tibetan medicine is in itselfdiverse and from the beginning has been charac-terized by the existence of different lineages orschools. Not only have there been strong influ-ences from Indian and Chinese medical systems,but also from pre-Buddhist Bön, Middle Eastern,and Greek medical systems, and from localherbal practices (Beckwith 1979).

Through the first half of the 20th century, Ti-betan medicine retained a diversity of schoolsand practitioners, including not only Buddhistmonks, but also professional secular medicalpractitioners (with their own schools) and localhealers, who often incorporated pre-Buddhist

Tibetan Medicine Plurality1

Jan Salick, Anja Byg, Anthony Amend, Bee Gunn, Wayne Law,and Heidi Schmidt

Salick, Jan (Curator of Ethnobotany, Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, St. Louis,MO 63166; e-mail: [email protected]), Anja Byg (Post-doctoral Fellow, Missouri Botan-ical Garden), Anthony Amend (Senior Herbarium Assistant, Missouri Botanical Garden;present address: Department of Botany, University of Hawaii at Manoa; e-mail:[email protected]), Bee Gunn (Research Specialist, Missouri Botanical Garden; e-mail:[email protected]), Wayne Law (Ph.D. candidate, Missouri Botanical Garden; e-mail:[email protected]), and Heidi Schmidt (Senior Herbarium Assistant, MissouriBotanical Garden; e-mail: [email protected]). Tibetan Medicine Plurality. Eco-nomic Botany 60(3):227–253, 2006. Tibetan medicine historically has had multiple medicallineages, despite ancient, shared literary medical canons. However, since the second half ofthe 20th century in Tibet, increasing state control and commoditization has lead to centraliza-tion and standardization of Tibetan medicine. Here we investigate how much variation in theuse of medicinal plants remains in contemporary Tibetan medicine. Medicinal plants usedand/or sold by fifteen Tibetan medical institutions, markets, and doctors, as well as two addi-tional non-Tibetan markets, are inventoried and vouchered (where allowed). The data are or-dered by Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling. Four distinct groups are defined: (1) govern-ment recognized Tibetan medical institutions and their disciples both in Lhasa and elsewhere,(2) local herbal doctors near Mt. Khawa Karpo, eastern Himalayas, (3) Tibetan medicinalmarkets in Lhasa and near Mt. Khawa Karpo, and (4) non-Tibetan medicinal markets nearDali and Kunming, Yunnan. This clearly documents the plurality of Tibetan medical tradi-tions—official, local, and market—while differentiating these from non-Tibetan markets.

Key Words: Tibetan medicine, markets, cultural variation, medicinal plants.

Economic Botany, 60(3), 2006, pp. 227–253.© 2006, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

1 Received 13 September 2005; accepted 17 May2006.

shamanistic practices in their treatments(Cantwell 1995; Janes 1995). During the Cul-tural Revolution, Tibetan medicine was stigma-tized as feudalistic and superstitious. Manymonasteries and medical institutions wereclosed, medical texts destroyed, and medicalpractitioners sent to labor camps and preventedfrom practicing (Janes 1995; Cantwell 1995).Reforms in the 1980s rehabilitated Tibetanmedicine, which is now seen as a cheap and ef-ficient way to provide health care in rural areas.

This development is similar to what has hap-pened in other Asian countries where traditionalmedical systems have been incorporated into na-tional health care systems (Holliday 2003). Theincorporation of traditional medicinal systemshas been recommended by the World Health Or-ganization (WHO 2002) as a means to improvehealth care access for the rural poor. Along withgovernmental recognition of traditional medi-cine, WHO promotes national and internationalregulation and control of treatment and practi-tioners. This route has been followed in Tibet,where increasing official acceptance of Tibetanmedicine has entailed increasing state control.The teaching of Tibetan medicine has been cen-tralized and secularized around the Mentsikhangschool of medicine in Lhasa (Janes 1995). Onlygraduates of the Mentsikhang school are offi-cially allowed to practice in state supported Ti-betan clinics and hospitals. As a result, much ofthe variation in Tibetan medicine in the form ofdifferent medical lines or schools has been lost(Janes 1995).

In addition to increasing state regulation, Ti-betan medicine has, like many other traditionalmedical systems, experienced an increasingcommoditization beginning in the 1990s (Janes1999). The reasons are twofold (Janes 1999;Fischer 2005). First, reforms in the health caresystem required hospitals and clinics to financea larger share of their budget themselves, intro-ducing consultation fees and higher prices formedicines. Second, external demand (from non-Tibetan China, as well as India, Nepal, andwestern countries) for Tibetan medicine hasbeen skyrocketing. The health care sector wasthus one of the few areas in Tibet experiencinginflation at the end of the 1990s, while all othersectors experienced stagnating prices. Since Ti-betan areas are among the most impoverishedin China, this medicinal economic sector waspromoted to alleviate poverty.

228 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60

The number of people participating in Ti-betan medicinal markets has escalated dramati-cally, from the herbal collectors to investors inmedicinal production plants. Unfortunately,aside from the field collectors and factory la-borers, the Tibetan medicinal industry tends tobe controlled by non-Tibetans (Fischer 2005).The commoditization has led to increasing de-mands for standardized products and services,which can be subjected to quality control,adding further impetus to the state’s efforts atformalizing Tibetan medicine. Commoditiza-tion has therefore contributed further to the ho-mogenization of Tibetan medicine. Both com-moditization and state policies have had theirstrongest impacts in Lhasa and other urban cen-ters (Cantwell 1995; Janes 1995, 1999). Mean-while, rural areas mainly have been affected bya general decrease in the availability of healthcare from the end of the 1990s (Janes 1999;Fischer 2005).

Here we investigate how state interjection,commoditization, and local traditions affect Ti-betan medicine in Lhasa and a distant easternTibetan realm, known traditionally as the Menrior Medicine Mountains. To this end we com-pare the medicinal plant species used by differ-ent sectors of the medical system—formal Ti-betan hospitals and clinics, Tibetan medicinalmarkets, and local herbalist healers—in thesetwo localities. In addition, we compare these el-ements with nearby eastern outgroups—medici-nal markets in Dali (ethnically Bai) and Kun-ming (ethnically Han), Yunnan, China—whichgives a sense of where Tibetan medicine fitswithin a larger context.

Study SitesMount Khawa Karpo, (Fig. 1; 6,740m,

28°26’20”N latitude, 98°41’05”E longitude) issituated on the border in the extreme northwestof Yunnan and southeast of Tibet. It is the high-est peak of the Menri (“Medicine Mountains”in Tibetan, transliterated to Meili in Chinese),which are part of the Hengduan Mountains ofthe eastern Himalayas, the most biologically di-verse temperate ecosystems on earth (Mitter-meier et al. 1998). Mount Khawa Karpo is oneof the eight sacred mountains in Tibetan Bud-dhism and is circumambulated by thousands ofpilgrims from all over Tibet each year. Locally,the area is predominantly Kham Tibetan, withtraditional village livelihoods based on agricul-

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 229

Fig. 1. In Lhasa, Dechen, Dali, and Kunming, medicinal plants were censused in Tibetan medicalinstitutions, markets, and with Tibetan doctors of Tibet and northwest Yunnan.

ture, herding, forestry, and gathering (Salick,Yang, and Amend 2005). In the Menri there is arich tradition of herbalism, with doctors trainedlocally (Law and Salick n.d.), and thriving me-dicinal markets, as well as a state-supported Ti-betan clinic in the town of Dechen (pinyin:Deqin, formerly Atunze). The Medicine Moun-tains, as their name implies, are a traditionalarea for collecting Tibetan medicinal plants.

Lhasa (3,650m, 29°41.76’N 91°9.54’E) is lo-cated on the southern edge of the Tibetanplateau. Nearby mountains reach altitudes of upto 5,500m. Ethnically, Lhasa is originally cen-tral Tibetan. Nowadays, migrants from other re-gions of Tibet, as well as Han Chinese, make upa large proportion of the city’s population ofaround 200,000.

MethodsTibetan medicinal plants used near Khawa

Karpo by local doctors of various training, bythe formal clinic, and in markets are comparedto those used in Lhasa, Tibet, and in Dali andKunming, Yunnan. In Lhasa we inventoried me-dicinal plants at the Mentsikhang (Tibetan Hos-pital), the main Tibetan Medicine Factory, theTibetan Pharmacy in the Barkhor market (nearcentral Lhasa monastery, Jokhang), and the offi-cial, government licensed Tibetan MedicineMarket. Near Dali, Yunnan, we sampled thecentral warehouse of Bai medicinal plant mer-chants. In Kunming, Yunnan, we sampled thecentral Han Chinese medicinal market.

