Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Biomaterials
Third Edition
An Introduction
Joon Park R.S. Lakes
Biomaterials
Third Edition
Joon ParkBiomedical and Mechanical Engineering
R.S. LakesDept. Engineering Physics
1500 Engineering Drive
© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
Printed on acid-free paper.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
springer.com
ISBN 978-0-387-37879-4
University of Iowa
USAIowa City, IA 52242-1414
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53792-3228USA
e-ISBN 978-0-387-37880-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2007931337
v
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
and the second edition in 1992. The purpose of this book is to provide for students a resource that includes current developments in the field. To that end, we have updated pertinent applica-tions, incorporating the experience gained in clinical uses of materials. We have also intro-duced a chapter on tissue regeneration, emphasizing the use of materials as scaffolds to guide cell growth and differentiation in the new field of tissue engineering. We believe that a thor-ough knowledge of the basics is essential, and so we spend a great deal of time on the funda-mentals of structure–properties relationships. The basic premise of the present edition is the same as that of the earlier ones: to describe the fundamentals of natural and man-made bioma-terials. Much research is presently being done on the tissue-engineering aspects of biomaterials in the attempt to enlist nature to replace diseased or missing body parts; the biological aspects of biomaterials are crucial to this new area of study. Here, again, one needs to first understand the fundamentals, that is, cell–materials interactions, the effect of degradation of materials, and so on.
This book is intended as a general introduction to the use of artificial materials in the hu-man body for the purposes of aiding healing, correcting deformities, and restoring lost func-tion. It is an outgrowth of an undergraduate course for senior students in biomedical engineer-ing, and is offered as a text to be used in such courses. Topics include biocompatibility, techniques to minimize corrosion or other degradation of implant materials, the principles of materials science as it relates to the use of materials in the body, and specific uses of materials in various tissues and organs. It is expected that the student will have successively completed elementary courses in the mechanics of deformable bodies and in anatomy and physiology, and preferably also an introductory course in materials science prior to undertaking a course in biomaterials.
Many quantitative examples are included as exercises for the student. We recognize that many of these involve unrealistic simplifications and are limited to simple mechanical or chemical aspects of the role of the implant. Many problems that may be used for midterm or
earlier chapters. We offer as an apology the fact that biomaterials engineering is still to a great extent an empirical discipline that is complicated by many unknowns associated with the hu-man body. In recognition of that fact, we have endeavored to describe both the successes and failures in the use of materials in the human body. Many clinical statistics are included to illus-
are many photographs and illustrations of implants and devices as an aid to visualization. Any errors of commission or omission that have remained in spite of our efforts at correc-
tion are our responsibility alone. We dedicate this book to Hyonsook (Danielle) Park and Diana Lakes for their patience
and support during a lengthy undertaking.
Joon B. Park Roderic S. Lakes Iowa City, Iowa Madison, Wisconsin
trate the more realistic aspects of the success rate of implants in living subjects. Also included
final examinations are included in later chapters as a way of refreshing fundamentals learned in
The field of biomaterials has grown tremendously since publication of the first edition in 1979
vii
CONTENTS
Preface ................................................................................................................................. v
1: Introduction
1.2. Performance of Biomaterials ................................................................................... 8 1.3. Brief Historical Background.................................................................................... 9 Problems.................................................................................................................. 12 Symbols/Definitions ................................................................................................ 12 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 13
2: The Structure of Solids
2.1. Atomic Bonding ...................................................................................................... 18 2.2. Crystal Structure ...................................................................................................... 19 2.3. Imperfections in Crystalline Structures ................................................................... 26 2.4. Long-Chain Molecular Compounds (Polymers)...................................................... 28 2.5. Supercooled and Network Solids............................................................................. 32 2.6. Composite Material Structure.................................................................................. 34 Problems.................................................................................................................. 37 Symbols/Definitions ................................................................................................ 38 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 39
3: Characterization of Materials — I
3.1. Mechanical Properties ............................................................................................. 42 3.2. Thermal Properties .................................................................................................. 63 3.3. Phase Diagrams ....................................................................................................... 67 3.4. Strengthening by Heat Treatments .......................................................................... 71 3.5. Surface Properties and Adhesion............................................................................. 72 Problems.................................................................................................................. 75 Symbols/Definitions ................................................................................................ 78 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 80
1.1. Definition of Biomaterials ....................................................................................... 2
viii CONTENTS
4: Characterization of Materials — II: Electrical, Optical, X-Ray Absorption, Acoustic, Ultrasonic, etc.
