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4. Anahatam - Chest (heart) – Nataraja
5. Vishuddi - Neck – Nandi
6. Aajai - fore head (middle of the space
between eyebrows)
7. Sahastaram - Top of the head – Vimanam
The temple tank will generally be in front of the temple or in
one of its side. The Nandavanam (flower gardens) will be on the
north and the Gosala (cow-shed) on the south of the temple. Around
the Garbhagraham the following Kosthavigrahams are installed.
Nirtha Ganapathi and Dakshnamoorthi on the South, Lingothbavar or
Vishnu on the back side, Brahma and Durga on the North,
Chandeswara shrine will be a near the Niche of Durga. On the
prakara around the garbagarham on the backside there will be a
Vinayaka shrine on the South West. Muruga in the middle of the
backside and lakshmi on the North west. Navagrahas are installed in
the north east corner of the outer prakaram134a .
6.1. GROUND PLAN
The anology of man's constitution with the temple architecture
is a favourite theme of the canonical texts like Sri-
Prasna,Vishnutantra, Silpa- ratna, Vatulagama, and Aparajitha –
silpa. The texts insist that the worshipper must approach the temple
as if it were the body of the divine.
1. The sanctorum is the head.
2. The tower, the top- knot of hair.
3. The Pavilion, the middle parts of the body.
4. The enclosure, the hands.
5. The entrance tower, feet.
6. The icon in the sanctorum is the personification of mantras
The temple thus becomes the tool for the devotee and a
techniques of worship. We may recall what Talmud suggests; " if you
desire to perceive the invisible. than perceive the visible"135. This is
precisely, what the canonical texts drive, as some texts illustrate that,
1. The Base of the temple represents Earth.
2. The sanctorum, the intermediate space.
3. The tower, the heavens.
In the scheme of 'seven worlds', the tower comprises three
worlds.
The seat there of - jnana loka.
The pot portion – tapoloka.
And the spire – satyaloka.
It is very interesting to note the projection of temple.
Architecture is different in terms of human constitutions. "The
Human body is said to be the temple and soul the icon”136. This has
been found in many texts. The terms used in architecture in all the
texts are the names of parts of the human body. Feet, knee, 'thighs'
'belly' 'neck' shoulders, nose, face. ' head' and so on. As a temple is
laid out, it is said to picture a man lying down. His feet connote the
entrance tower, his genital organ the flag – staff, his belly the
assembly hall; his heart, ' the proch' his head, the sanctum and the
brows, meet, the seat of icon137. Some other interpretation have also
been given that theneck as the sancrtoum and the head as the tower;
the heart is the porch where the devotees stands and Look at the
icon138. Prof . S.K. Ramachandra Rao also advocates that the
forehead of man is said to represent sanctrum and top of head, the
tower. The space between the eyebrows is the seat of the icon. The
icon is located in the ajna center. The finial of the tower is unseen
above the head, the sahasra region; and the womb of the sanctrum
at the top of the nose139.
So far, I have analysed some of the details regarding the
reflection of religious details and philosophical implications from the
earliest temples. I have discussed, the important structures, of a
temple which create a common link between religious ideals and, the
most expressive visual arts
6.2. THE GOPURA
Gopuram – denotes the sthula sariram also called Dehatma or
Boothnma. While entering the Gopuram we should remind ourselves
that we are not the physical bodies and that in each one of us there
is the self (Atma) which is immortal.
6.3. THE ‘FLAG - STAFF’
In South Indian temple , we can see the flag-staff close to the
dispensing seat. It is usual for the two to be together. The canonical
texts refer that the flag-staff have been installed between the
sanctum and the dispensing seat. But almost the flag-staff takes the
middle position. Even in the intial stage of the orgin of the temple, this
flag-staff custom was not prevalent.
The early purpose for the installation of the flag-staff was only to
indicate the sanctorum. Even today the main shrines in villages and
on highways when they are otherwise indistinguishable have flags on
them, that they are places of worship.
Though this interpretation may be accepted one, I think that this
is not the only purpose, giving less importance to identify the location
of the temple. Much attention have been given to install this flag-staff
from the beginning and in due course, it became customary. In North
Indian Temple, it is a practice to fly long and flowing banners from the
tower itself. In course of time, fixing the flag-staff became a common
feature in temple architecture.
When the flag-staff became permanent detail in the temple, the
commencement of festivals began to be signalised by ceremonially
hoisting a flag on it. Normally, however the flag-staff will only be a
column without the banner. It would only indicate the limit of the
consecrated area of the shrine when, occassion demands, a banner
would be flown from its top. A building without a flag would be in
vain140. It also gives some interesting details, about the position, and
height of the mast, the type of bamboo that is to be chosen, the
colour of the cloth for the banner and so on. The benefit of the flag-
mast is here said to be obtainment of all that is desired. The purpose
of the flag is the indication of the insignia of the deity, or of the
characteristic vehicles of the icon that is within the sanctorum141.
Almost the flag-staff was made, of wood, The wooden pole,
covered with copper, brass, or even silver plates gilded, is installed
on raised stone platform, often square in shape, in front of
sanctorum. The top portion of this tall mast will have three horizontal
perches. The ‘seat’ of the flag-staff as well as the mast with perches
came to be highly stylized in South India during the days of the chola
and pandiya rulers for the flag was uniquely a royal insignia142.
We cannot get a clear idea about the symbolic representation of
the flag-staff from the textual accounts, probably because it was a
late innovation and not a necessary involvement in the shrine. It was
an introduction from royal association, and there fore the usual
symbolism is that of victory decorated and elaborately installed would
mean a rich and prosperous temple commanding royal patronage; it
is a sign of pomp and pride. God is the greatest of kings and the
temple is ‘His place143.
Some of the religious teachers and preachers are of the opinion
the idea that when the flag is hoisted in front of the temple, God as
well as devotees will be delighted. Otherwise, according to the texts,
demons and goblins would sneak in and make the temple their
abode. The three horizontal porches in the top portion of the flag-
staff symbolise righteousness, reputation and prosperity, or three
divinities.
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva are three Gods. The textual
accounts assign Siva to the bottom of the Post, Brahma to the middle
portion and Vishnu to the top. While, in the South, the flag cloth is
occassionally tied to the flag-post, it is ever present in the temples of
the North, The length of the cloth in the latter case will be equal to the
length of the flag-post, which will be fixed to the top member of the
tower over the sanctorum.
The flag in the traditional context also means a resolve to exert
and a will to succeed. Hoisting the flag suggests setting out to
conquer. The devotee coming the temple would have to resolve to
conquer his own baser nature, to set out on a war with his own mean
disposition; a look at the flag must would be a reminder for him in this
regard144. It is therefore, has the connotation of hope, desire,
especially erotic desire which is physically expressed as erection and
the Sanskrit expression is frequently employed in this context, pride,
arrogance and will. Whatever raises man to a higher level of
understanding and activity is a Dhavaja. It is a call that God is high
and above of all145. The Characteristic animal and the insignia of the
icon on the banner gives a direction to the devotees desire and will.
When the devotee lights the banner and lows it, he resolves to raise
higher.
The Indian temple is thus a constellation of symbolism. It is an
image that is at once relevant to human aspirations and persistent in
human thought and actions. The texts of Indian architecture which
provide us with all the details of measurements and parts of the
temple and prescribe the rites of installation and ritual of worship also
indicate the value of a shrine.
The ritualists have their God in the fire; but the wise folk find him
in their own heart. It is dull-witted one that seeks God in an icon.
Those who have higher standing see God in everything.
6.4. BALIPEETHA
Another important structure in the temple complex is the
dispensing seat' Balipeetha. It is an indispensable associate of the
sanctorum. It is small in size but highly stylized stone seat, installed
directly in front of the icon and very closer to the sanctorum. There
will be several such seats around the sanctorum in positions
determined by the canonical texts.
It is on this balipeetha, food offerings, to the attendant divinities
and the guardian goblins are placed, after the main food offering to
the icon in the sancotrum has been completed.
Usually we can see that altars are provided in eight directions.
But the 'One' in front of the sanctorum is the chief and it will be the
most ornate, and stylistically majestic, with several limbs such as the
base, cornices, wall surface, with door-lets or niches.
Generally, it is made of hard granite, but it is also built in bricks
and mortar. It is also make of metal and when the alter is wooden, it
is recommended to be covered by metal sheets146. Mud altars were
common in those days147.