SamplingSampling varied by necessity; however, prior

informed consent was uniformly received withstipulations observed as follows. Optimally, forthe Kunming, Dali, Dechen, Sinong (nearKhawa Karpo), and Lhasa markets, as well asthe Barkhor Pharmacy in Lhasa and TibetanMedical Clinic in Dechen, vouchered plantsamples with scientific names are deposited atthe Missouri Botanical Garden. Less ideally,where we were not allowed to take samples,highly trained Tibetan doctors identified Ti-betan medicinal plants used at the Mentsikhangand the Tibetan Medicine Factory. With thesedoctors, we double-checked scientific namesagainst two standard Tibetan medicine manuals(Gawai Dorje 1995; Chinese Academy of Sci-ence 1996). Local herbalists near Khawa Karpowere interviewed (see Law and Salick n.d.), and


for each, a list of their 20 most useful medicinalplants was recorded for which we ascribed sci-entific names with reference to a Tibetan medi-cine guide specific to Dechen (Yang 1987–89).Finally, to provide the most recent nomencla-ture, all these scientific names are referencedagainst the International Plant Names Index(IPNI, www.ipni.org) and the Flora of China(mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/foc.html). SeeAppendix.

AnalysesSince there are many congeneric species

differences over the geographic range of ourstudy, since specific epithets are not uniformlyattributed and vouchers were not always avail-able, and since many congeneric species areused for the same general purposes in Tibetanmedicine, we chose to analyze the data at thegeneric level.

To differentiate and group Tibetan medicaltraditions, Non-metric Multidimensional Scal-ing with the Jaccard Distance Measure is per-formed with PC–Ord 4 (McCune and Mefford1999). The binary presence-absence matrix isappended including both genus and species.

ResultsTibetan medical institutions and doctors

clearly group by the plants that are used (Fig.2). The tightest group is the formal Tibetanmedicine establishment of Lhasa including theMentsikhang Tibetan Hospital, the Barkhorpharmacy, the Tibetan Medicine Factory, aswell as the Dechen Tibetan Medical Clinic(sanctioned and supplied by Lhasa) and the onemonk practicing in the Khawa Karpo area whohas Lhasa training in Tibetan medicine. Theseinstitutions/people represent the official Tibetanmedicinal system, as it is taught and practicedin state-approved institutions.

Similar but distinct are the local doctors whopractice herbal medicine near Khawa Karpoand were mostly trained by a local medicinal“grand master.” As a group, these doctors aremore dispersed in the ordination than the Lhasagroup, indicating that their local uses of medic-inal plants are less uniform and more individu-alistic. A third group, more distant and moredispersed, includes the markets in Lhasa,Dechen, and Sinong and two self-taught localherbalists who began their career by collectingfor the market. Finally, the two out-groups—the


Fig. 2. Pluralism in Tibetan medicine, grouped by similarity of plant genera used, include the well-established Lhasa tradition (bottom right), local Tibetan doctors practicing near Mt. Khawa Karpo (centerright), and markets selling Tibetan plants (upper left). Medicinal markets outside of Tibetan cultural influence(lower left) are clearly distinct. Exceptions to these groups prove their integrity: for example, the one Decheninstitution falling within the Lhasa tradition is the state-run Tibetan Medicine Clinic that receives its storesfrom Lhasa; and two self-taught herbalists south of Dechen who used medicinal plants similar to those inmarkets learned medicine by collecting plants for such markets. This ordination is Non-metricMultidimensional Scaling with the Jaccard Distance Measure, performed with PC–Ord 4; the binary presence-absence matrix is appended.

Kunming Medicinal Market and the Dali cen-tral warehouse of Bai medicinal plant mer-chants—are ordered separately and not particu-larly close to each other, but clearly distinctfrom the Tibetan medical traditions.

DiscussionDespite the ancient, shared literary canons

and recent government centralization and mar-keting, Tibetan medicine is still by no means asingle entity (see also Ghimire, McKey, andAumeeruddy-Thomas 2005). Plants used ingovernment-sponsored Tibetan medicine—astaught and manufactured in Lhasa and practicedthroughout Tibet and China—are distinct fromthose used in Tibetan medicine as practiced byherbalists near sacred Mt Khawa Karpo, whichis again distinct from those which appear in Ti-betan medicinal markets, be they in Lhasa orKhawa Karpo or elsewhere. The government-sponsored medical institutions are the most ho-mogeneous in their plant use. In Lhasa, the in-fluence of state policies has been strongest: it isthere that the main state-approved medical in-stitutions (school, clinics, hospitals, and facto-ries) are located, but approved state institutionsoutside of Lhasa are also comparable. This ho-mogeneity seems to have arisen after the Cul-tural Revolution with the state centralizationand increasing commoditization of Tibetanmedicine. Although little documentation re-mains today, there were reportedly several dis-tinct medical lineages in Lhasa until the middleof the 20th century (Janes 1995).

In more rural areas, homogenizing forceshave been less influential and local Tibetanmedical traditions coexist (although withoutstate support or subsidy) with the officiallystate-sanctioned version of Tibetan medicine astaught in the Mentsikhang school. Conse-quently, more variation in the plant use of med-ical practitioners remains in rural areas.Nonetheless, the plants used by local medicalpractitioners of the Khawa Karpo region areclearly distinct from those used in Lhasa, thosein the government Tibetan medical clinic nearKhawa Karpo, and those of the one Lhasa-trained doctor in the Khawa Karpo area. Thesedifferences can be ascribed partly to locally dif-ferentiated traditions (with differt medical line-ages dominating in different parts of Tibet),partly to environmental variation of locallyavailable plant species, and potentially to varia-


tion in the most prevalent types of afflictions indifferent areas. There is ample evidence thatlocal flora shapes local medicine; for example,the species of Lagotis that is used medicinallyvery much depends on location with L. alu-tacea dominating in Dechen, while in Lhasaseveral other species of Lagotis are used.

As shown elsewhere (Olsen 2005), com-moditization of Tibetan medicine has reducedthe materia medica and made it relatively uni-form between both Lhasa and Khawa Karpo.Interestingly, two self-trained herbalists whostarted as commercial medicinal collectorsclearly show evidence of their shared back-ground in the medicinal plants they use—typi-cal market fare.

Lhasa Tibetan medicine and commoditizedTibetan medicine support an extensive interna-tional trade with Persian (e.g., saffron), Indian(e.g., Terminalia bellerica and T. chebula), andother tropical medicinal plants (e.g., Cinnamo-mum spp., Elettaria sp. (actually imported fromcultivated stock in Guatemala!), and Zingiberspp. Local doctors in the Khawa Karpo arearely more on local plants that they collect them-selves, many of which are threatened (Law andSalick n.d.). However, local Tibetan doctorspose little apparent threat to medicinal plantsbecause they use very little of any one plantspecies, carefully guarding the plant popula-tions that they do use. Tibetan medicine mar-kets in Lhasa as well as Dechen also support anextensive trade in several threatened medicinals(e.g., Fritillaria spp., Panax spp., Saussureaspp.). In contrast to local doctors, market col-lectors often do not comply with traditionalcustoms or constraints (e.g., sacred sites; seeAnderson et al. 2005 and Salick et al. 2006), es-pecially where global demand has lead to in-crease in prices and required quantities (Olsenand Larsen 2003; Xu and Wilkes 2004; Olsenand Bhattarai 2005).

This commercial collection is of great concernbecause rampant collectors harvest and exportalready limited and stressed populations of valu-able medicinal herbs (Xu and Wilkes 2004; Kala2005). There are no exact figures for the harvestand trade of medicinal plants available fromTibet. In the Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture inNW Yunnan, estimates of income from non-timber forest products ranges between 25% and80% of earned income (Xu and Wilkes 2004;Zhang, Wang, and Geng 2000) with the most lu-

crative being Matsutake, a medicinal/culinarymushroom (He 2003; Yeh 2000; Yun, Hall, andEvans 1997). In Nepal an estimated 7,000–27,000 tons of medicinal plants are harvested peryear involving around 323,000 households or10% of rural households (Olsen 2005). Most ofthe harvest in Nepal is concentrated on a smallnumber of high value species, which make up ca.50 % of the total value and ca. 40% of the totalamounts collected. Many programs are being de-veloped around the world to cultivate medicinalherbs both for their conservation in natural habi-tats and for sustainable development (e.g., Longet al. 2003 in the eastern Himalayas; Silori andBadola 2000 in the western Himalayas). How-ever, many of these threatened Tibetan medicinalspecies are very difficult if not impossible to cul-tivate, while others take many years to matureand so are not profitable. In situ conservation andmanagement of these threatened species is ofhighest priority.

Tibetan medicine, in all its plurality, is distinctfrom Bai traditional medicine in Dali and fromHan (Chinese) traditional medicine in Kunming.Although trade and exchange of specific medici-nal plants are both historic and current betweenTibetan and other areas (Li et al. 2000), medicaltraditions remain distinct. Analogous to biodiver-sity, diversity of traditional medicine obviouslyexists at many levels: within traditions, amongtraditions, and on larger scales.

Unfortunately, the Chinese government onlyrecognizes and allows Tibetan clinics to be esta-blished by practitioners of Tibetan medicine for-mally trained in Lhasa. Local doctors in theKhawa Karpo and other areas are not recog-nized. Variation in cultural traditions is a sign ofadaptation and change (Pelto and Pelto 1975). Astrength of traditional medicinal systems is theirability to attend to the physical and psychologi-cal needs of people in ways that are culturallymeaningful (Janes 1995, 1999). While incorpo-ration into national health care may afford tradi-tional medical systems greater recognition, itwill also tend to increase regulation, standardi-zation, and the demand for testing according tobiomedical standards. This may lead to the dis-carding of more spiritual and local elements oftraditional medical systems (Janes 1995; Holli-day 2003). Rigid institutionalization may inhibitthe ability of traditional institutions to meet thechanging and locally differing needs of people(Janes 1995, 1999). Even though incorporation


of traditional medical systems into nationalhealth care has been promoted by the WorldHealth Organization as a means of ensuringgreater access to health care for all, this may notnecessarily be the result, especially when it iscoupled with greater commoditization.

