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This presentation is prepared as part of a comparative project coordinated by Delma Byrne and Samuel Lucas within the EQUALSOC Network of Excellence. In this work, we test the EMI hypothesis proposed by Lucas through an empirical investigation of educational transitions and specifically students’ movement through the stratified curriculum in France. The presentation begins with an introduction and overview of EMI, and then describes our recent empirical elaborations. 1

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This presentation is prepared as part of a comparative project coordinated by Delma Byrne and Samuel Lucas within the EQUALSOC Network of Excellence. In this work, we test the EMI hypothesis proposed by Lucas through an empirical investigation of educational transitions and specifically students’ movement through the stratified curriculum in France. The presentation begins with an introduction and overview of EMI, and then describes our recent empirical elaborations.

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In the past years social research has developed insights into the role of educational transition in processes of social stratification One major contribution has been to emphasize the specificprocesses of social stratification. One major contribution has been to emphasize the specific institutional arrangements and mechanisms – the specific organization of the schooling system –that lead to the observed educational outcomes. Besides the traditional vertical dimension –also called quantitative dimension, recent analyses of transitions have added a horizontal (or qualitative) dimension. In concrete terms it has consisted in identifying students’ placements in the stratified curriculum within the same level. 

In his article of 2001, Lucas measured educational attainment not only by noticing the completion of high school (quantitative dimension) but also by observing student’s location in hierarchically ordered tracks, i.e. in college preparatory and non‐college preparatory tracks ( l d ) h h h d f h h l f(qualitative dimension). He has shown that students of higher social origins more often enter academic educational programs preparing to university than children of less advantaged social origins, even if they had the same ability levels, and that such differentiations can be reflected by the assumption of ‘effectively maintained inequality’. 

Effectively Maintained Inequality (EMI) argues that1. when a school level is saturated and inequality in attainment declines, 

socioeconomically advantaged will use their advantages to secure qualitatively better outcomesoutcomes

2. when a schooling level is not saturated, socioeconomically advantaged will use their advantages to secure both quantitatively and qualitatively better outcomes

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After Lucas’ article of 2001, EMI has not properly been tested as such (à la Lucas). However, several recent studies have produced some confirmations and extensions of EMI in particular national contexts,studies have produced some confirmations and extensions of EMI in particular national contexts, incorporating other versions of qualitative dimension and using different methodological approaches, in the analyses of social inequality in student transitions. In the Chilean case, Torche (2005) conceives the distinction among school sectors (public and different kinds of private sectors) as an appropriate qualitative dimension for assessing EMI. To study educational attainment after compulsory schooling in the United States, Roska and Velez (2010) broaden the definition of qualitative dimension to include participation in the labor market. They distinguish limited and extended labor market participation; students may either drop out, or remain in school and work intensely, or remain in school and work limitedly. One can also mention the analyses of van de Werfhorst and Luijkx (2010) who suggest refining the qualitative dimension by distinguishing between fields of study within educational programmes.  Considering subtle qualitative differences between curricula is very much relevant for our understanding f i l t tifi ti f d ti l tt i t i th F h t t It h l d f lof social stratification of educational attainment in the French context. It has already proven very useful 

by Ichou and Vallet (2011) as they examined the change over four decades in social inequality at the baccalauréat level in France (baccalauréat is the final examination at the end of academic upper secondary school). They used more and more accurate measures of educational attainment at the end of upper secondary schooling. Considering firstly the classical binary opposition between passing any baccalauréat and not passing any, they find a decreasing class inequality since the 1960s in France. However, switching to measures of precise types and sub‐types of baccalauréat passed, they show that class inequality has remained constant over the last four decades. Their findings turn out to support Lucas’s (2001) EMI hypothesis as they highlight an important qualitative dimension of inequality. 

A major aim of the presentation is to assess whether, strictly speaking, empirical findings are consistentA major aim of the presentation is to assess whether, strictly speaking, empirical findings are consistent with a process of effectively maintained inequality. According to Lucas (2001), this can be done by estimating ordered dependent variable models and by scrutinizing predicted probabilities of transition outcomes rather than regression coefficients. Precisely, the effect of social background would work to effectively maintain inequality if the outcome predicted for a person of a disadvantaged social origin differs from the one for a person of an advantaged social origin. 

The existence of qualitative, sometimes subtle, differences within French school makes an empirical test of the EMI hypothesis in that country particularly appealing. Consequently we intend to evaluate EMI on the two most important educational transitions in the French context: that one from lower secondary school towards upper secondary school and that one from the end of upper secondary school towards tertiary educationtertiary education. 