Most texts suggest that the size of the altar should be 1/8,
1/7, 1/5 of the dimension of the sanctorum. Depending on their sizes
and shapes altars are divied into several types such as sri- pandha,
Padma – Bandha, sri – Bhadra, Sarvato – bhadra and so on. Its
incorporation into the Indian temple architecture are hard to
delineate. Perhaps, it is a remnant of the Vedic Yupa, and in many
temples we do find bali –pithas which are merely erude stone blocks
or wooden posts.
In the well known temples also we do find two 'dispensing
seats' placed together, one crudly simple and the other stylistically
sculptured. The former can be presumed to be the original and the
latter a later addition. It also resembles that the stone seat in early
days meant to offer animal food, and some canonical texts do contain
details of offering which include flesh mixed with turmeric power.
Though we cannot definitely ascertain its origin, this seat is
ritualistically very important. Many of the canonical texts advocates
that a fully architecturally developed temple consists of four limbs: the
sanctorum the icon, the tower above the sanctorum and the
dispensing seat. Some of the texts illustrate that the dispensing seat
as a replica of the lower above the sanctorum. The dispensing seat
and the tower above the sanctorum are indeed the same for it is
there that the Gods assemble148. Indeed the shape of the two closely
resemble each other, with the difference that the alter is crowned, by
a flat lotus motif, while the tower ends in a round kalasa, surmounted
by a spike. And like the tower, the altar may be square, circular or
polygonal149.
The symbolism of this seat is very significant in religious views.
This dispensing seat' represents the meeting place of the active
consciousness of the devotee and the passive consciousness of the
divinity.
In the projection of the temple-image on the human body, the
seat is located in the navel, which esoterically is considered the
center of the hub of man’s physical existence. Before the devotee
enters the porch in front of the sanctorum, he has ceremonially to go
round the ‘ dispensing seat’ which act symbolizes centering himself
adequately. It should prepare him to receive the emanations from the
icon.
6.5. LAMP POST
A dispastambha (lamp post) is another constituent of a temple
complex often found in South Indian temples. It is situated either in
front of the balipeeta or outside the main gate. The top of this post
has a budshaped chamber to receive the lamp.
6.6.NANDI
Nandi, the bull, theologically an essential member of all the
Siva temples built or remodelled according to canonic rules, is placed
in the open covert yard, the tirumutram, directly in line and height with
the sanctorum deity.
It must be borne in mind that the bull was an emblem of jains.
Comparatively speaking, both Saivism and Jainism have similar
architectural excellence in seventh century itself.
Though ought to be placed only in open air, eventually
shelterswere erected for the bull in later times the origin of placing the
bull, the rishabam appears to have started with the jain. The jain
deity, like Siva later, was called Rashabadevar.
6.7. THE MUKHAMANDAPA
In front of the garbhagraha and contiguous to it is the
mukhamandapa, sometimes called sukanasi or ardhamantapa,
sometimes called sukanasi or ardhamandapa, depending upon its
proportion relative to that of the garbhagraha. Apart from being used
as a passage, it is also used to keep the articles of worship including
naivedya (food offerings) on special occasions.
6.8. ARDHAMANDAPA
The Ardhamandapa is slightly narrower than the garbhagraha
and is relieved by the processes and projections. It is projecting
central bays on the north and the south have a devakostha with
wagon – vaulted top. Southern kostha are usually vacant but
originally enshrined an image of Ganasa.
6.9. MAHAMANDAPA
Ardhamandapa is preceded by a rectangualar mahamandapa.
This is flat roofed and enclosed structure which rises to a height of
its interior groud level. It is supported by the pillars. The disposition
of the architectural designs of its columns are the noteworthy
features of this part.
6.10. THE ANTARALA
Antarala, a narrow passage is connecting the garbhagrha and
the mukhamandapa to the mandapa (pavilion or hall). As already
stated, in most of the temples the antarala is identical with
mukhamandapa or sukanasi.
The nrttamandapa is a big hall used for or congregational
religious acts like singing, dancing, recitation of mythological texts,
religious discourses and so on.
6.11. GARBHAGRAHA
The most important part of a temple, its very heart as it were, is
the garbhagraha or sanctum sanctorum. This is usually square with
a low roof and with no doors or windows except for the front opening.
The image of the deity is stationed in the geometrical centre. The
whole place is completely dark, except for the light that comes
through the front opening. Over the roof of the whole shrine is a
small tower. This tower is hight the North Indian temples and of low
or medium height in the South Indian temples.
6.12. THE LINGAM
Lingam – ‘Li’ in the word lingam indicates Layam (getting in to
union) and Gam means ‘ comes out’, or manifest. The word lingam
denoted Kuri (symbol) derived from the Sanskrit. Derivative root
linga Chitreekarani i.e. that which performs wonderful act, as, God’s
act of being with all living being and at the same time apart from
them, is wonderful.
Linga symbolizes the union of the formless and form. Siva and
Sakti and is termed, Karma Sadskyam, which is derived from ‘ sadd’
meaning always, Akyam means worship of the space less indefinable
one with name and shape given to it.
Lingam – for purpose of conferring grace on devotees God
assumes different tattvas. Siva Tattva, Sadkya (Sivalinga) is
formless form. It has no distinct form; yet it has an indistinct form of
lingam. 1. Sadakhyam is of five Siva sadakhya. 2. Amurthi
sadakhya 3. Murthi sadakhya 4. Karthiru sadakhya 5. Kanma
sadakhya. Mahesvara Tatva is of 25 kinds of form in which Siva is
worshiped. There include Chandasekaran, Uma Maheswara etc.,
‘Lingam’ means that which creates and dissolves in implies
adornment or recreation denoted by the five fold actions creation,
protections, destruction, concealment and grace.
Sadakhya is that which is ever adored. God who is beyond
thought word and deed and is formless is given a form and given a
name to enable devotees to worship and to mediate. Siva
Sadakhyam is Jyodirmayam. Amurthi sadakhyama is also
Jyodiramayam but in the form of Divyalingam. Murthi sadakyam is
Linga murthi with one face, three eyes and four hands with-deer, fire
abhayam and varadam. Karthiru sadakam is Gana lingam with four
faces, twelve eyes and eight hands. Kaus sadakam is lingam with
five faces, including Esanyam and ten hands. Siva lingam has three
parts-one part under ground, four sides representing Brahma the
creator, the middle part is eight sided representing Vishnu the
protector and the upper part (Lingam is rudra and the circular part
with Gomuki (adudaiyar) represent parasakti. The three parts also
denotes pranavam OM=A+U+M. Lingam denotes ‘Nadham ‘ and
Avudaiyar Bindu’ Tattvam.
The Siva lingam in the sanctum sanctorum denotes the
aspects of God. Apart from the universe. God is also omnipresent-in
land, water, fire, wind and air and in the sun including all starts, moon
(including all planets and satellites) and in each soul. Ashtamurthi-
He is smaller than the smallest atom and larger than all the universe
and beyond that. He transcends all space and time and the word
kadavul brings out the immanent and transcendental aspects of God.
Dasakaryam. 1.Tatva rupam 2. Tattva Darshnam 3. Tattva
suddhi 4. Anma rupam, 5. Atma Darsanam 6. Atma suddhi 7. Siva
rupam 8. Siva darsanam 9. Siva yogam 10. Siva bogam. The
Gopuram, Nandi and Lingam represent Tattvam, Atama and Sivam.
(Pasam, Pasu, Pati).
Tirucitrrambalam – Nataraja shrine the sanctity of every five
Siva temple is supposed to be observed lead is Thillai Nataraja
shrine after all the Arthajama pooja every night. The existence of
shrines for Nataraja and Govindaraja in the same temple in proximity
enables devotees to worship both simultaneously is a unique feature
explaining the basic concept of one God. The reclining posture of
one and dancing pose of the other denoting the Static and dynamic
aspects abode of God.
Sthalam. The places (villages and towns) where temples have
been built in strict accordance with the directions in Agamas are
sacred and worthy of worship.
Theertham – There are sacred rivers and tanks in the vicinity of
temples which are also worthy of worship as they represent the
overflowing grace of God. There are normally one, three, five or
seven prakarams (avaranam) in the temple depending on its size and
importance. The veranam denotes the various stages of a
humanbody which act as impediment to our realization of divine bliss.