This is the case in Tibet, where increased na-tional as well as foreign demand for Tibetanmedical treatment and medicines has resulted inincreasing prices (Janes 1999; Fischer 2005).Consequently, the inequity in health care accesshas increased during the last decade, both be-cause of government control and because ofmarkets. The most impoverished Tibetans, whohave no access to government-supported Tibetanclinics and/or who cannot afford the increasingcosts of treatment and manufactured Tibetanmedicines, are served only by traditional Ti-betan herbal doctors who collect their own med-icines in places like the Medicine Mountains.However, these highly knowledgeable and re-spected professionals are not recognized by thegovernment and so receive no support or recom-pense for their knowledge, dedication, or labor.Nonetheless, they carry on their ancient tradi-tion with boddhieitta.

AcknowledgmentsThis research was variously funded by the

Missouri Botanical Garden, The Nature Con-servancy, and National Science Foundation(#0408123). In Yunnan we are very grateful forsupport from the Kunming Institute of Botanyand the Shangrila Alpine Botanical Garden, andin Lhasa from the Tibetan Academy of Agricul-tural and Animal Sciences and the Tibetan Insti-tute of Biology. Our most profound apprecia-tion goes to the Tibetan medical experts whogave willingly of their time and expertise ontraditional medicinal plants.

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achr

oo,

U.D

har

&N

aqsh

i1

1

Api

acea

eB

uple

urum

long

icau

leW

all.

exD

C.

11

Api

acea

eC

arum

carv

iL

.1

12

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Lhasamedicalinstitution


Lhasamarket


Dechenmedicalinstitution

Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

236 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A

PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Api

acea

eC

nidi

umm

onni

eri

Cus

son

11

Api

acea

eC

oria

ndru

msa

tivu

mL

.1

11

3A

piac

eae

Cum

inum

cym

inum

L.

11

13

Api

acea

eF

erul

aas

sa-f

oeti

daL

.1

12

Api

acea

eFo

enic

ulum

vulg

are

Mil

l.1

11

3A

piac

eae

Her

acle

umca

ndic

ans

Wal

l.ex

DC

.1

1A

piac

eae

Lig

usti

cum

pter

idop

hyll

umF

ranc

h.ex

Gli

ver

11

2A

piac

eae

Lig

usti

cum

sine

nse

Oli

ver

11

Api

acea

eN

otop

tery

gium

fran

chet

iiH

.de

Boi

ssie

u1

1A

piac

eae

Not

opte

rygi

umin

cisu

mT

ing

exH

o-t.C

hang

11

Api

acea

eP

euce

danu

mvi

olac

eum

R.H

.S

han

&M

.L.

She

h1

1

Api

acea

eP

leur

ospe

rmum

nanu

mF

ranc

het

11

Api

acea

eP

leur

ospe

rmum

sp.

Hof

fm.

11

Api

acea

eSi

noli

mpr

icht

iaal

pina

H.W

olff

11

2A

piac

eae

Spha

ller

ocar

pus

grac

ilis

(Bes

ser

exT

revi

r.)K

oso-

Pol

.1

1

Apo

cyna

ceae

Hol

arrh

ena

anti

dyse

nter

ica

(L.)

Wal

l.ex

A.

DC

.1

12

Ara

ceae

Pin

elli

ate

rnat

a(T

hunb

.)B

reit

enb.

11

Ara

ceae

Ari

saem

aco

nsan

guin

eum

Sch

ott

11

Ara

ceae

Ari

saem

afla

vum

(For

ssk.

)S

chot

t1

1A

rali

acea

eA

rali

aqu

inqu

efol

iaD

ecne

.&

Pla

nch.

11

Ara

liac

eae

Pan

axgi

nsen

gC

.A.

Mey

.1

12

Ara

liac

eae

Pan

axps

eudo

gins

eng

Wal

l.1

11

14

Are

cace

aeP

hoen

ixda

ctyl

ifer

aL

.1

1A

reca

ceae

Arc

hont

opho

enix

sp.

H.W

endl

.&

Dru

de1

1A

reca

ceae

Are

caca

tech

uL

.1

11

14

Ari

stol

ochi

acea

eA

rist

oloc

hia

grif

fithi

iH

ook.

f.&

Tho

mso

nex

Duc

h.1

11

3

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals


rist

oloc

hiac

eae

Ari

stol

ochi

am

acro

carp

aC

.Y.

Wu

&S

.K.

Wu

exD

.D.

Tao

11

Ari

stol

ochi

acea

eA

rist

oloc

hia

mou

pine

nsis

Fra

nch.

11

2A

scle

piad

acea

eC

ynan

chum

vinc

etox

icum

(L.)

Per

s.1

1A

scle

piad

acea

eV

ince

toxi

cum

kom

arov

iiIj

insk

.1

1A

spar

agac

eae

Asp

arag

usfil

icin

usB

uch.

-Ham

.ex

D.

Don

11

11

4A

spar

agac

eae

Asp

arag

uslo

ngifl

orus

Fra

nch.

11

Asp

arag

acea

eA

spar

agus

myr

iaca

nthu

sF.

T.

Wan

g&

S.C

.C

hen

11

Ast

erac

eae

Ain

slia

eape

rtyo

ides

Fra

nch.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Aja

nia

khar

tens

is(D

unn)

Shi

h1

1A

ster

acea

eA

jani

ate

nuif

olia

(J.

Jacq

.)T

zvel

ev1

1A

ster

acea

eA

rcti

umla

ppa

L.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Art

emis

iaan

nua

L.

11

2A

ster

acea

eA

rtem

isia

dese

rtor

umS

pren

g.1

1A

ster

acea

eA

rtem

isia

hedi

nii

Ost

enf.

&P

auls

on1

1A

ster

acea

eA

rtem

isia

parv

iflor

aB

uch.

-Ham

.ex

Rox

b.1

1A

ster

acea

eA

rtem

isia

sive

rsia

naW

illd

.1

1A

ster

acea

eA

rtem

isia

sp.

L.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Art

emis

iave

stit

aW

all.

exB

esse

r1

1A

ster

acea

eA

ster

bata

ngen

sis

Bur

eau

etF

ranc

h.1

1A

ster

acea

eA

ster

him

alai

cus

C.B

.C

lark

e1

1A

ster

acea

eA

ster

meg

alan

thus

Y.

Lin

g1

1A

ster

acea

eA

ster

yunn

anen

sis

Fra

nch.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Cal

endu

laof

ficin

alis

L.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Car

duus

acan

thoi

des

L.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Car

tham

usti

ncto

rius

L.

11

2A

ster

acea

eC

irsi

umso

ulie

i(F

ranc

h.)

Mat

tf.

exR

ehde

r&

Kob

uski

11

Ast

erac

eae

Cos

mos

bipi

nnat

usC

av.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Cre

man

thod

ium

deca

isne

iC

.B.

Cla

rke

11

Ast

erac

eae

Cre

man

thod

ium

line

are

Max

im.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Cre

man

thod

ium

ling

ulat

umS

.W.

Liu

11

Ast

erac

eae

Cre

man

thod

ium

sp.

Ben

th.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Dol

omia

easo

ulie

i(F

ranc

h.)

C.

Shi

h1

11

3A

ster

acea

eE

rige

ron

brev

isca

pus

(Van

iot)

Han

d.-M

azz.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Eri

gero

nfla

ccid

us(B

unge

)B

otsc

h.1

12

Ast

erac

eae

Ger

bera

anan

dria

(L.)

Sch

.B

ip.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Gna

phal

ium

affin

eD

.D

on1

1


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Ast

erac

eae

Gna

phal

ium

hypo

leuc

umD

C.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Het

erop

appu

scr

enat

ifol

ius

(Han

d.-M

azz.

)G

rier

son

11

Ast

erac

eae

Inul

ara

cem

osa

Hoo

k.f.

11

11

4A

ster

acea

eIx

erid

ium

grac

ile

(DC

.)J.

H.

Pak

&K

awan

o1

1A

ster

acea

eIx

eris

sp.

(Cas

s.)

Cas

s.1

1A

ster

acea

eK

alim

eris

smit

hian

us(H

and.

-Maz

z.)

S.Y

.H

u.1

1

Ast

erac

eae

Leo

ntop

odiu

mfr

anch

eti

Bea

uver

d1

1A

ster

acea

eL

igul

aria

virg

aure

a(M

axim

.)M

attf

.ex

Reh

-de

r&

Kob

uski

11

Ast

erac

eae

Pet

asit

estr

icho

lobu

sF

ranc

h.1

1A

ster

acea

eP

icri

shi

erac

ioid

esL

.1

1A

ster

acea

eP

ulic

aria

insi

gnis

J.R

.D

rum

m.

exD

unn

11

Ast

erac

eae

Pyr

ethr

umta

tsie

nens

e(B

urea

u&

Fra

nch.