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Firstly, we characterize the current French school system and its key transitions. h d l d dIn the 1990s and 2000s, compulsory education corresponds to a quasi‐

undifferentiated system.The first real branching point in the present‐day French school arises at the end of collège when pupils are about 15 years‐old. We identify it as the first main transition of the French system for two main reasons: firstly because it approximately corresponds to the end of compulsory schooling so that students may drop out and secondly because real diversification of curriculum starts with 

d h l O th b i f th i d i hi t d f th iupper secondary school. On the basis of their academic achievement and of their family preferred subject choices, pupils are allocated into three hierarchically ordered tracks: the academic and technological lycée which prepares to academic higher education, then the vocational lycée which delivers an intermediate vocational qualification – a ‘Brevet d’Etudes Professionnelles’ (BEP) and possibly thereafter a baccalauréat (mainly vocational), and finally apprenticeship which delivers a basic vocational qualification – ‘Certificatd’Aptitude Professionnelle’ (CAP)dAptitude Professionnelle (CAP). 

In fact, one can envisage two conceptions of the first main transition: a broad one and a narrow one. In reality, the first transition can occur at two different dates in students’ educational trajectories. Most often it arises at the end of the 9th grade (at the very end of collège) but it can sometimes be anticipated at the end of the 8th grade namely for low achieving pupils. The latter generally take basic vocational courses or drop out from school Therefore the broadbasic vocational courses or drop out from school. Therefore the broad conception of the first transition includes all French pupils, including those who experienced an anticipated orientation. 

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The narrow conception only considers pupils reaching the 9th grade – and usually taking a final national exam called ‘Brevet d’Etudes du Premier Cycle’ (General intermediate certificate). 

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Then, at the end of upper secondary school (which lasts generally three years), pupils take a final exam called baccalauréat, which depends on the type of curriculum they followed. There are three types of baccalauréat: the academic, technological and vocational one. Each type of baccalauréat grants access to higher education in theory. But in practice, there are very important differences in the way baccalauréat holders are allocated to tertiary education tracks given the type of baccalauréat passed.

Thus, we distinguish between three kinds of transition related to the three different types of baccalauréat. The hierarchy of destinations after obtaining an academic baccalauréat relies on an academic criterion as for transition 1. Academic bac‐holders may firstly enter preparatory classes that are two‐year intensive programs for the competitive entrance examinations to the French Grandes Ecoles. Secondly, they may go to universities or to specialized schools where they receive high‐level specialized courses. Thirdly, they may prepare a two‐year diploma from a University Institute of Technology (IUT) or follow advanced vocational courses in a STS (Section de Technicien Supérieur). Eventually few students may drop out (1.7% in our data).   

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The ordered classification of destinations after a technological baccalauréat is very different from the one after an academic baccalauréat. Firstly, it is worth noticing that most of technological bac‐holders enroll in advanced vocational trainings (STS) and they often stay within the school where they have prepared baccalauréat. For technological bac‐holders, the hierarchy of educational tracks is based on a graduated selectivity criterion.  Note that, while nearly none of academic baccalauréat holders leave school after upper secondary education about 20% of technological baccalauréat holdersupper secondary education, about 20% of technological baccalauréat holders and 60% of vocational baccalauréat holders do so.

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The destinations pattern after a vocational baccalauréat is based on a simple selectivity criterion. Students may be selected in any short‐vocational tracks (mainly STS) or move on to non‐selective tracks like universities or non‐higher education tracks. However, most of vocational bac‐holders drop out (57.2% in our data).   

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The investigation uses data from 1995 French National Educational Longitudinal Study (conducted by the French Ministry of Education). A random national sample of almost 18 000 pupils was drawn from all pupils entering lower secondary school (6th grade) in September 1995, and was followed across years. From 1995 up to 2006, pupils’ school trajectories can be described on a yearly basis. Fieldwork also consisted of interrogations of school principals (1995), families (1998) and students (from 2002 onwards)(1998) and students (from 2002 onwards). Analyzing these data is particularly advantageous for pursuing our concerns, for these data include the variables necessary to estimate direct effect of social background. Further, these data include information on the curricular tracks students followed, as well as the grades they obtained at various national exams.

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For all analyses, students’ destinations are the dependent variable. We show on the left side of the slide an example of the codes used for transition 1the slide an example of the codes used for transition 1. 

[Students may drop out (coded 0) or they may remain in school and go to an academic and technological lycée (coded 3), remain in school, go to a vocational lycée and follow an intermediate vocational qualification – BEP (coded 2), or remain in school and follow a basic vocational qualification – CAP (coded 1). Thus, the destination variable is an ordered categorical variable with four categories – drop out, basic vocational qualification (CAP), vocational lycée(BEP), academic and technological lycée.] 

For analyzing such ordered categorical variables, a generalized ordered logit model with partial i l dd i ( l ll d i l ll l li i )proportional odds assumption (also called partial parallel‐lines assumption) seems very 

advantageous to us. 