6.13. VIMANA
The principal part, actual temple is called the Vimana. It is
always square in shape, and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one
or more stories and it contains the cell in which the image of God or
the emblem is placed150. The Vimana is generally used to designate
"a chariot" or vehicle of the Gods, a moving palace; hence it includes
the shrine and spire151.
It is the form of the towers of spires called siharas or vimanas
which invariably surmount the cells in which the image are placed. It
is probably correct to assert that the images of Tirtankaras are
invariably placed on oblong or square cells, and those of Hindu
deities in square – generally cubical cells, of no great dimension, and
that these cells receive their light from the door way only152.
The upper part of the tower, to some extent, overhangs its
base. It bend unward towards the summit, and is surmounted by what
is called Amalaka- amassive circular coping stone which supports a
vase called amirtakalasa or amirtakaraka i.e “dew vessel”. It
represents the roots of the temple tree153.
The sanctorum rises above has distinct tiers and the most
fundamental tier is nature itself on the earth and over it is laid the
primary plinth or ‘base’ to be covered by the secondary plinth or
seat. The three levels of growth are securely bound by a ritual as
well as an engineering device known a “packing”. Above this packed
surface is laid the ‘bed’ of the sanctorum which is seen as the floor.
Walls rise from the ‘bed’ on all the four sides. The early
sanctorum, for example Sanci No.1, 7 and 9 temples were circular or
apsidal in shape154. A circle signifies the entire universe and a
sanctrum is indeed a model of the universe. The Agama texts look
upon the earth as being bound by the four directions they advocate
that the shape of the sanctorum must be a square with its opening
normally facing the East. The spot where the Womb is hidden is the
seat of the icon. The icon represents the sap of the temple tree, the
four walls would indicate the spreading branches alround. The roofs
resting over the walls are technically called the “row of doves”. The
sanctorum is thus a neat model of the growing tree155.
Almost the early shrines have flat-roof. But there is an urge
towards a superstructure above it, a spiral or pyramidal tower which
may be circular or polygonal in shape. The name for this architectural
limb in sanctorum. It expresses two connotations.
1) that which is without Comparison; and
2) that which brings about fruits. The tower over the sanctorum
is a physical representation of fire156.
Each of the great gods has an amal or material form or object
which represents him the eyes of men, by which he is symbolically
known. The popular gods have many symbols.
The 'Vehicles' of the gods are practically symbols representing
their power presence- the goose of Brahman; Garuda,the monstrous
eagle of Vishnu; the bull of Siva; the fabulous sea monster, makara of
varuna, who is then depicted as a white man and is described as
makarasva. Whose steed is the makara, riding with the head and four
legs of an antelope and the body and tail of a fish.
The peacock of Karthikeya, the god of war.
The monkey of Hanuman.
The deer of Vaych.
The elephant Airavatha of Indira
The buffallo and dogs of yama; and many others"157.
1. The foundation of the temple is made to represent Earth; 2.
The walls of the sanctorum Water. 3. The tower over Sanctorum –
Fire. 4. The finial of the tower – Air; 5. And above formless – Ether.
The sanctorum is thus a constellation of the five elements that
are basic to this universe. And fire being the active element that
fuses the other's the tower becomes an important limb in the
structure of the temple.
The first roof of the sanctorum on which the tower rests and
rises is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the exits as
"the stone denoting the upper passage of life". The sanctorum is
viewed as the head. Right on top of the head is the passage through
which the currents of life ascend to the higher realms. The life of the
sanctorum ascends to the tower through this stone slab. Around the
four corners of this slab are placed the images of the vehicles or
emblems that characterize the icon inside the sanctorum. If the icon
is Siva – bulls are shown; for Vishnu – Eagles; for Sakti – Lion; for
Muruga- peacocks. The vehincles are normally on level lower than
their owners. The significance of the deities of vehicles above the
sanctorum is that they act as door guardians for the icon on the
sanctorum.
Here is an interesting aspect of the tower. The guarding deities
stand between the sanctorum and the tower, admitting the forces that
descend through the tower into sanctorum. The tower is the inverted
tree. The main mass of the tower represent the spreading, branches
and the finial above it, the roots.
Over the stone slab mentioned above, the 'neck' is introduced.
And on the neck rests the dome of the tower. The term "Vimana"
refers to the structure between the topslab and the finial. Early
Vimanas were circular and conical in keeping with the circular shape
of the sanctorum. It roses in tiers from one to twelve talas of
diminishing circumference until it ended in the point of the finial;
6.13.1. KALASA
Above the Vimana rests the 'vase' known as Kalasa
representing the roots of the invented tree. Agamic texts mention
that the original kalasa was born as one of the fourteen precious
gems that came out of the milky ocean when it was churned, and
they suggest that it symbolizes blessings. The old name for this unit
was ' Kama- Kumbha' or the pitcher of desire. In the architectural
development of Indian temple this feature arrived late, and its arrival
appears to be subsequent to the canonical texts. The early kalasas
were probably only stone blocks round or ribbed. They were in the
nature of cap-stones that held structurally as well as stylistically the
Vimana, especially when it was tall and tapering, as in the North
Indian temples.
The copper vases wear later innovation. Some times brass
was used, opulence and vanity promoted gilded onces. But the
Agama books favour copper. The kalasa is actually a vessel, like the
vessel deposited under the sanctorum. And like the latter, this also is
made to contain tokens of growth an prosperity, viz., cereals with
subtle seeds and nine precious stones. The feature has several
members such as the foot- hold which is structurally imbedded in the
masonary of the tower, the egg or the belly, ' the neck' the lotus –
band ' , 'the rim ' and the 'bud'.
The shape of this unit could resemble the bell, the flower bud,
the lamp, coconut, altar or pot. The significance of all these shapes is
that it symbolizes the potentialities of life. The ritual of installing the
metal vase over the brick and mortar body of the tower is an
interesting one. The vase is not bound to the tower by any packing
material like mortar or cement. It is only 'fixed by a hollow rod that juts
out of the center of the tower an runs through the vase. It is through
this tube that the 'tokens' cereals and precious stones are introduced.
It is sealed above the body of the Kalasa before the 'bud' rises .
The body has five limbs.
i) The seat: in the form of a lotus flower whose petals
open out completely
ii) The neck: on which the bulging out 'pot ' which is the
next limb rests.
iii) The brim: or the lid for the 'pot'.
iv) The flower: which opens upward.
v) The flower bud: which tapers off to a point.
The bud is actually the central part of the flower whose
peripheral petals are separated. It signifies new life and growth158.
The Kalasa has an important hidden component, viz, the '
golden person; - Swarna – purusha, who is regarded as the very
soul of the temple.
The belly of the Kalasa is made to contain a tiny cot made in
silver, copper or sandalwood, over which is laid on a soft- feather
mattress the golden icon of this 'person'. His one hand holding a lotus
flower over the heart and the other carrying a triple flag. Four little
pots made in gold, silver or copper, containing of consecrated water
are placed on the four sides of the cot. Near the recumbent 'person'
is kept a golden or silver filled with ghee. The procedure of
introducing this 'golden'person into body of the kalasa is known as
hirdaya- varnaka- vidhi159.
The entire structure of the Kalasa thus represents the roots of
the 'inverted tree'. It bears a correspondence with the 'womb' under
the sanctorum. Both are roots, the latter urging the upward growth of
an ordinary tree and the former downward growth of the inverted tree.
'The womb', the icon and the finial are structurally co-linear and run
along the same axis of divine consciousness. This consciousness in
its ascent transforms itself into the icon and materializes into the
sanctrum .In its descent it runs through the finial and is concretized
as the mass of the tower .Under the ground it is in a dormand,
nebulous condition; and in the sanctorum it gets transformed into a
world of materiality and activity. In the tower, it rises above this world,
before it is absorbed in the Universal consciousness at the pack of
the finial160.
6.13.2. ELEVATION
Man's approach is one of ascent of matter towards the spirit.
But it becomes meaningfull only if there is a complimentary process
of descent, the divine spirit must flow down into the material. The
finial of the tower symbolizes the dual act of gathering of the divine
essence from the formless cosmos and communicating it to the main
mass of the tower. The essence here acquires a concrete form and
then descends into the sanctorum to the focussed in the icon. The
sanctorum is man's head, as will be evident in the analogous. The
stone slab over the roof is the top of the head, representing the
esoteric passage known as brahmarandra. The hollow tube in the
vase is the external projection of the main channel in the human
constitution, the sushuma – nadi. The axis on which ' the womb' the
icon and the finial are positioned is also the path along which the
ascent and descent of vital forces may be achieved161.