)L

ing

exC

.S

hih

11

2

Ast

erac

eae

Saus

sure

aco

stus

(Fal

c.)

Lip

sch.

11

13

Ast

erac

eae

Saus

sure

agr

amin

eaD

unn

11

Ast

erac

eae

Saus

sure

ahi

erac

ioid

esH

ook.

f.1

1A

ster

acea

eSa

ussu

rea

lani

ceps

Han

d.-M

azz.

11

2A

ster

acea

eSa

ussu

rea

liki

ange

nsis

Fra

nch.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Saus

sure

am

edus

aM

axim

.1

12

Ast

erac

eae

Saus

sure

aob

vall

ata

(DC

.)E

dgew

.1

12

Ast

erac

eae

Saus

sure

apa

chyn

eura

Fra

nch.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Saus

sure

apa

xian

aD

iels

exH

.L

impr

.1

1A

ster

acea

eSe

neci

oso

lida

gine

usS

pren

g.1

12

Ast

erac

eae

Sene

cio

thia

nsch

anic

usR

egel

&S

chm

alh.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Sonc

hus

brac

hyot

usD

C.

11

Ast

erac

eae

Soro

seri

sgl

omer

ata

(Dec

ne.)

Ste

bbin

s1

1

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals


ster

acea

eSo

rose

ris

hook

eria

na(C

.B.

Cla

rke)

Ste

bbin

s1

1A

ster

acea

eSy

ncal

athi

umka

wag

uchi

i(K

itam

.)L

ing

11

Ast

erac

eae

Syno

tis

eryt

hrop

appa

(Bur

eau

&F

ranc

h.)

C.

Jeff

rey

&Y

.L.

Che

n1

1

Ast

erac

eae

Tage

tes

erec

taL

.1

1A

ster

acea

eTa

raxa

cum

sikk

imen

seH

and.

-Maz

z.1

1A

ster

acea

eTa

raxa

cum

tibe

tanu

mH

and.

-Maz

z.1

11

3A

ster

acea

eTe

phro

seri

sfla

mm

ea(T

urcz

.ex

DC

.)H

olub

11

Ast

erac

eae

Xan

thiu

msi

biri

cum

Pat

rin

exW

idde

r1

1B

erbe

rida

ceae

Ber

beri

sda

syst

achy

aM

axim

.1

1B

erbe

rida

ceae

Epi

med

ium

sp.

L.

11

Ber

beri

dace

aeM

ahon

iadu

clou

xian

aG

agne

p.1

1B

erbe

rida

ceae

Sino

podo

phyl

lum

hexa

ndru

m(R

oyle

)T

.S.

Yin

g1

11

3

Big

noni

acea

eIn

carv

ille

aar

guta

(Roy

le)

Roy

le1

1B

igno

niac

eae

Inca

rvil

lea

com

pact

aM

axim

.1

11

3B

igno

niac

eae

Oro

xylu

min

dicu

m(L

.)K

urz

11

Bom

baca

ceae

Bom

bax

ceib

aL

.1

12

Bor

agin

acea

eM

icro

ula

tibe

tica

Ben

th.

11

Bor

agin

acea

eO

nosm

aho

oker

iC

.B.C

lark

e1

11

3B

orag

inac

eae

Ono

sma

mul

tira

mos

umH

and.

-Maz

z.1

1B

orag

inac

eae

Asp

erug

opr

ocum

bens

L.

11

Bor

agin

acea

eC

ynog

loss

umw

alli

chii

G.D

on1

1B

orag

inac

eae

Eri

tric

hium

sino

mic

roca

rpum

W.T

.W

ang

11

Bra

ssic

acea

eN

eoto

rula

ria

hum

ilis

(C.A

.M

ey.)

Hed

ge&

J.L

eona

rd1

1

Bra

ssic

acea

eP

egae

ophy

ton

scap

iflor

um(H

ook.

f.&

Tho

m-

son)

C.

Mar

quan

d&

Air

yS

haw

11

11

11

6

Bra

ssic

acea

eR

apha

nus

sati

vus

L.

11

Bra

ssic

acea

eSi

napi

sal

baL

.1

11

3B

rass

icac

eae

Sisy

mbr

ium

hete

rom

allu

mC

.A.

Mey

.1

12

Bra

ssic

acea

eSi

sym

briu

min

dicu

mL

.1

1B

rass

icac

eae

Solm

s-L

auba

chia

eury

carp

a(M

axim

.)B

otsc

h.1

1

Bra

ssic

acea

eT

hlas

piar

vens

eL

.1

11

3B

rass

icac

eae

Bra

ssic

aca

mpe

stri

sL

.1

1B

rass

icac

eae

Bra

ssic

aju

ncea

(L.)

Cze

rn.

11

Bra

ssic

acea

eB

rass

ica

rapa

L.

11

2B

rass

icac

eae

Cap

sell

abu

rsa

(L.)

Med

ik.

11


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Bra

ssic

acea

eC

arda

min

em

acro

phyl

laA

dam

s1

1B

rass

icac

eae

Des

cura

inia

soph

ia(L

.)W

ebb

exP

rant

l1

1B

rass

icac

eae

Dil

ophi

afo

ntan

aM

axim

.1

1B

rass

icac

eae

Dra

basp

.L

.1

1B

rass

icac

eae

Ery

sim

umbe

ntha

mii

Mon

net

11

Bra

ssic

acea

eL

epid

ium

apet

alum

Wil

ld.

11

Bud

dlej

acea

eB

uddl

eja

cris

paB

enth

.1

1B

uddl

ejac

eae

Bud

dlej

aof

ficin

alis

Max

im.

11

Bur

sera

ceae

Bos

wel

lia

cart

erii

Bir

dw.

11

Bur

sera

ceae

Com

mip

hora

myr

rha

(T.

Nee

s)E

ngl.

11

2C

aesa

lpin

iace

aeC

aesa

lpin

iacr

ista

L.

11

2C

aesa

lpin

iace

aeC

aesa

lpin

iasa

ppan

L.

11

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Cas

sia

fistu

laL

.1

1C

aesa

lpin

iace

aeC

assi

ato

raL

.1

11

3C

ampa

nula

ceae

Cam

panu

lasp

.L

.1

1C

ampa

nula

ceae

Cod

onop

sis

cane

scen

sN

annf

.1

1C

ampa

nula

ceae

Cod

onop

sis

conv

olvu

lace

aK

urz

11

11

4C

ampa

nula

ceae

Cod

onop

sis

mac

roca

lyx

Die

ls1

1C

ampa

nula

ceae

Cod

onop

sis

nerv

osa

(Chi

pp)

Nan

nf.

11

2C

ampa

nula

ceae

Cya

nant

hus

sher

riffi

iR

.S.

Cow

an1

1C

ampa

nula

ceae

Pla

tyco

don

gran

diflo

rus

(Jac

quin

)A

.D

C.

11

Can

naba

ceae

Can

nabi

ssa

tiva

L.

11

Cap

rifo

liac

eae

Lon

icer

am

aack

iH

erd.

11

Cap

rifo

liac

eae

Lon

icer

am

icro

phyl

laW

illd

.ex

Roe

m.

&S

chul

t.1

1

Cap

rifo

liac

eae

Lon

icer

am

yrti

llus

Hoo

k.f.

&T

hom

son

11

Cap

rifo

liac

eae

Lon

icer

asa

ccat

aR

ehde

r1

1C

aryo

phyl

lace

aeSi

lene

gram

inif

olia

Ott

h.1

1C

aryo

phyl

lace

aeSi

lene

spL

.1

1C

aryo

phyl

lace

aeSi

lene

yeti

iB

ocqu

et1

1

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 241C

aryo

phyl

lace

aeA

rena

ria

fest

ucoi

des

Ben

th.

11

Car

yoph

ylla

ceae

Are

nari

aka

nsue

nsis

Max

im.

11

13

Car

yoph

ylla

ceae

Are

nari

ala

ncan

gens

isL

.H.

Zho

u1

1C

epha

lota

xace

aeC

epha

lota

xus

sine

nsis

(Reh

der

&E

.H.W

ilso

n)H

.L.

Li

11

Che

nopo

diac

eae

Che

nopo

dium

albu

mL

.1

1C

lavi

cipi

tace

aeC

ordy

ceps

sine

nsis

(Ber

k.)

Sac

c.1

11

11

5C

ombr

etac

eae

Qui

squa

lis

indi

caL

.1

1C

ombr

etac

eae

Term

inal

iabe

llir

ica

(Gae

rtn.

)R

oxb.

11

11

4C

ombr

etac

eae

Term

inal

iach

ebul

a(G

aert

n.)

Ret

z.1

11

11

5C

onif

erae

Juni

peru

sre

curv

aB

uch.

-Ham

.ex

D.

Don

11

Con

vall

aria

ceae

Oph

iopo

gon

bodi

nier

iH

.Lev

.1

1C

onva

llar

iace

aeP

olyg

onat

umci

rrhi

foli

um(W

all.)

Roy

le1

11

11

5C

onva

llar

iace

aeP

olyg

onat

umve

rtic

illa

tum

(L.)