In a classical parallel‐lines model, the beta’s (but not the alpha’s) are the same for all values of j(j being a modality of Y). This requirement that the beta’s be the same for each value of jcorresponds to the proportional odds assumptions. A key problem when estimating a fullyproportional odds model is that its assumptions are often violated. It is common that one ormore beta’s differ across values of j, so that the parallel‐lines model – the classical ordered logitmodel‐ is overly restrictive. Alternatively, in an entirely unconstrained ordered logit model, allbeta’s are free to differ for each value of j. However, this kind of model is less parsimonious andbeta s are free to differ for each value of j. However, this kind of model is less parsimonious andless interpretable. To overcome these two limitations, Williams (2006) recommends fittingpartial proportional odds models, where parallel‐lines constraints are relaxed only for thosevariables where it is justified.

In the partial proportional odds model, some of the beta’s can be the same for all values of j, while others can differ. For example in the formula, the beta’s for X1 and X2 are the same for all values of j  but the beta’s for X3 are free to vary. 

For analyzing each of the five ordered categorical destination variables, we fitted a partial proportional odds model This task was done with specific options of the gologit2 stata programproportional odds model. This task was done with specific options of the gologit2 stata program created by Williams (2006). 

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Following Lucas’ insights, attention should be focused on predicted probabilities calculated from our models and not on regression coefficients. 

Let us recall the validation strategy of EMI given by Lucas (2001):“Given that school strata are discrete locations, effectively maintained inequality suggests that social background works efficaciously if we would alter our prediction of students’ destinations simply on the basis of differences in social background In other words if social background can move an otherwisebackground. In other words if social background can move an otherwise “average” student over a threshold, then social background effectively maintains inequality”

In order to assess EMI, one should confront the most probable destination of students sharing the same characteristics but differing only by their social origin. If the effect of social background is such that we would predict a different outcome for a student of a disadvantaged social origin than one of an advantaged origin, we would be in a position to confirm EMI hypothesis.

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Before focusing on predicted probabilities, let us give an example of the estimation results.

This table contains the ordered logit coefficients for a partial proportional odds assumption model predicting students’ first transition understood in its broad conception. The table also reports three likelihood‐ratio (LR) chi‐squares: the one of the partial proportional odds model we estimated, the one of the very restrictive proportional odds model and that one of the very flexible model without any proportional odds assumption. We can observe that while constraining five variables, the LR chi‐square decreases very slightly from 8630 to 8619, and while constraining all variables, the LR chi‐square reduces more strongly to 8036. 

At first glance, this model might not appear to be more parsimonious than the original multinomial logistic regression, but note that the parameter estimates for the constrained variables (in white in the table)  ‘E l d th ’ ‘Hi h l ti t f h li ’ ‘G t i 1998 99’ ‘N b f ibli ’ d‘Employed mother’, ‘High relative costs of schooling’, ‘Grant in 1998‐99’, ‘Number of siblings’ and ‘Firstborn’ are the same in all three panels. This model is only slightly more difficult to interpret than a parallel‐lines model but it provides insights that are obscured when estimating a classical ordered logitmodel. When one peruses the table, interesting patterns stand out: in particular, one sees that the effects of parents’ social status and parents’ education are far larger for academic and technological lycée (y>2) entry than for school continuation in any track (y>0) or in any kind of lycée (y>1).

‐‐‐‐‐Parents' social status  – Initially coded in a 29‐category discrete classification (two‐digit PCS), the occupation of the head of the household was recoded to the social status score of the Frenchoccupation of the head of the household was recoded to the social status score of the French occupational scale established by Chambaz, Maurin and Torelli (1998). If parents’ responses were missing, school principal’s reports in 1995 were used. The occupational scale scores take values between ‐0.80 (unskilled workers) and 1.03 (higher‐grade professionals; self‐employed and employers). Long‐term unemployed people were coded as the lowest score (‐0.80). 

Parents' education – Mother’s and father’s responses to a 10‐category question about their highest diploma were recoded into the following number of years studied: No formal certificate = 5; General elementary certificate (CEP) = 6; General intermediate certificate (BEPC) = 9; Basic vocational qualification (CAP) = 10; Intermediate vocational qualification (BEP) = 11; Upper secondary certificate (Baccalauréat) = 12; Lower‐level tertiary certificate = 14; Upper‐level tertiary certificate = 16. Parents’ education is coded 

h hi h b f di d f h h d h f has the highest number of years studied of the mother and the father.

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This table shows predicted probabilities of experiencing each of the four outcomes, for the broad conception of transition 1 To identify the focal profile we set all categoricalthe broad conception of transition 1. To identify the focal profile, we set all categorical variables at their modal values (gender is fixed at ‘Male’) and continuous variables at their means. Then, we successively modified the focal profile by changing one category taken in turn (only for those variables which are significant at the .05 level in the model). The last two lines show predicted probabilities for a globally disadvantaged and a globally advantaged socioeconomic profile. [The former corresponds to a focal student having parents at the lowest value of social status score, with the lowest level of education and who do judge relative costs of schooling too high, who got a grant in 1998‐1999; the latter embodies a focal student having an opposite socioeconomic b k d ]background.]