The shrine thus demonstrates the constellation of the human
and the divine currents, matter moves up and the spirit flows down.
The devotee that stands in front of the icon is expected to partake in
this transaction The emanations that proceed from the icon must
be picked up by faith in his heart.
Devotion is the transformer. The rituals conducted within the
shrine involve these ideas, and attempt to facilitate transformation
along the horizontal axis of icon – devotee. The devotee represents
active matter and the icon passive spirit. There two are brought
together in the crative act of worship.
When the Upanishads speak of the inverted tree, they mean
the phenomenal world of matter and spirit having its roots in the
unmani fest emanation of the Absolute. The reference is to man that
is involved in the world of ignorance, passion, desire and activity.
Man's roots are hidden in the abstract thousand-petalled lotus, a
centre just above the abstract, head, outside the physical frame.
He spreads out into the world and moves away from his roots. He
is therefore distressed. The task before him is to discover the roots,
and make them the real base for his being and becoming. This
means an upward thrust on his part, and a concurrent descent from
the source of his being, the, thousand-petalled lotus'.
The yoga texts speak of different psychic centres in the body,
pictured as so many lotuses with their petals bent downward, in the
normal condition of existence; the adopt will be able to reorganize
and correct the vital currents inside him so as to give the petals the
upward slant. It may be recalled that the level below the 'pot' in the
final above the Vimana is pictured as a lotus with petals that droop
and spread out, and the level above the 'brim' has a flower the
petals of which turn up and close in. The sculptured motifs of lotus
flowers with petals positioned thus are commonly to be seen in
several aspects of temple structure. The row of flowers with petals
turned upward is known to sculptures, as a 'padma-vari162, and the
row where the petals are bent down Kumadavari163. The petals of
the kumuda blooms when the moon is up. The divine grace is the
sun, and man's effort is moon. Their conjoint operation is what is
pictured in such sculptured pieces.
6.14. THE YAGASALA, PAKASALA AND PUSKARNI
A Part from these, the temple precincts include a yagasala,
(sacrifical shed), pakasala (cooking shed) and kitchen, place for the
Utsavamurth (processional images carried during the car festivals),
well or a puskarni (tank), flower garden, stores and other essential
structures connected with the management of the temple as also the
rituals.
6.15. THE PRAKARA
The whole temple is surrounded by a high wall (prakara) with
one main and three subsidiary gates, opening in the cardinal
directions. A gopuram (high tower, sometimes called as the Cow-
gate) adorns these gateways.
Inside the prakara, three will be minor temples or shrines for
the minor deities, connected with the main deity. For instance, in a
Siva temple, the minor shrines are dedicated to Ganapati, Parvati,
Subramanya and Candesvara. In a Vishnu temple, Laksmi,
Hanuman and Garuda find a place. In a Durga temple, Siva,
Ganapati and Subramanya will be found.
7. SYMBOLISM OF THE HINDU TEMPLES
The temple makes a link between man and God, between the
earthly life and the divine life, between the actual and the ideal. As
such it has god to be symbolic.
The word ‘ devalaya’ which is frequently used to denote a
temple, actually means’ the house of God’. It is the place where God
dwells on earth to bless mankind. His palace, In fact, there is another
word to denote a temple. ‘ Prasada’, which means a palace with a
very serene appearance. When looked at this way, the
dhvajastambha represents the flagpost on which files the insignia of
the deity. The outer walls, prakara, are the walls of the fort. The
gopuram (hight tower at the entrance) is the main gateway.
‘Vimana’ is another word which is often used to denote a
temple in general and the garbhagrha (sanctum sanctorum) in
particular. The simple etymological meaning is a ‘ well-proportioned
structure’ As an extension of this meaning derived from the root-verb
ma (=to measure), it signifies God the creator, as a combination of
Siva and Sakti, who ‘ measures out’ as it were, this limited universe
from out of Himself, the unlimited principle. It further means an
aeroplane. It is the aeroplene of the Gods landed on the earth to
bless mankind.
Pilgrimage has an important place in the Hindu religion. A
place of pilgrimage is called a tirtha and is invariably associated with
a temple. Hence the temple is called a tirtha. The temple helps us a
means of crossing the ocean of samsara (transmigratory existence).
Even more significant is the conception that its plan and
elevation. Horizontally the garbhagraha represent the head and the
gopuram the feet of the deity. Others parts of the building complex
are identified with other parts of the body. For instance, the
sukanasi (also spelled as sukhanasi or sukanasi) or ardhamantapa
(the small enclosure in front of the garbhagraha) is the nose; the
antarala the passage next to the previous one, leading to passage
next to the previous one, leading to the main mandapa called
nirttamandapa) is the neck the various mandapas are the body; the
prakaras (surrounding walls) are the hands and so on. Vertically, the
garbhagraha represents the neck, the sikara (superstructure over the
garbagraha) the head, the kalasa (finial) the tuft of hair (sikara) and
so on.
The six state of advancement of the Atma will be symbolized thus.
1. Rajagopuram main tower – sthulalingam Bhutanma – Cross
state of soul.
2. Mahabalipeedam Supreme sacrificial alter – Bhdralingam –
Antaratma subtle state of the soul.
3. Kudimaram – Flag staff – Divajalingam – Tatuwatma – soul in
elemental state .
4. Mulvar – presiding deity – Sadasivalingam – Jeevathma – Soul
of is the pure state.
5. Acarya – Preceptor – Anmalingam Mantaratma soul in mystice
state.
6. Paravali – Open space – Akandalingam – Paramatma – Divine
soul.
The whole temple is conceived of a sthulalingam. The temple is
the place where the supreme siva manifested himself in time of yore
to some devotee and graciously continue to show his mercy on
persons who offer their prayers there. The temple Sivalinga
embodies five forms of linga.
1. The vimana is the sthulalingam
2. The pitha is the sukshmalingam
3. The bindu and nada symbolized pranalingam
4. The Balipeeda is the Badralingam
5. The form worshipped in sanctorum is the
murthilingam164a.
This chapter has vividly pictured the symbolism of Hindu
Rituals in detailed manner and various aspects of temple structures
have been analysed . Symbolism in rituals and elegance in temple
structures provide spiritual strength to man of worshippers.
TRACES OF SAIVISM IN TEMPLES
All religions, all the ways adopted by human beings to offer
obeisance and adoration to the Almighty are ultimately the same.
Howerver, each religion has its own unique characteristic feature.
The religion which accepts Siva as the Supreme God is Saivism.
The established philosophy of Saivism is Saiva Siddhanta.
Saivism is an important sect of Hinduism. Saivism is perhaps
the most ancient religion in the world. It origin is Pre-Aryan and Pre-
Vedic. The exvavations at Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that the
religion of the people of the Indus valley about 5000 years ago was
Saivism or something akin to it1. Some of the objects discovered in
bulls, Nataraja, Dakshnamoorthy, the Mother Goddess, figures in
yogic posture which are all connected with the worship of Lord Siva
to this day. Sir John Marshall under whom the excavations were
conducted said, " Among the many revelations that Mohenjodara
and Harappa have had in stone for us none perhaps is more
remarkable than the discovery that Saivism has history going back to
the chacolithi age or perhaps even further still and that it thus takes
its place as the most ancient living faith in the world2.
Saiva Siddhanta is the philosophy of the Saivite faith of the
Tamil people in South India. Siddhanta means "settled conclusion,
the accomplished, the sure, the true end, the ultimate goal, or the
end of ends3 Gautama Nayay Sutra defines that " Which stands
many tests and is finally established is Siddhanta" 4 Saiva Siddhanta
defines itself as the cream (telivu) of the Vedas5.
The interpretation which says that Saiva Siddhanta is an
accomplished end would not go along with the spirit of the Acaryas if
its is understood as calling a halt to all further thought. Hence in the
spirit of these Acarya, the Siddhanta has to be alert to the views of
each generation. In other words, the Siddhanta of each generation
would be able to appreciate and enrich his inheritance, to be passed
on to the next, only it we say it in the religious and philosophical
context of his own time6. Rev. G.U. Pope remarks "It is the choicest
product of Drividian intellect. The Saiva Siddhanta is the most
elaborate, influential and undoubtedly the most intrinsically valuable
of all religions of India"7
Re.F. Goodwill says that, "Those who have studies the system
unanimously agree that this eulogy is not a wait to enthusiastic or
free worded, That the system is eclectic is at once apparent ” 8.