All

.1

12

Con

volv

ulac

eae

Cus

cuta

euro

paea

L.

11

Cra

ssul

acea

eR

hodi

ola

cren

ulat

a(H

ook.

f.&

Tho

mso

n)H

.O

hba

11

11

4

Cra

ssul

acea

eR

hodi

ola

dum

ulos

a(F

ranc

h.)

S.H

.F

u1

1C

rass

ulac

eae

Rho

diol

aki

rilo

wii

(Reg

el)

Max

im.

11

2C

rass

ulac

eae

Sedu

mbu

lbif

erum

Mak

ino

11

Cra

ssul

acea

eSe

dum

tata

rino

wii

Max

im.

11

Cuc

urbi

tace

aeH

erpe

tosp

erm

umpe

dunc

ulos

um(S

er.)

C.B

.C

lark

e1

11

3

Cuc

urbi

tace

aeL

agen

aria

sice

rari

a(M

olin

a)S

tand

l.1

1C

ucur

bita

ceae

Luf

facy

lind

rica

(L.)

M.

Roe

m.

11

Cuc

urbi

tace

aeM

omor

dica

coch

inch

inen

sis

(Lou

r.)S

pren

g.1

1C

ucur

bita

ceae

Sira

itia

gros

veno

rii

(Sw

ingl

e)C

.Je

ffre

yex

A.M

.L

u&

Zhi

Y.

Zha

ng1

1

Cuc

urbi

tace

aeB

enin

casa

hisp

ida

(Thu

nb.)

Cog

n.1

1C

yper

acea

eC

yper

usro

tund

usL

.1

1D

icks

onia

ceae

Cib

otiu

mba

rom

etz

(L.)

J.S

m.

11

Dio

scor

eace

aeD

iosc

orea

cirr

hosa

Lou

r.1

1D

ipsa

cace

aeD

ipsa

cus

aspe

rW

all.

11

Dip

saca

ceae

Pte

roce

phal

usho

oker

i(C

.B.

Cla

rke)

L.

Die

ls1

11

14

Dip

saca

ceae

Trip

lost

egia

glan

duli

fera

Wal

l.ex

DC

.1

1E

laea

gnac

eae

Ela

eagn

usvi

ridi

sS

erve

ttaz

11

Eph

edra

ceae

Eph

edra

equi

seti

naB

unge

11

Eph

edra

ceae

Eph

edra

gera

rdia

naW

all.

exC

.A.

Mey

.1

1


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Eph

edra

ceae

Eph

edra

min

uta

Flo

rin

11

Equ

iset

acea

eE

quis

etum

diff

usum

D.

Don

11

Equ

iset

acea

eE

quis

etum

ram

osis

sim

umD

esf.

11

Eri

cace

aeR

hodo

dend

ron

anth

opog

onoi

des

Max

im.

11

2E

ucom

mia

ceae

Euc

omm

iaul

moi

des

Oli

ver

11

Eup

horb

iace

aeE

upho

rbia

fisch

eria

naS

teud

.1

1E

upho

rbia

ceae

Eup

horb

iam

icra

ctin

aB

oiss

.1

1E

upho

rbia

ceae

Eup

horb

iare

gina

H.

Lev

.1

1E

upho

rbia

ceae

Eup

horb

iast

rach

eyi

Boi

ss.

11

2E

upho

rbia

ceae

Eup

horb

iaw

alli

chii

Hoo

k.f.

11

Eup

horb

iace

aeP

hyll

anth

usem

blic

aL

.1

12

Fab

acea

eA

brus

prec

ator

ius

L.

11

Fab

acea

eA

caci

aca

tech

u(L

.f.)

Wil

ld.

11

Fab

acea

eA

stra

galu

sad

surg

ens

Pal

l.1

1F

abac

eae

Ast

raga

lus

flori

dus

Ben

th.

exB

unge

11

Fab

acea

eA

stra

galu

spa

stor

ius

Tsa

i&

T.T

.Yu

11

Fab

acea

eA

stra

galu

sto

ngol

ensi

sU

lbri

ch1

12

Fab

acea

eA

stra

galu

syu

nnan

ensi

sF

ranc

h.1

12

Fab

acea

eB

utea

mon

ospe

rma

(Lam

.)Ta

ub.

11

Fab

acea

eC

anav

alia

glad

iata

(Jac

q.)

DC

.1

12

Fab

acea

eC

arag

ana

brev

ifol

iaK

om.

11

Fab

acea

eC

arag

ana

juba

ta(P

all.)

Poi

r.1

1F

abac

eae

Car

agan

ati

beti

caK

om.

11

Fab

acea

eE

ntad

aph

aseo

loid

es(L

.)M

err.

11

2F

abac

eae

Gly

cine

max

(L.)

Mer

r.1

1F

abac

eae

Gly

cyrr

hiza

ural

ensi

sF

isch

.ex

DC

.1

11

11

5F

abac

eae

Gue

lden

stae

dtia

him

alai

caB

aker

11

Fab

acea

eH

edys

arum

sikk

imen

seB

enth

.ex

Bak

er1

1F

abac

eae

Lab

lab

purp

ureu

s(L

.)S

wee

t1

1F

abac

eae

Len

scu

lina

ris

Med

ik.

11

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 243F

abac

eae

Med

icag

oar

chid

ucis

-nic

olai

Sir

jaev

11

Fab

acea

eM

elil

otus

offic

inal

is(L

.)P

all.

11

Fab

acea

eM

ille

ttia

sp.

Wig

ht&

Arn

.1

1F

abac

eae

Oxy

trop

isfa

lcat

a(G

reen

e)A

.N

elso

n1

1F

abac

eae

Oxy

trop

isoc

hroc

epha

laB

unge

11

Fab

acea

eO

xytr

opis

reni

form

isP.

C.

Li

11

2F

abac

eae

Oxy

trop

issu

bpod

olob

aP.

C.

Li

11

Fab

acea

eP

hase

olus

luna

tus

L.

11

Fab

acea

eP

hase

olus

vulg

aris

L.

11

2F

abac

eae

Pis

umsa

tivu

mL

.1

1F

abac

eae

Pso

rale

aco

ryli

foli

aL

.1

1F

abac

eae

Pte

roca

rpus

sant

alin

usB

uch.

-Ham

.ex

Wal

l.1

12

Fab

acea

eP

uera

ria

sp.

DC

.1

1F

abac

eae

Soph

ora

tonk

inen

sis

Gag

nep.

11

Fab

acea

eT

herm

opsi

sba

rbat

aB

enth

.1

1F

abac

eae

The

rmop

sis

lanc

eola

taR

.B

r.1

1F

abac

eae

Trig

onel

lafo

enum

-gra

ecum

L.

11

Fab

acea

eTr

igon

ella

ruth

enic

aL

.1

1F

abac

eae

Vic

iafa

baL

.1

1F

agac

eae

Que

rcus

sem

ecar

pifo

lia

Sm

.1

1G

anod

erm

atac

eae

Gan

oder

ma

sp.

11

Gen

tian

acea

eG

enti

ana

algi

daP

all.

11

2G

enti

anac

eae

Gen

tian

acr

assi

caul

isD

uthi

eex

Bur

kill

11

Gen

tian

acea

eG

enti

ana

rige

scen

sF

ranc

h.1

1G

enti

anac

eae

Gen

tian

asp

.L

.1

11

3G

enti

anac

eae

Gen

tian

ast

ipit

ata

Edg

ew.

11

2G

enti

anac

eae

Gen

tian

ast

ram

inea

Max

im.

11

11

4G

enti

anac

eae

Gen

tian

asz

eche

nyii

Kan

itz

11

2G

enti

anac

eae

Gen

tian

aur

nula

Har

ryS

m.

11

11

11

17

Gen

tian

acea

eG

enti

ana

veit

chio

rum

Hem

sl.

11

Gen

tian

acea

eG

enti

anop

sis

gran

dis

(Har

ryS

m.)

Ma

11

2G

enti

anac

eae

Gen

tian

opsi

spa

ludo

sa(M

unro

exH

ook.

f.)

Ma

11

Gen

tian

acea

eH

alen

iael

lipt

ica

D.

Don

11

2G

enti

anac

eae

Swer

tia

cili

ata

(D.

Don

exG

.D

on)

B.L

.B

urtt

11

13

Gen

tian

acea

eSw

erti

aco

rdat

a(W

all.

exG

.D

on)

C.B

.C

lark

e1

1

Gen

tian

acea

eSw

erti

afr

anch

etia

naH

arry

Sm

.1

1


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Gen

tian

acea

eSw

erti

am

ulti

caul

isD

.D

on1

1G

enti

anac

eae

Swer

tia

mus

soti

Fra

nch.

11

Gen

tian

acea

eSw

erti

aw

olfg

angi

ana

Gru

ning

11

Ger

ania

ceae

Ger

aniu

mor

ient

ali-

tibe

ticu

mR

.K

nuth

11

2G

eran

iace

aeG

eran

ium

prat

ense

L.

11

Ger

ania

ceae

Ger

aniu

mpy

lzow

ianu

mM

axim

.1

1G

esne

riac

eae

Cor

allo

disc

uski

ngia

nus

(Cra

ib)

B.L

.B

urtt

11

Ges

neri

acea

eC

oral

lodi

scus

lanu

gino

sus

(Wal

lich

exR

.B

row

n)B

.L.