The key question to ask to assess EMI is whether one’s prediction of a student’s destination will differ on the basis of social origin. In all first cases, modifying one modality of the students’ social origin would not change their most probable destination: the probability of entering academic and technological lycée remains the largest one. As regards the broad conception, moving from a disadvantaged socioeconomic profile to an advantaged one would change the prediction of students’ destination. In that case, the change in the socioeconomic origin is such that it appears , g g ppto send students in very different directions. The model predicts that a middle‐achieving student of a disadvantaged socioeconomic background would probably enter in the first place a vocational lycée (45%), then an academic and technological lycée (42%) and has substantial chances of taking a basic vocational training (12%), while a middle‐achieving student of an advantaged socioeconomic background would most probably go to the academic and technological lycée (94,4%). 

As regards the narrow conception, considering a disadvantaged socioeconomic profile or an advantaged one would not modify the best prediction of students’ destination: bothan advantaged one would not modify the best prediction of students  destination: both of them have more chances to enter an academic and technological lycée (respectively 50% and 96,9%). 

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In transition 2 from academic upper secondary to tertiary school, few variables remain significant at the .05 level. Among social characteristics, only parents’ social status, education and immigration status play a significant influence which is constant and positive on students’ destinations, although the strength of their influence has reduced in comparison to transition 1.

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Thus one should pay particular attention to the 95% confidence intervals for each predicted probability. For socioeconomically disadvantaged students, the confidence interval of the two most probable outcomes overlay each other. 

Although socioeconomic background effects are not sufficient to alter the best prediction, they are able to modify the second best predicted outcome of students. Indeed, both socioeconomically disadvantaged and advantaged students have the greatest probability to go to university or to specializedstudents have the greatest probability to go to university or to specialized schools, but their second most probable destinations differ: the former more surely take short‐vocational trainings while the latter more often enter preparatory classes. 

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We now turn on to technological bac‐holders’ transitions.

Best destination predictions would not change while modifying either socioeconomic background or schooling achievement of our focal persons: everyone would massively follow STS courses. However, the second best predictions differ between socioeconomically disadvantaged and advantaged profiles: socioeconomic background appears to send them in totally opposite directions The former would drop out while the latter would be accepted in adirections. The former would drop out while the latter would be accepted in a selective track, like IUT, specialized schools or preparatory classes. As the transition from technological upper secondary to tertiary education is not universal and as outcomes differ by both quantitative and qualitative aspects, we observe that socioeconomic inequalities express through quantitative and qualitative differences.

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Note, firstly, that the transition from vocational upper secondary to higher education is far from being universal and that quantitative differences are very common. Only three factors seem to be at issue for determining the outcome experienced: gender, immigration background and recent school performances. Other variables have probably lost in significance because of reduced heterogeneity among the students. While looking at predicted probabilities, it appears that socioeconomic advantages would “move” children (or our predictions for them) from drop outadvantages would  move  children (or our predictions for them) from drop out to school continuation. Indeed, if a student has a disadvantaged socioeconomic profile, we predict that the student go to work (70.6%); if he/she is advantaged, we would predict that he/she remains in school (100 – 47.9 = 52.1%). For that type of transition 2, we could conclude that socioeconomic advantaged essentially secure for themselves and their children some quantitative advantages but we need to consider this result cautiously, as parameters of interest lack of significance.

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The foregoing presentation has investigated students’ movements through French t tifi d h l tstratified school system. We intended to evaluate whether the role of social background on the probability of reaching particular destinations was consistent with effectively maintained inequality. We found that key socioeconomic background factors are generally more important for entering the more academic and the more selective tracks than tracks below them. We also highlighted that key social features lose in importance throughout students’ school trajectories: they have greatest effect at transition 1 from lower secondary to upper secondary school than at transition 2 to higher education. 

Referring to Lucas’ validation strategy, the EMI hypothesis is not rejected for the broad conception of transition 1 and for the transition from vocational upper secondary to higher education. At the other key transitions, social background effects are not sufficient to change students’ most probable destination, although they may change the second most probable destination. In a nutshell, our results do not support a strong version of the EMI hypothesis.

Two main reasons can be provided:1. Heterogeneity among students reduced strongly throughout school trajectories so that relative socioeconomic advantages decrease as one goes from grades to grades.     2. Schooling achievement remains the most important factor that determines school destinations, but social background partly influences school achievement. Our results may thus underestimate the effect of social background on school destinations. However, when we reestimate the models without controlling for school achievement and past trajectory our main results are more or less unchangedand past trajectory, our main results are more or less unchanged. 

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