Rev. W.F. Goudie writes " There is no school though and no
system of faith or worship that comes to us with anything like the
claims of Saiva Siddhanta9. This system possesses the merit of a
great antiquity. In the religious world, the Saiva system is heir to all
that is most ancient in south India. It is the religion of the Tamil
people by the side of which every other from is of comparatively
foreign origin. As a system of religious thought, as an expression of
faith and life, the Saiva Siddhanta is by far the best that south India
possesses. Indeed it would not be rash to include the whole of India,
and to maintain that judged by its intrinsic merits, the Saiva
Siddhanta represents the high water mark of Indian thought and
Indian life10".
J.N. Farquhar write, "The Saiva Siddhanta possesses by far
the richest literature and holds the greatest place in the life of South
India11".
Saiva Siddhanta is highly rational, religio-philosophi system,
pluralistic and monothestic in character. Its distinguishing features
are its simplicity, comprehensiveness, self-consistency and realism12.
Saiva Siddhanta makes a distincy shift in the relogio-
philosophical consciousness of India and represents a unique
reaction, culturally and existentially against the ascendancy of
positivism over the Indian mind13.
Saiva Siddhanta philosophy is ranked among the perfect,
clearest systems of human though and as such it is held in great
esteem and respect by many scholars, because of its own. They
may be enumerated and elaborated in great detail14.
Saiva Siddhanta is not parochial and sectarian. In the name of
God and religion, it does not divide and dissect people. The apostle
and propagators of the Saiva religion and philosophy were broad-
minded and noble hearted. They had universal outlook and
catholicity of view. They taught us that God is love and love is God.
They inculcated and insisted upon being kind and merciful, everyone
is our kith and kin, wIth their true feeling. It strongly criticizes and
condemns castes and its evils. It appreciates good and virtuous
qualities in men but deprecates superiority by mere birth. The
proclamation of Saint Sundarar and the profound comment of
Sekkizhar on that scared line of Sundarar, would indisputable and
irrefutably uphold the universality of the Saiva religion and
philosophy.
Saiva Siddhanta follows natural tendencies and practical
methods. Its inculcations are realistically natural and positively
practical. It does not advice us to practice any thing against nature.
Some religions insisted and compelled people to become ascetics
and monks, even from the early childhood. They decried music,
dance and other fine arts as well, saying that they would tend to instill
in us undue sexual urge. We cannot find any such teaching in Saiva
religion and philosophy. It is very liberal, generous and simple.
There is no rigid rules, no cruel injunctions and coercive restrictions16.
There were many religions and philosophies which have
become irretrievably defunct and ingloriously dead. Once they
flourished but soon they withered. Saiva religion on the contrary is
perennial. It persists and prevails from time immemorial. Passage of
time cannot destroy or diminish the importance and excellence of
Saivism and its philosophy. Day by day, it is steadily developing and
growing. Saiva Siddhanta philosophy is gaining ground amoung
erudite and enlightened scholars of the world17.
Saivism has some special features of its own. The ancient
temples of Siva in Tamilnadu, with their massive and expansive
constructions, abounding in admirable architectural achievements,
full of sculptural splendours, their hoary antiquity, impressive sanctity,
natural locality, scientific beauty, and overwhelming divinity, inspire
people and infuse piety in their hearts. The spiritual and graceful
vibrations emanating from these temples attract and arrest people,
and invest them with a spiritual splendor18.
Pilgrimage to these temples provides us immense pleasure
and divine enjoyment. The mere sight of visit to these temple is heart
thrilling and soul inspiring. They purify our mind, elevate our thought
and sublimate our life. We forget ourselves, get rid or worldly worries
and derive spiritual solace and pleasure, by offering worship in these
sacred shrines19.
The greatness of Saiva Siddhanta can be gauged, in many
aspects. The symbolism of the various forms, images, idols, icons,
sculptures in Saiva temples is really a great mine of religious
philosophical wisdom and spiritualism. The whole world wonders the
image of Nataraja. Besides, there are many other divine forms of the
Lord. The symbolic significance of each one of these Godly forms is
worthy of contemplation20.
Religious architecture and Iconography are intimately
connected and they throw substantial light on Hindu religion. It is
very essential to define with references, to establish the intercourse
of the architectural art of India with the religions of Saivism, in ancient
and medieval periods. It must be said at the very outset that, in the
treatment of this Chapter, hardly any detailed references is to be
made to the technicalities of early Indian temple architecture, or to its
development through the ages, for that it would not throw any
particular light on its religious aspect. Instead, after briefly
mentioning a few inscriptional references to the now non-existent in
Saiva temples and sanctuaries of a very early period, the important
groups of Hindu temples affiliated to either of the Saiva religious
systems, which can be dated in the Gupta and subsequent periods,
will be studied principally from the cult point of view. It should also be
stated in the beginning that in this treatment of the chapter some
Saivaite matter connected with the temple are to be discussed here.
1. SAIVA SANCTUARIES IN EARLY INSCRIPTIONS AND COINS
The extreme paucity or rather absence of inscriptional
evidence regarding the existence of Saiva sanctuaries of the pre-
Christian and early post-Christian period has been compensated by a
large number of coins and a few seals discovered, mostly in the
Northern and Central parts of India. The passage Sivathale Karite
found with Panjthar inscription of an un-named Kushana king may, as
has been said there, contain a record of the construction of some sort
of a Saiva sanctuary by one Moika, devotee of the God. But the
paucity of reference of this character does not mean that Siva was
not worshipped in shrines or sanctuaries as in the ancient period.
The obverse devise of some uninscribed cast coins has been
described by Allan in this way- 'building on left, tree in center, on right
female figure to left'21. It is highly probable, if not certain, that these
devices are more schematic representations of a Saiva shrine, the
Sthala Viruksha be the sacred tree of the sanctuary and the Saiva
devotee. The figure holding a trident in right hand is possibly male
and may represent a Saiva clerical. But the copper coins of the
Audumbara chiefs, Rudradasa, Sivadasa and Dhargosa of I century
B.C. to little later almost invariably bear on their reverse sides the
representation of structural shrines.
Allan's description of the structure as two-storied domed stupa
is not correct, and Coomaraswamy is far nearer the truth. When he
describes it as domed pavilion, Saraswathi characterizes it as a
storied-pavilion shown in relief 22 One of the earliest inscriptions
referring to the construction of a temple of Siva with the name
Pushpabadraswami and erection of dhvaja infront of it in the 16th year
of the Ikshavaku king Ehuvala Chantamula by his son Purushadatta,
is that of a stone pillar found on the bank of the Krishna at
Nagarjunakonda. The basement of the structure on the river bank
was found in course of excavations there23.
"It is also in a few early and late Gupta inscriptions, and in
some early medieval ones, that we find references to Saiva shrines.
The Mathura stone inscription of the Gupta years 61 (380-381 AD)
mentions the installation of two Sivalingas, i.e. Kapileswara and
Upamiteswara by the Pasupatha Acharya Arya Udita in the 'teachers
sanctuary': Guruvayatana. This Guruvayatana must have been
some sort of a structural temple inside which these two Sivalingas
are similar. Ones in commemoration of the other departed
Pasupatha Gurus were enshrined. The Karamdandha inscriptions of
the time of Kumara Gupta II records the enshrinements of a Sivalinga
known as Prithiviswara evidently after the name of Prithivisena. A
Mantrise, a Kumarametya and latter a Mahabatadivita, a General
under the same Gupta Emperor"24. An epigraph from Indragarh in
Madhyapradesh dated Samvat 767 (710 AD) records the
construction of a Siva temple by one Pasupatha Acharya Danarasi, a
desciple of Vinitarasi, during the rule of Nannappa, son of Bhahmana,
belonging to an early branch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty25.
2. SIVA TEMPLES OF THE GUPTA PERIOD
The precise period to which the temple at Nachanakuthara
belonged is not known for certain though the stage of their stylistic
evolution suggests, the sixth century. Unfortunately these buildings
are now ruined, the Parvathi temple at Nachana and the Dasavatara
temple at Deogarh being the best reserved. The plans of these
temples comprise a square sanctuary elevated on a moulded plinth
with access of a flight of steps to the east. The Nachana temple is
provided with an ambulatory passage way on all four sides on the
sanctuary by walls with pierced stone windows.