Bur

tt1

12

Gro

ssul

aria

ceae

Rib

eshi

mal

ense

Roy

leex

Dec

ne.

11

Hip

puri

dace

aeH

ippu

ris

vulg

aris

L.

11

Irid

acea

eC

rocu

ssa

tivu

sL

.1

11

14

Irid

acea

eIr

isbu

lley

ana

Dyk

es1

1Ir

idac

eae

Iris

goni

ocar

paB

aker

11

Irid

acea

eIr

isla

ctea

Pal

l.1

1Ir

idac

eae

Iris

pota

nini

iM

axim

.1

1Ju

ncag

inac

eae

Trig

loch

inm

arit

imum

L.

11

Lam

iace

aeA

juga

lupu

lina

Max

im.

11

2L

amia

ceae

Aju

gaov

alif

olia

Bur

eau

etF

ranc

h.1

1L

amia

ceae

Isod

onru

besc

ens

(Hem

sl.)

H.

Har

a1

1L

amia

ceae

Lag

opsi

ssu

pina

(Ste

phan

exW

illd

.)Ik

onn.

-G

al.

exK

norr

ing

11

Lam

iace

aeL

amio

phlo

mis

rota

ta(B

enth

.ex

Hoo

k.f.

)K

udo

11

2

Lam

iace

aeL

amiu

mam

plex

icau

leL

.1

1L

amia

ceae

Mar

mor

itis

com

plan

atum

(Dun

n)A

.L.

Bu-

dant

zev

11

Lam

iace

aeM

icro

mer

iaeu

osm

a(W

.W.

Sm

.)C

.Y.

Wu

11

Lam

iace

aeN

epet

aco

erul

esce

nsM

axim

.1

1L

amia

ceae

Phl

omis

beto

nico

ides

Die

ls1

12

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 245L

amia

ceae

Phl

omis

youn

ghus

hand

iiM

uker

jee

11

2L

amia

ceae

Salv

iapr

atti

iH

emsl

.1

1L

amia

ceae

Salv

iaro

boro

wsk

iiM

axim

.1

1L

amia

ceae

Salv

iaw

ardi

iE

.P

eter

11

Lam

iace

aeSc

utel

lari

aam

oena

C.H

.W

righ

t1

1L

amia

ceae

Stac

hys

kouy

ange

nsis

(Van

oit)

Dun

n1

1L

amia

ceae

Stac

hys

sp.

L.

11

Lam

iace

aeC

aryo

pter

isfo

etid

a(D

on)

The

ll1

1L

amia

ceae

Car

yopt

eris

tric

hosp

haer

aW

.W.

Sm

.1

1L

amia

ceae

Dra

coce

phal

umbu

llat

umF

orre

stex

Die

ls1

12

Lam

iace

aeD

raco

ceph

alum

hete

roph

yllu

mB

enth

.1

1L

amia

ceae

Dra

coce

phal

umta

ngut

icum

Max

im.

11

11

11

6L

amia

ceae

Els

holt

zia

cili

ata

(Thu

nb.)

Hyl

ande

r1

1L

amia

ceae

Els

holt

zia

dens

aB

enth

.1

1L

amia

ceae

Els

holt

zia

erio

stac

hya

(Ben

th.)

Ben

th.

11

Lam

iace

aeE

riop

hyto

nw

alli

chia

num

Ben

th.

11

Lam

iace

aeG

aleo

psis

bifid

aB

oenn

.1

1L

aura

ceae

Cam

phor

apa

rthe

noxy

lon

(Jac

k)N

ees

11

Lau

race

aeC

inna

mom

umca

ssia

(L.)

Pre

sl1

11

14

Lau

race

aeC

inna

mom

umw

ilso

nii

Gam

ble

11

2L

iche

nC

etra

ria

isla

ndic

a(L

.)A

ch.

11

Lic

hen

Tha

mno

lia

verm

icul

aris

(Sw

.)S

chae

r.1

1L

iche

nU

snea

dasy

poga

Roh

l1

1L

iche

nU

snea

long

issi

ma

Ach

.1

1L

iche

nX

anth

oria

fall

ax(H

epp.

)A

rn.

11

Lil

iace

aeF

riti

llar

iaci

rrho

saD

.D

on1

11

11

11

18

Lil

iace

aeF

riti

llar

iade

lava

yiF

ranc

h.1

11

3L

ilia

ceae

Lil

ium

brow

nii

F.E

.B

row

nex

Mie

llez

11

Lin

acea

eL

inum

usit

atis

sim

umL

.1

12

Log

ania

ceae

Stry

chno

snu

x-vo

mic

aL

.1

12

Lyc

oper

dace

aeC

alva

tia

cyat

hifo

rmis

(Bos

c)M

orga

n1

1L

ythr

acea

eP

unic

agr

anat

umL

.1

11

11

5M

agno

liac

eae

Mag

noli

aro

stra

taW

.W.S

m.

11

2M

alva

ceae

Abe

lmos

chus

mos

chat

us(L

.)M

edik

.1

11

14

Mal

vace

aeA

ltha

earo

sea

(L.)

Cav

.1

12

Mal

vace

aeH

ibis

cus

sabd

arif

faL

.1

1M

alva

ceae

Mal

vasi

nens

isC

av.

11

Mal

vace

aeM

alva

vert

icil

lata

L.

11

2M

elia

ceae

Mel

iasp

.L

.1

1


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Men

ispe

rmac

eae

Step

hani

ade

lava

yiD

iels

11

2M

enis

perm

acea

eTi

nosp

ora

cord

ifol

ia(W

illd

.)M

iers

11

Men

ispe

rmac

eae

Tino

spor

asi

nens

is(L

our.)

Mer

r.1

12

Mor

acea

eM

orus

alba

L.

11

Mor

inac

eae

Mor

ina

alba

Han

d.-M

azz.

11

Mor

inac

eae

Mor

ina

koko

nori

caK

.S.

Hao

11

Myr

isti

cace

aeM

yris

tica

frag

rans

Hou

tt.

11

Myr

sina

ceae

Em

beli

ala

eta

(L.)

Mez

11

13

Myr

tace

aeE

ugen

iaar

omat

ica

O.B

erg

11

2M

yrta

ceae

Syzy

gium

cum

ini

(L.)

Ske

els

11

2N

elum

bona

ceae

Nel

umbo

nuci

fera

Gae

rtn.

11

Nyc

tagi

nace

aeO

xyba

phus

him

alai

cus

Edg

ew.

11

Ole

acea

eFo

rsyt

hia

susp

ensa

(Thu

nb.)

Vah

l1

1O

leac

eae

Fra

xinu

ssi

kkim

ensi

s(L

inge

lshe

im)

Han

del-

Maz

zett

i1

12

Ona

grac

eae

Epi

lobi

uman

gust

ifol

ium

L.

11

Orc

hida

ceae

Ble

till

ast

riat

a(T

hunb

.ex

Mur

ray)

Rch

b.f.

11

Orc

hida

ceae

Cyp

ripe

dium

tibe

ticu

mK

ing

exR

olfe

11

Orc

hida

ceae

Den

drob

ium

hook

eria

num

Lin

dl.

11

Orc

hida

ceae

Den

drob

ium

mul

tiflo

rum

Par

ish

&R

chb.

f.1

1O

rchi

dace

aeD

endr

obiu

mno

bile

Lin

dl.

11

Orc

hida

ceae

Gas

trod

iael

ata

Blu

me

11

11

11

6O

rchi

dace

aeG

ymna

deni

aor

chid

isL

indl

.1

11

3O

rchi

dace

aeH

aben

aria

sp.

Wil

ld.

11

Orc

hida

ceae

Orc

his

lati

foli

aL

.(?

)1

1P

aeon

iace

aeP

aeon

iave

itch

iiL

ynch

11

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

adun

caM

axim

.1

1P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

isbo

wer

iH

emsl

.1

1P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

isbu

lbif

era

C.Y

.W

u1

1P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

isca

lcic

ola

W.W

.S

m.

11

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 247P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

isco

nspe

rsa

Max

im.

11

2P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

isda

sypt

era

Max

im.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

hend

erso

nii

Fed

de1

12

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

impa

tien

s(P

all.)

Fis

ch.

exD

C.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

line

aris

C.Y

.W

u1

1P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

ism

elan

ochl

ora

Max

im.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

muc

roni

fera

Max

im.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

nigr

o-ap

icul

ata

C.Y

.W

u1

1P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

ispa

chyp

oda

(Fra

nch.

)H

and.

-Maz

z.1

1P

apav

erac

eae

Cor

ydal

issp

.D

C.

11

13

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

tong

olen

sis

Fra

nch.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

trac

hyca

rpa

Max

im.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eC

oryd

alis

yanh

usuo

W.T

.W

ang

exZ

.Y.

Su

&C

.Y.

Wu

11

13

Pap

aver

acea

eH

ypec

oum

lept

ocar

pum

Hoo

k.f.

&T

hom

son

11

13

Pap

aver

acea

eM

econ

opsi

she

nric

iB

urea

u&

Fra

nch.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eM

econ

opsi

sho

rrid

ula

Hoo

k.f.