4.1. Electrical Properties................................................................................................. 84 4.2. Optical Properties .................................................................................................... 87 4.3. X-Ray Absorption.................................................................................................... 90 4.4. Acoustic and Ultrasonic Properties.......................................................................... 91 4.5. Density and Porosity................................................................................................ 93 4.6. Diffusion Properties................................................................................................. 94 Problems.................................................................................................................. 95 Symbols/Definitions ................................................................................................ 96 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 97
5: Metallic Implant Materials
5.1. Stainless Steels ........................................................................................................ 100 5.2. Co-Based Alloys...................................................................................................... 103 5.3. Ti and Ti-Based Alloys............................................................................................ 107 5.4. Dental Metals........................................................................................................... 113 5.5. Other Metals ............................................................................................................ 117 5.6. Corrosion of Metallic Implants................................................................................ 120 Problems.................................................................................................................. 130 Symbols/Definitions ................................................................................................ 135 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 136
6: Ceramic Implant Materials
6.1. Structure–Property Relationship of Ceramics ......................................................... 140 6.2. Aluminum Oxides (Alumina) .................................................................................. 142 6.3. Zirconium Oxides (Zirconia)................................................................................... 143 6.4. Calcium Phosphate .................................................................................................. 152 6.5. Glass-Ceramics........................................................................................................ 155 6.6. Other Ceramics ........................................................................................................ 158 6.7. Carbons.................................................................................................................... 159 6.8. Deterioration of Ceramics ....................................................................................... 162 Problems.................................................................................................................. 166 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 169 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 170
7: Polymeric Implant Materials
7.1. Polymerization and Properties ................................................................................. 174 7.2. Effect of Structural Modification and Temperature on Properties........................... 178 7.3. Polymeric Implant Materials ................................................................................... 180 7.4. High-Strength Thermoplastics................................................................................. 192 7.5. Deterioration of Polymers ....................................................................................... 194 Problems.................................................................................................................. 198 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 204 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 205
CONTENTS ix
8: Composites as Biomaterials
8.1. Structure .................................................................................................................. 208 8.2. Mechanics of Composites........................................................................................ 209 8.3. Applications of Composite Biomaterials................................................................. 213 8.4. Biocompatibility of Composite Biomaterials .......................................................... 221 Problems.................................................................................................................. 221 Symbols/Definitions ................................................................................................ 222 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 223
9: Structure–Property Relationships of Biological Materials
9.1. Proteins .................................................................................................................... 226 9.2. Polysaccharides ....................................................................................................... 230 9.3. Structure–Property Relationship of Tissues ............................................................ 232 Problems.................................................................................................................. 255 Symbols / Definitions .............................................................................................. 259 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 261
10: Tissue Response to Implants
10.1. Normal Wound-Healing Process ............................................................................. 266 10.2. Body Response to Implants ..................................................................................... 273 10.3. Blood Compatibility ................................................................................................ 279 10.4. Carcinogenicity........................................................................................................ 284 Problems.................................................................................................................. 286 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 287 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 288
11: Soft Tissue Replacement — I: Sutures, Skin, and Maxillofacial Implants
11.1. Sutures, Surgical Tapes, and Adhesives .................................................................. 292 11.2. Percutaneous and Skin Implants .............................................................................. 302 11.3. Maxillofacial and Other Soft-Tissue Augmentation................................................ 307 Problems.................................................................................................................. 325 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 326 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 327
12: Soft Tissue Replacement — II: Blood Interfacing Implants
12.1. Blood Substitutes and Access Catheters.................................................................. 333 12.2. Cardiovascular Grafts and Stents............................................................................. 333 12.3. Blood Vessel Implants............................................................................................. 336 12.4. Heart Valve Implants............................................................................................... 343 12.5. Heart and Lung Assist Devices................................................................................ 347 12.6. Artificial Organs ...................................................................................................... 351 Problems.................................................................................................................. 361 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 363 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 364
x CONTENTS
13: Hard Tissue Replacement — I: Long Bone Repair
13.1. Wires, Pins, and Screws .......................................................................................... 371 13.2. Fracture Plates ......................................................................................................... 377 13.3. Intramedullary Devices............................................................................................ 383 13.4. Acceleration of Bone Healing ................................................................................. 386 Problems.................................................................................................................. 389 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 391 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 392
14: Hard Tissue Replacement — II: Joints and Teeth
14.1. Joint Replacements .................................................................................................. 397 14.2. Spinal Implants ........................................................................................................ 425 14.3. Dental Restorations and Implants ............................................................................ 435 14.4. Interface Problems in Orthopedic and Dental Implants........................................... 443 Problems.................................................................................................................. 450 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 452 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 454
15: Transplants
15.1. Overview ................................................................................................................. 460 15.2. Immunological Considerations................................................................................ 462 15.3. Blood Transfusions.................................................................................................. 466 15.4. Individual Organs .................................................................................................... 467 15.5. Regeneration............................................................................................................ 474 15.6. Ethical Considerations............................................................................................. 476 Problems.................................................................................................................. 476 Definitions ............................................................................................................... 480 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 480
16: Tissue Engineering Materials and Regeneration
16.1. Overview ................................................................................................................. 486 16.2. Substrate Scaffold Materials.................................................................................... 489 16.3. Sterilization of Scaffolds ......................................................................................... 505 16.4. Regeneration Stimulated Electrically ...................................................................... 505 16.5. Cellular Aspects, Viability, Stem Cells ................................................................... 506 16.6. Bladder Regeneration .............................................................................................. 507 16.7. Cartilage Regeneration ............................................................................................ 507 16.8. Skin Regeneration.................................................................................................... 507 16.9. Bone Regeneration .................................................................................................. 508 16.10. Regeneration in the Cardiovascular System ............................................................ 508 16.11. Summary.................................................................................................................. 509 Problems.................................................................................................................. 509 Symbols/Definitions ................................................................................................ 511 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 512
CONTENTS xi
Appendices
Appendix I: Physical Constants and Conversions........................................................ 517 Appendix II: SI Units .................................................................................................... 518 Appendix III: Common Prefixes .................................................................................... 518 Appendix IV: Properties of Selected Elements............................................................... 519 Appendix V: Properties of Selected Engineering Materials ......................................... 520 Name Index ......................................................................................................................... 521
Subject Index ...................................................................................................................... 535