Extented Siva temples of the Gupta period are comparatively
few and far between the curious and architecturally interesting shrine
of about the early fifth century A.D. discovered by Cunningham at
Nachana Kuthara in the Baghelkhand region which was locally known
in his time as the Parvathi temple26. Cunningham did not find any
image enshrined within it, but he was struck by its peculiar style of its
constructions. It seemed to him to preserve the old fashion of the
temples, cut in the rock. It was a flat-roofed structure of two stories,
the lower story being surrounded by a roofed cloister closed in front
of the entrance door; in front of the door was an open unroofed court
reached by a flight of steps rising from the ground. The door way of
the lower story was full of beautifully carved Gupta relief's. The upper
story was quite plain and undecorated. It was most probably a Saiva
temple originally.
The second one found by Cunningham in the same place,
known even at his time as Mahadeva temple was of a much later
date. It was quite different in style from the Nachanekuthara temple,
though the door way of the two were similar to one another. It was a
square building with a tall slightly curvilinear spire standing on a
raised platform like that of Vaishnava shrine at Deogarh. It enshrined
a colossal Chaturmuga Sivalinga of 4' 8" high.
The Siva temple at Bhumara, in Nagod District, Madhya
Pradesh is much earlier than the preceeding one, and may, with
some confidence, be placed in the 6th century A.D27. It enshrined an
Ekhamukhs Sivalinga in the sanctorum. It had also a flat roof and
had a wide covered prathikshna-path all around it. There was a
spacious mandapa infront of the entrance door of the sanctorum, and
on the four corners, there were the remains of small shrines. This
feature perhaps indicating the early stage in the development of the
Panchayatana temples noticed above in this chapter. When
R.D.Banerji discovered it, it was mostly in ruins, and he had many of
the architectural and sculptural pieces removed to Indian museum at
Calcutta. Beautifully carved figures of Ganesh, Kirthimukhas, and
deities shown inside artistically designed, Chaitya window-niches
decorated the temple28.
3. SAIVA TEMPLES OF THE PALLAVA PERIOD IN THE SOUTH
The Pallavas were also the great builders of Siva temples. The
reigns of Pallava Kings covered approximately a century and a half,
ending towards the middle of the eighth century. During this period
the development of Hindu architecture was evidently proceeding at a
rapid rate, and there are remains of more than sixty temples
excavated under Pallava patronage together with numerous
monolithic and structural temples. There is alos evidence of a rapid
transition from the rock-cut medium via the monolithic phase to
structural temple building29. Early seventh-century rock-cut temples
of the Pallava king Mahendra are found at many sites through out
Tamil Nadu and they constitute the beginnings of the Southern phase
of rock-cut temple architecture30 Mahendravarman I, the first great
Pallava ruler, who was originally Jaina by faith, was converted to
Saivism by the famous Saiva Saint Appar.
He served the cause of his new religion by the execution of a
number of rock-cut Siva temples mostly in the Kancheepuram District
of Tamil Nadu. The King known by his virudas Vichitrachitta,
Gunavara etc., was one of the greatest and most accomplished rulers
in the history of Tamil culture, and in a sense he may be regarded as
the founder of Hindu architecture in South India. During his reign of
about 30 years, much of which was distributed owing to his struggles
with his neighbours, he could find time for executing such rock-cut
Siva temples shown as below.
1. Dhalavanur rock-cut shrine, 16 kms to the south east of
Gingee.
2. Rock-cut shrine in Trichirappalli Rock.
3. Mandagappattu 18 Kms to the North west of Viluppuram.
4. Pallavaram, Melcheri, 5 Kms North West of Gingee.
5. Thirukkalukkundram, Pakshithirtham on the way to
Mahaballpuram.
6. Bhairavakunda in Nellore District, Andhra pradesh etc.,
Infact, this region of the State of Tamil Nadu is full of rock-cut
shrines, the majority of which were affiliated to the Saiva cult, and
were built in what is known as 'Mahendra Style'.
The Mamalla style of South Indian architectures mostly
confined to Mamallapuram and its environs, was evolved out of the
'Mahendra style', under the patronage of Mahendravarman I. It
continued to hold the ground till the time of his grandson
Parameswarman31 . The extent remains of this style mainly consists
of rock-cut models of structural temples mainly of timber
constructions32. The series of monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram
provide a verbal catologue of the architectonic forms and sacred
icons current during the 7th and 8th centuries in South India.
Despite the fact that this monolithic phase was only transitory
'the rathas -reveal a true sophistication of craftsmanship and an
imaginative elaboration of the Southern Indian architectural formula33.
These rathas are not only of great architectural value from being in a
way the proto-types of South Indian temple architecture, but their
iconographical wealth, their simplicity appear to have served as
models to be aspired after by the religious artists of India. Each ratha
present a different appearance, but there are a number of general
features they have in common which define the stylistic element
fundamental to the Southern Indian temple style34. These elements
remain constant throughout the history of the South Indian temple
architecture well beyond, the Pallava period.
Rajasimha, the grand-son of Narasimhavarman devoted most
of his time in constructing of 'Siva temples of stone, brick and plaster'.
This was the inaugural of the structural temples in South India. One
of the earliest and finest example in the series is found in the Shore
temple of Mahabalipuram. The Shore temple is merely the
development of the monolithic Siva temple of the locality known as
Dharmaraja ratha in plan section and design. The Shore temple,
again, shows clear signs of syncretism. It has two shrines of unequal
size on the western and consists of the image of Seshasayee Vishnu,
the other on the Eastern side, a fluted column like Sivalinga of large
size. The figure of Durga-mahisasuramardhini carved inside a
square sunk panel on the breast of huge stone lion on the west of the
temple is also worth noting in this connection. Longhurst clearly
expresses that the Shore temple emphasizes the syncretism the
Saiva, Vaishnava and Sakta elements35.
The predominating Saiva element is indicated not only by the
huge size of the Linga, and the Vimana over it, but also by the rows
of well-carved couchant bulls on the top of the enclosure walls.
Another more important Saiva temple is kailasanatha at
Kancheepuram which was completed by Rajasimha's son
Mahendravarman III. Longhurst's observations on this type of
Pallava architecture is worth quoting. He remarks "the planning and
construction of these Pallava temples are instructive to the students
of religion, as they clearly demonstrate how Hinduism became more
complex as time went on"36. The temple is over-ornamented with
numerous carvings illustrating various manifestations of Siva.
Vaikunta Perumal temple, which was built some decades after
the kailasanatha in the middle of the eighth century, the Pallava
architectural style reaches its most natural expression. George
Michell states that 'the elements found in previous schemes are
bought together into harmonious and economic ensemble37. For the
first time in the Southern structural temple, the pillared hall comes to
adjoin the square, sanctuary and its surrounding ambulatory passage
ways. This is then set within courtyard whose enclosure walls frame
an open portico. Along the internal surface of the outer walls is
carved series of important historical reliefs.
At Kancheepuram the diagnostic features of the South Indian
temples style, first apparent in the 'rathas' at Mahabalipuram,
continue to evolve in the increasing complexity of the individual
elements and their combinations.
4. SIVA TEMPLES IN THE CHALUKYA COUNTRY
The Saiva shrines of the early Chalukya times were being
structural in character. One of the earliest such temples was that of
Makakutaswara belonging to the 7th century A.D. or a little earlier.
A Dharmajaya stamba, a pillar of the victory of religion which can be
seen infront of the shrine has an inscription. It refers that the
Dharmajaya stamba is an additional grant made in continuation of a
previous one to God Siva, as Makutesvaranatha by Durlabadevi
probably a step mother to mangalesa(597-608.A.D). Mangalesa,
though he was a devotee of Vishnu, was liberal enough to sanction
this grant for a Saiva shrine.
From the time of Vikramaditya I, the son of Pulikesi II, the
patronage of the Chalukya rulers was mostly diverted to the Saiva
Religion with a great deal of catholicity in their religious outlook.