&T

hom

son

11

13

Pap

aver

acea

eM

econ

opsi

sin

tegr

ifol

ia(M

axim

.)F

ranc

h.1

11

3P

apav

erac

eae

Mec

onop

sis

puni

cea

Max

im.

11

Pap

aver

acea

eM

econ

opsi

squ

intu

plin

ervi

aR

egel

11

Pap

aver

acea

eM

econ

opsi

sto

rqua

taP

rain

11

13

Ped

alia

ceae

Sesa

mum

indi

cum

L.

11

13

Phy

tola

ccac

eae

Phy

tola

cca

acin

osa

Rox

b.1

12

Pin

acea

eP

icea

smit

hian

a(W

all.)

Boi

ss.

11

Pin

acea

eP

inus

stro

bus

L.

11

Pip

erac

eae

Pip

ercu

beba

L.f

.1

1P

iper

acea

eP

iper

long

umL

.1

11

3P

iper

acea

eP

iper

nigr

umL

.1

12

Pip

erac

eae

Pip

erpe

tiol

atum

C.

DC

.1

1P

lant

agin

acea

eP

lant

ago

asia

tica

L.

11

2P

lant

agin

acea

eP

lant

ago

depr

essa

Wil

ld.

11

13

Pla

ntag

inac

eae

Pla

ntag

oer

osa

Wal

l.ex

Rox

b.1

1P

lant

agin

acea

eP

lant

ago

maj

orL

.1

1P

lum

bagi

nace

aeC

erat

osti

gma

grif

fithi

iC

.B.

Cla

rke

11

Poa

ceae

Bro

mus

sp.

L.

11

Poa

ceae

Cat

abro

saaq

uati

ca(L

.)P.

Bea

uv.

11

Poa

ceae

Cym

bopo

gon

dist

ans

(Nee

sex

Ste

ud.)

Wil

l.Wat

son

11


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Poa

ceae

Hor

deum

vulg

are

L.

11

2P

oace

aeIm

pera

tacy

lind

rica

(L.)

Rae

usch

.1

1P

oace

aeO

ryza

sati

vaL

.1

1P

oace

aeP

anic

umm

ilia

ceum

L.

11

Poa

ceae

Pen

nise

tum

flacc

idum

Gri

seb.

11

Poa

ceae

Phr

agm

ites

aust

rali

s(C

av.)

Ste

ud.

11

Poa

ceae

Phr

agm

ites

aust

rali

s(C

avan

ille

s)S

teud

el1

1P

oace

aeP

hyll

osta

chys

nigr

a(L

odd.

exL

indl

.)M

unro

11

Poa

ceae

Schi

zost

achy

umch

inen

seR

endl

e1

12

Poa

ceae

Seta

ria

ital

ica

(L.)

P.B

eauv

.1

1P

oace

aeTr

itic

umae

stiv

umL

.1

12

Pol

ygon

acea

eP

olyg

onum

diva

rica

tum

L.

11

Pol

ygon

acea

eP

olyg

onum

hook

eri

Mei

sn.

11

Pol

ygon

acea

eP

olyg

onum

mac

roph

yllu

mD

.D

on1

1P

olyg

onac

eae

Pol

ygon

umm

ulti

floru

mT

hunb

.1

1P

olyg

onac

eae

Pol

ygon

umpa

leac

eum

Wal

l.1

1P

olyg

onac

eae

Pol

ygon

umpo

lyst

achy

umW

all.

exM

eisn

.1

1P

olyg

onac

eae

Pol

ygon

umsi

biri

cum

Lax

m.

11

2P

olyg

onac

eae

Pol

ygon

umsi

nom

onta

num

Sam

uels

son

11

Pol

ygon

acea

eP

olyg

onum

sp.

L.

11

Pol

ygon

acea

eP

olyg

onum

spha

eros

tach

yum

Mei

sn.

11

Pol

ygon

acea

eP

olyg

onum

vivi

paru

mL

.1

1P

olyg

onac

eae

Rhe

umde

ntat

umM

art.

11

Pol

ygon

acea

eR

heum

liki

ange

nse

Sam

uels

son

11

Pol

ygon

acea

eR

heum

offic

inal

eB

aill

.1

11

3P

olyg

onac

eae

Rhe

umpu

mil

umM

axim

.1

1P

olyg

onac

eae

Rhe

umsp

icif

orm

eR

oyle

11

2P

olyg

onac

eae

Rhe

umta

ngut

icum

(Max

im.

exR

egel

)M

axim

.ex

Bal

f.1

1

Pol

ygon

acea

eR

umex

cris

pus

L.

11

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 249P

olyg

onac

eae

Rum

exne

pale

nsis

Spr

eng.

11

2P

olyg

onac

eae

Fag

opyr

umdi

botr

ys(D

.D

on)

H.

Har

a1

1P

olyg

onac

eae

Fag

opyr

umes

cule

ntum

Moe

nch

11

Pri

mul

acea

eA

ndro

sace

max

ima

L.

11

Pri

mul

acea

eA

ndro

sace

tape

teM

axim

.1

1P

rim

ulac

eae

Pri

mul

abr

yoph

ila

Bal

f.f.

&F

arre

r1

1P

rim

ulac

eae

Pri

mul

afa

scic

ulat

aB

alf.

f.&

Kin

gdon

-War

d1

1P

rim

ulac

eae

Pri

mul

aru

sseo

laB

alf.

f.&

For

rest

11

Pri

mul

acea

eP

rim

ula

secu

ndifl

ora

Fra

nch.

11

2P

rim

ulac

eae

Pri

mul

asi

kkim

ensi

sH

ook.

11

Pri

mul

acea

eP

rim

ula

sp.

L.

11

Pte

rido

phyt

aD

ryna

ria

sini

caD

iels

11

2P

teri

doph

yta

Lep

isor

usso

ulie

anus

(Chr

ist)

Chi

ng&

S.K

.W

u1

1

Pte

rido

phyt

aP

olyp

odiu

mpr

opin

quum

Wal

l.ex

Met

t.1

12

Pte

rido

phyt

aP

olys

tich

umsq

uarr

osum

(D.

Don

)F

ee.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeA

coni

tum

flavu

mH

and.

-Maz

z.1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Aco

nitu

mgy

mna

ndru

mM

axim

.1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Aco

nitu

mpo

lyan

thum

(Fin

et&

Gag

nep.

)H

and.

-Maz

z.1

1

Ran

uncu

lace

aeA

coni

tum

rich

ards

onia

num

Lau

ener

11

13

Ran

uncu

lace

aeA

coni

tum

sp.

L.

11

2R

anun

cula

ceae

Aco

nitu

mta

ngut

icum

(Max

im.)

Sta

pf1

11

11

16

Ran

uncu

lace

aeA

coni

tum

vilm

orin

ianu

mK

om.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeA

doni

sco

erul

eaW

.T.

Wan

g1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Ane

mon

ede

mis

saH

ook.

f.&

Tho

mso

n1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Ane

mon

eri

vula

ris

Buc

h.-H

am.

exD

C.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeC

alth

asc

apos

aH

ook.

f.&

Tho

mso

n1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Cim

icif

uga

foet

ida

L.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeC

imic

ifug

asi

mpl

ex(D

C.)

Wor

msk

.ex

Tur

cz.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeC

lem

atis

rehd

eria

naC

raib

11

2R

anun

cula

ceae

Cle

mat

ista

ngut

ica

(Max

im.)

Kor

sh.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeC

opti

ste

eta

Wal

l.1

11

14

Ran

uncu

lace

aeD

elph

iniu

mal

boco

erul

eum

Max

im.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeD

elph

iniu

mca

erul

eum

Jacq

uem

.ex

Cam

bess

.1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Del

phin

ium

chry

sotr

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mF

inet

&G

agne

p.1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Del

phin

ium

sp.

L.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeD

elph

iniu

mtr

icho

phor

umF

ranc

h.1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Ran

uncu

lus

cym

bala

ria

Pur

sh1

1


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Ran

uncu

lace

aeN

igel

lagl

andu

life

raF

reyn

&S

int

exF

reyn

11

11

4R

anun

cula

ceae

Par

aqui

legi

am

icro

phyl

la(R

oyle

)J.

R.

Dru

mm

.&

Hut

chin

son

11

2

Ran

uncu

lace

aeR

anun

culu

sja

poni

cus

Thu

nb.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeT

hali

ctru

maq

uile

gifo

lium

L.

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeT

hali

ctru

mfo

liol

osum

DC

.1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Tha

lict

rum

glan

dulo

siss

imum

(Fin

et&

Gag

-ne

p.)

W.T

.W

ang

&.

S.H

.W

ang

11

Ran

uncu

lace

aeT

hali

ctru

mun

catu

mM

axim

.1

1R

anun

cula

ceae

Trol

lius

ranu

ncul

oide

sH

emsl

.1

1R

ham

nace

aeR

ham

nell

agi

lgit

ica

Man

sf.

&M

elch

.1

11

3R

ham

nace

aeZ

izip

hus

juju

baM

ill.