The temple of Sangamesvara was built by Vijayaditya,(697-
733.A.D.) and on the direct patronage of Vikramaditya II the famous
temple of Virupaksha for it was built for Lokamahadevi, the Chief
Queen of Vikramaditya II to commemorate his conquest of
Kancheepuram38, and were built at Pattadakkal. The last two
temples especially Viruppaksha are elaborate structures where the
Dravida style predominates; they are covered all over with numerous
carvings illustrative to the Sivayana mythology39. Among the
numerous aspects of Siva carved in smaller niches on their walls and
pillars forming part of their architecture, can be recognized the figures
of Lakulisa, Arthanareeswara, Lingodbavamurthi Siva Tandava, etc.,
Another very interesting fact about the Viruppaksha temple
which has been noticed by Henry, is that the famous monolithic
Kailasa temple of Ellora built by the Rashtrakuda ruler Krishna-I is
remarkably like the great temple of Lokeswara, both in plan and
details, allowing for one being cut in the solid rock and the other
being built in the ordinary way on level ground40. There is hardly any
doubt again about the Chalukyan architecture having been in a way
the outgrowth of the early Dravidan style inaugurated by the Pallavas,
with an amount of admixture of architectural specialities of the north,
which Chalukyan style again partly influenced the rock-cut temple
style of Rashtrakutas.
5. SIVA SHRINES OF RASHTRAKUTAS
The Rashtrakutas were also great builders of Siva temples,
generally rock-cut ones, the most outstanding of which are the
Brahmanical temple groups of Ellora and Elephanta connected with
the Saiva creed. Scholars are of having different opinions about the
exact date of its excavations.
Fergusson and Dr.Burgess describe them to the 8th century
A.D. Y.R.Gupta to the first half of the 7th C.A.D.41 and Hirananda
Sastri to the Gupta period. George Michell also suggests that these
temples belong to the 7th and early 8th C.A.D. Archeologists have
been undecided as to the age of these temple groups, but I am
convinced that both Fergusson and Dr.Burgess are very much at fault
in attributing it from evidence of Style' to the 8th or beginning of 9th
century of our era. V.M.Mirashi has suggested that they were
excavated in the second half of the 6th century A.D., when the
Kalachuri dynasty was at its height in power in konkan and
Maharashtra Country where the caves are situated42.
His view is based on the ground that all the three kalachuri
rulers krishnaraya, Sankarayana, and Buddharaja are described in
the kalachuri grants as Paramamaheswaras indicating that they were
Pasupatas, and on the presence of the figure of Lakulisa in the
recess at the North end of the shrine in the Western Court of the
Caves. But the reasons put forward for such an early date of the 6th
Century A.D., for the Elephanta caves are not convincing.
The spirit and technique of the solid and sublime of these rock-
cut shrines appear to place them in the group chronologically with the
Brahmanical cave temples of Ellora. George Michell describes that
the Chief interest in these excavations is in the scale of their
architectural and sculptural components, which achieves
monumentality in carved techniques of the greatest sensitivity43. The
interior of the elephant caves is no doubt imposing enough
architecturally, but their sculptural and iconographic wealth are of
exceptional beauty and grandeur. It could have been inspired by the
architects and sculptor like those of the magnificent Dumar Lena
cave, Rameswara and Kailasa temples at Ellora. The superb and
sublime composite bust of Siva and Uma is the central figure in the
main cave, and some other aspects of Siva like those of
Ardhanareeswara, Gangadhara., the Yogiswara, Nataraja,
Kalyanasundra, Ravananugraha, Andhakasurabhada and a few other
aspects are masterpieces of early mediaeval relief carvings.
6. SIVA TEMPLES OF THE CHOLAS IN THE SOUTH
It will not be possible for me here to take note of all other Saiva
temple groups of the Deccan and South India. References to a few
outstanding Siva temples built during the Chola ascendancy in the
South, however, is necessary, before some notice is taken of Saivism
in mediaeval temple architecture in the Northern, Central, Eastern
and Western India.
By the end of eighth century, the major impulse of Pallava and
Chalukya architecture had largely ended, to be followed by a period
of dynastic unrest, in the South. Towards the end of nineth century
the Cholas emerged as the dominent political force in the area. Many
of the early Chola rulers were believers in Saiva faith. Pre-occupied
as these rulers were with the consolidation of their empire, the early
centuries of the Chola Kingdom saw only the gradual growth of an
architectural ideal. The Anvil plates inform us that the chief religious
achievement of Aditya I Vijayalaya during his long reign of 57 years
(850-907A.D) was the construction of a number of impossible and
impregnable stone temples dedicated to Siva along the banks of
Cauvery.
Parantaka I was also a great builder of Saiva temples and is
said to have covered with gold, the roof of the Nataraja temple at
Chidambaram. Sembiam Mahadevi, the Queen of Gandaraditya and
mother of Uttama Chola used a great deal of her influence throughout
her son's reign and figuring a part of that of his successor Rajaraja I
for the construction and enrichment of a large number of Siva
temples in second half of the 10th century A.D. The stone temple
enshrining Chandra Mauleeswara Siva at Thiruvikkarai built about
1001 A.D., was one of the last temples, to be constructed due to her
religious zeal. The biggest and finest of the Chola Siva temples that
were built in the early 11th century during the time of Rajaraja -I the
Great(985-1014.A.D), and his successor Rajendra Chola(1014-
1044.A.D) were those of Tanjore Braghadheeswara and that of
GangaiKondaCholapuram Brahadesswara. These two temples are
the landmarks of Indian architecture. The massiveness and grandeur
of the Tanjore temple can be understood when we note that the main
structure is 180 feet long, and the height of the pyramidal Vimana is
as much as 190 feet. Some of the subsidiary structures inside the
great temple are of the same period.
Nilakanta Sastri had given graphic description of it with its
various appendages, among which the gigantic bull is one of the
most striking ones44. Percy brown remarks that 'under Chola rulers'
as these two imposing monuments testify, the architecture of the
South attained its culmination, and with this effort the dynasty seems
to have remained content45. There are numerous carvings in very
high relief illustrating the various aspects and forms of the God, and
some beautiful frescoes are also painted on the walls. The Sivalinga
enshrined inside the Vimana is a huge one in girth and height which
is also the characteristic trait of temples like those of Sivakanchi,
Thiruvannamalai, Rameswaram and other places.
The Gangaikondacholapuram Siva temple built within 25 years
of the completion of the Brahadeeswara at Tanjore is in a way a copy
of the latter in broad outline, though not so virile in character.
According to Percy brown, it is 'the feminine counterpart' of the
Tanjore temple, though 'possessing a rich and voluptuous beauty of
its own46. Two other fairly massive Siva temples of this group, those
of Nageswara at Kumbakonam and Airavadeshwara at Darasuram,
are also representive of Chola architectural style. The
Gangaikondacholapuram, Siva temple built within 25 years. It is also
of interest to note in this connection that the Darasuram temple has
more than one enclosure, two of which are still existing, one or two
more having been destroyed.
The Nagesvara and Airavatesvara temples contain some fine
thematic and decorative sculptures and reliefs illustrating the
progress of art in the South during the period. George Michell
defines that the amount of sculpture on the walls of fences increases
and friezes of mythical animals or vyalas are introduced for the
uppermost course of the deeply moulded plinth47. Another fact of
much interest worth noting about this group of temples is that the
great temple of Tanjore, as well as such other major and minor once
played an important part not only in the religious life of the community
for generation onwards, but also exercised a significant influence in
its social, economic and cultural life. Nilakantasastri rightly observes,
'As land holder, employer, and consumer of goods and services, as
bank, school and museum, as hospital and theatre in short, as a
nucleus which gathered round itself all that was best in the arts of
civilized existence and regulated with them the humaneness born of
the spirit of Dharma, the madieval Indian temple has few parallels in
the annals of mankind48.
7. SIVA TEMPLES OF NORTHERN INDIA
The eighth century in the North of India was artistically and
politically the beginning of the Hindu decadence which continued its
downward course until, after several centuries of ineffectual struggles
against the Mohammedan invader. India, under the great, Akbar,
once again enjoyed the blessings of a lasting peace and a
renaissance began of which Hinduism, purified and strengthened by
the ordeal of fire and sword, was again the moving spirit49.