11

Ros

acea

eA

grim

onia

pilo

saL

edeb

.1

1R

osac

eae

Am

ygda

lus

pers

ica

L.

11

Ros

acea

eA

rmen

iaca

vulg

aris

Lam

arck

11

Ros

acea

eC

haen

omel

essp

ecio

sa(S

wee

t)N

akai

11

13

Ros

acea

eC

haen

omel

esth

ibet

ica

T.T

.Yu

11

Ros

acea

eC

oton

east

erm

icro

phyl

lus

Wal

l.ex

Lin

dl.

11

Ros

acea

eC

oton

east

erm

ulti

floru

sB

unge

11

Ros

acea

eC

oton

east

erte

nuip

esR

ehde

r&

E.H

.W

ilso

n1

1R

osac

eae

Cra

taeg

uscu

neat

aS

iebo

ld&

Zuc

c.1

12

Ros

acea

eF

raga

ria

orie

ntal

isL

osin

sk.

11

13

Ros

acea

eM

alus

tran

sito

ria

(Bat

alin

)C

.K.

Sch

neid

.1

1R

osac

eae

Pot

enti

lla

anse

rina

L.

11

2R

osac

eae

Pru

nus

japo

nica

Thu

nb.

11

Ros

acea

eP

runu

ssp

.L

.1

12

Ros

acea

eP

yrus

pash

iaB

uch.

-Ham

.ex

D.

Don

11

2R

osac

eae

Ros

aom

eien

sis

Rol

fe1

12

Ros

acea

eR

osa

rubu

sH

.L

ev.

&V

anio

t1

1R

osac

eae

Ros

ase

rice

aL

indl

.1

1

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 251R

osac

eae

Ros

ase

rtat

aR

olfe

11

Ros

acea

eR

osa

sweg

inzo

wii

Koe

hne

11

Ros

acea

eSa

ngui

sorb

aof

ficin

alis

L.

11

Ros

acea

eSp

irae

aca

nesc

ens

D.

Don

11

Ros

acea

eSp

irae

asc

hnei

deri

ana

Reh

der

11

Rub

iace

aeG

aliu

map

arin

eL

.1

12

Rub

iace

aeR

ubia

chin

ensi

sM

olin

o1

1R

ubia

ceae

Rub

iaco

rdif

olia

L.

11

11

4R

ubia

ceae

Unc

aria

gam

bier

(Hun

ter)

Rox

b.1

1R

utac

eae

Cit

rus

aura

ntiu

mL

.1

1R

utac

eae

Skim

mia

mul

tine

rvia

C.C

.H

uang

11

2R

utac

eae

Zan

thox

ylum

bung

eanu

mM

axim

.1

11

3S

anta

lace

aeSa

ntal

umal

bum

L.

11

13

Sap

inda

ceae

Sapi

ndus

muk

oros

siG

aert

n.1

1S

apin

dace

aeX

anth

ocer

asso

rbif

olia

Bun

ge1

1S

axif

raga

ceae

Rod

gers

iaae

scul

ifol

iava

r.he

nric

i(F

ranc

het)

C.Y

.W

uex

J.T

.P

an1

1

Sax

ifra

gace

aeSa

xifr

aga

atra

taE

ngl.

11

Sax

ifra

gace

aeSa

xifr

aga

egre

gia

Eng

l.1

1S

axif

raga

ceae

Saxi

frag

am

elan

ocen

tra

Fra

nch.

11

2S

axif

raga

ceae

Saxi

frag

ani

grog

land

ulif

era

N.P

.B

alak

r.1

1S

axif

raga

ceae

Saxi

frag

aum

bell

ulat

aH

ook.

f.&

Tho

mso

n1

11

11

16

Sax

ifra

gace

aeB

erge

nia

purp

uras

cens

(Hoo

k.f.

&T

hom

son)

Eng

l.1

12

Sax

ifra

gace

aeC

hrys

ospl

eniu

mca

rnos

umH

ook.

f.&

Tho

m-

son

11

13

Sch

isan

drac

eae

Schi

sand

rach

inen

sis

(Tur

cz.)

Bai

ll.

11

2S

crop

hula

riac

eae

Lag

otis

alut

acea

W.W

.S

m.

11

13

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eL

agot

isbr

achy

stac

hya

Max

im.

11

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eL

agot

isbr

evit

uba

Max

im.

11

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eL

agot

isyu

nnan

ensi

sW

.W.

Sm

.1

12

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eL

ance

ati

beti

caH

ook.

f.&

Tho

mso

n1

11

3S

crop

hula

riac

eae

Neo

picr

orhi

zasc

roph

ular

iiflo

ra(P

enne

ll)

D.Y

.H

ong

11

13

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eP

edic

ular

isco

rym

bife

raH

.P.Y

ang

11

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eP

edic

ular

iscr

anol

opha

Max

im.

11

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eP

edic

ular

isin

gens

Max

im.

11

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eP

edic

ular

islo

ngifl

ora

Rud

olph

11

11

4S

crop

hula

riac

eae

Ped

icul

aris

oliv

eria

naP

rain

11


PP

EN

DIX

.C

on

tin

ued

Fam

ily

Sp

ecie

s

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eP

edic

ular

ispr

zew

alsk

iiM

axim

.1

11

3S

crop

hula

riac

eae

Ped

icul

aris

tric

hogl

ossa

Hoo

k.f.

11

13

Scr

ophu

lari

acea

eSc

roph

ular

iabu

erge

rian

aM

iq.

11

Scr

ophu

lari

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ular

iade

ntat

aR

oyle

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enth

.1

11

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eae

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cili

ata

Fis

ch.

11

Sel

agin

ella

ceae

Sell

agin

ella

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a(H

ook.

&G

rev.

)M

axim

.1

1

Sol

anac

eae

Ani

sodu

sta

ngut

icus

(Max

im.)

Pas

cher

11

Sol

anac

eae

Cap

sicu

man

nuum

L.

11

Sol

anac

eae

Dat

ura

stra

mon

ium

L.

11

Sol

anac

eae

Hyo

scya

mus

nige

rL

.1

12

Sol

anac

eae

Lyc

ium

chin

ense

Mil

l.1

1S

olan

acea

eM

andr

agor

aca

ules

cens

C.B

.C

lark

e1

1S

olan

acea

eP

rzew

alsk

iata

ngut

ica

Max

im.

11

2S

terc

ulia

ceae

Ster

culi

asp

.L

.1

1S

ympl

ocac

eae

Sym

ploc

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nicu

lata

(Thu

nb.)

Miq

.1

11

3Ta

mar

icac

eae

Myr

icar

iage

rman

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(L.)

Des

v.1

11

3Ta

mar

icac

eae

Myr

icar

iasq

uam

osa

Des

v.1

1T

hym

elae

acea

eSt

elle

rach

amae

jasm

eL

.1

1T

hym

elae

acea

eA

quil

aria

agal

loch

aR

oxb.

11

11

4T

hym

elae

acea

eA

quil

aria

sine

nsis

(Lou

r.)S

pren

g.1

12

Tri

llia

ceae

Par

ispo

lyph

ylla

Sm

.1

1Ty

phac

eae

Typh

aan

gust

ifol

iaL

.1

1U

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eae

Ulm

uspu

mil

aL

.1

1U

rtic

acea

eU

rtic

adi

oica

L.

11

Urt

icac

eae

Urt

ica

tria

ngul

aris

Han

d.-M

azz.

11

Val

eria

nace

aeN

ardo

stac

hys

jata

man

siD

C.

11

13

Val

eria

nace

aeVa

leri

ana

jata

man

siJo

nes

11

Val

eria

nace

aeVa

leri

ana

offic

inal

isL

.&

Mai

llef

er1

1

Lhasatraineddoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Dechendoctor

Self-taughtdoctor

Self-taughtdoctor



Lhasamarket



Dechenmarket

Dechenmarket

Othermarket

Othermarket

Totals

2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 253V

iola

ceae

Vio

labi

flora

L.

11

Zin

gibe

race

aeA

lpin

iaof

ficin

arum

Han

ce1

12

Zin

gibe

race

aeA

mom

umco

mpa

ctum

Sol

.ex

Mat

on1

12

Zin

gibe

race

aeA

mom

umts

aoko

Cre

vost

&L

emar

ie1

11

3Z

ingi

bera

ceae

Am

omum

vill

osum

Lou

r.1

1Z

ingi

bera

ceae

Cur

cum

alo

nga

L.

11

11

4Z

ingi

bera

ceae

Ele

ttar

iaca

rdam

omum

(L.)

Mat

on1

12

Zin

gibe

race

aeH

edyc

hium

spic

atum

Buc

h.-H

am.

exS

m.

11

Zin

gibe

race

aeK

aem

pfer

iaga

lang

aL

.1

1Z

ingi

bera

ceae

Zin

gibe

rof

ficin

ale

Ros

coe

11

13

Zyg

ophy

llac

eae

Trib

ulus

terr

estr

isL

.1

12

2015

1820

1611

1541

312

222

6057

814

3349

Documents

Tibetan Medicine Plurality - Amend Labamendlab.com/files/Library_File/tibetan_medicine.pdf · Tibetan Medicine Plurality. Eco-nomic Botany 60(3):227–253, 2006. Tibetan medicine