The temple of Bashesar Mahadeva located at Bhajra in Kulu
Kangra Valley is of great archeological and religious interest50. It is of
sihara type which is not common in hills. A large stone Sivalinga is
enshrined in the main sanctrum enclosed within heavy walls. The
four sides are projected-the estern projection sheltering the entrance
door. The other three contain each a fairly large chapel, within each
of which there is a well-carved image slab. These slabs contain the
figures of Vishnu, Ganesa, and Mahisasuramardini. An elaborately
decorated pediment on the top of each chapel shows three miniature
sikara shrines in relief, the central one showing a sunk circular
medallion containing there faces, the one in the middle shown
frontally, the side ones being in relief. This medallion, a very
common feature of the temples in the Punjab hills, is locally
designated as Bhadramuka. According to Vogel, it may stand for
Trimurthi Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, or the God of Siva in his triple
form. The second suggestion is correct, for a close observation of
these and such other medallions leaves little doubt that, like the so-
called Trimurthi of Elephanta, they represent in a composite form the
Saumya, Ugra and Uma aspects of the great God 51.
The temple of Ekalingam at Nagda, about 23 Kms to the north
of the city of Udaipur is one of the most famous Saiva, shrines of
Northern India. It enshrines the phallic emblem of the God who was
regarded as the real ruler of the Rajput state, its Ranas serving as
the honoured Dewans of Siva52. The original temple belong to 8th
century A.D. was a staunch disciple of the Pasupatha sage Haritarasi
of the Ekalinga temple which might have been enlarged by his royal
disciple. The temple might have been copiously added to by the
subsequent rulers of Mewar. Todd gives an interesting account of it.
He says, 'It is of the form commonly styled pagoda and like all the
ancient temples of Siva, its siuara or pinnacle is pyramidal, the stone
of Ekalinga is of white marble and of ample dimensions-under the
open-vaulted temple supported by columns, and fronting the four-
faced divinity, evidently a chaturmukha Sivalinga, is the brazen bull
Nandhi of the natural size; it is cast, and of excellent proportions-
within the quadrangle are miniature shrines containing some of the
minor divinities53.
8. SIVA TEMPLES IN CENTRAL INDIA
Much of the Central Northern India from the eighth century
onwards was under the influence of the Prathihara rulers. They
erected many small temples at various sites. Most of these
structures incorporate the characteristic Northern stylistic features. In
the middle of the tenth century, pratihara rule was replaced by the
Chandella Kingdom which dominated much of central India for the
following two hundred years. At kajuraho, one of its capital cities,
over thirty stone temples survive which span the period of chandelle
rule, providing evidence of a distinctive and coherent architectural
movement. George michell beautifully remarks about this group
temple of kajuraho, as, ''the kajuraho temple mark the culmination of
the northern style in its central Indian expression and clearly reveal
defineds characteristics in both plan and vertical elevation. The
stylistic evolution of the Kajuraho temples attests to the inventiveness
of local architectural traditions, which aimed at achieving increasingly
complex effects of outer elevational appearance in which the
rhythmic modelling of building masses dissolved the barriers between
architectural and sculptural forms54.
In the Kajuraho temple groups, Visvanatha and kandarya,
Mahadeva temples are famous for their elegant appearance and
architectural value. Both are, however, architecturally similar, and
both stand like many other shrines of the region on spacious raised
terraces, having the following components, the ardhamandapa
mahamandapa, antarala, garbagraha, all on the same axis. These
are reached by a wide height of steps from the ground. Their parts
again, though they form an architectural whole, are yet distinct, each
having a roof of different height and form. They both have a
pradakshinapatha round the garbhagraha, the temples being of and
harika type55. The smaller temples of khajuraho, both vaishnava and
saiva are of nirandhara variety. The nirandhara variety temples have
no pradhikshinnapatha around the cell.
The several component parts of both the temples have several
kakshasanas raised seats in the projected balkonies with sheltering
chhajjas, thus admitting subdued light in the interior. The three tiers
of the perpendicular walls curving upwards contain numerous relief's
of exquisite workmanship, their subject matter being the surasundaris
in various poses the Dikpalas and numerous other divine figures, the
erotic, battle and hunting scenes.
The entrance door in the cells, and the walls of sanctum show
tastefully arranged reliefs. The door linted and the jamps contain
Brahmanilcal triad in miniature shrines and figures of Siva being in
the middle. The river Goddesses of Viswanatha temple contain the
figures of Andhakasura-badhamirthi on the South wall, multl-armed
Nataraja on the west, and Ardhanarisvara on the North wall.
Kandaryamahadeva show almost similar arrangement, the
companion deity on the north wall being different- the multy-armed
Triparantaka of Siva.
The raised terraces on which these temples are placed, the
upward thrust of their sikharas intensilfied by repetitions of parallel
rows of miniature towers carried on them. Several other devices
produce an impression about their great height. The architects here
with the help of many such devices have entered the temple a
sensation of soaring the heavenwards56. Whenever the worshipper
proceeds from one mandapa into another, the floor rises by one step,
and the image on its pedestal is on a much higher level than the floor
on the garbhagraha itself57.
The finest Siva temple, kept in excellent preservation is
Nilakantheswara at Udayapur, about 48 kms, to the north of Bhilsa. It
was built by the Paramara king Udayaditya. Its plan and elevation
are exceedingly well-proportioned, and though its size is fairly big,
one does not carry the impression of its large dimensions at the first
sight. Some characteristic architectural features which are found in it
are also reconginised in the Dekkanese temples like that of
Ambarnatha and others. This remark especially applies to the abrupt
slant of the sikara from its high perpendicular base. The sides of the
tower are covered with supesim posed paralles rows of anga-siharas
which are much more nullmerous than those of the Sikara of the
Vishwanatha and Kandrya Mahadeva temples of Khajuraho. It is
worthy of note that this peculiarity is also found in many of the malva
temples of this period, and it may be style traveled to Dekkan from
Malwa. The three principle section are garbhagraha antarala and
mandapa.
The Machchendranatha, patalesvara and other temples in the
Amarkantak region also consist of these sections joined in axial
length. The great temple of vVrateswara Siva, at sohagpur, though
closely allied to the Amarkantak group temples, represents a further
stages in the evolution of the central Indian type, for to the three
component parts is added the ardhamandapa or portice, all on the
same axis. It may be that the Amarkantak group are as a clalss
earlier in point of date, and the khajuraho temples noted above are
later58.
9. SOME SIVA TEMPLES OF WESTERN INDIA
The prevalence of Saivism in western India from the mediaeval
period can be understood from literature and epigraphic sources. It
was at kayarohana now known as karvan in the Debohi Taluk of the
Surashtra region that Lakulisa flourished in the 2nd century A.D. The
maitraka chiefs of valabhi now known as wala hear Bavanagar ruled
over. This region from the 6th to 8th century A.D. Their inscriptions
show that they are called as Paramamchasvara, and it is no wonder
that some very interesting and important Saiva temples were built by
them or by their subjects, as well as by the dynasties succeeded
them in Surashtra, Gujarat and other places.
Nothing is definitely known about the original builder of the
celebrated temple of Somnath in South West kathiawar, near the
modern town of Veraval, which was destroyed by Mohamud, of kajini
in 1026 A.D. S.K.Saraswathi suggests that this temple may be
originally a structure of brick and wood of substantial proportions and
wealth covered with gold and other precious metals and stones,
which lured the intrepid and greedy Muslim invader59.
Many other Siva temples that were built in Gujarat and other
places in Surashtra religions have been destroyed, and most of the
extant are in ruins. One of the still existing shrines is that of
Achalesvars Siva of the late medieval period situated on a peak of
Mount Abu at Achlargarh. But two earlier Saiva sanctuaries
preserved in a good state require notice here on account of their
architectural beauty and other peculiar features. The first is the
Nilakantha Mahadeva temple at Sunak in Gujarat, one of the most
notable monuments built by the solanki rulers of this region. A
copper plate inscription of King Karna of Vikrama Samvat 1148
(1091 A.D.) found at the place records a grant of land for the
maintenance of a tank excavated in the vicinity of the temple of
Mahadeva of the locality, which appears to have been the present
one60. Built thus in the second half of the 11th century A.D. it is one
of the finest structures belonging to the Solanki group. Axially joined,
its sanctorum and mandapa are preceded by an open portico in front.
The mandapa roof is surrounded by tiers of rooflets, each with
amalaka and Kalasa finial. The sihara covering the sanctrum is
graceful in outline and is surrounded by tiers of angasiharas with
double amalaka on both. Inclined kahshasana are placed on the
sides of the mandapa, and their spacing is the most artistic and
balanced. The walls and pillars are richly decorated with elegant
carvings. The other temple, architecturally as well as chronologically
belonging to the sunak temple order, is that of jaisalanatha
Mahadeva at Asoda; it is another eminent example of this class61.
10. SOME SIVA TEMPLES OF EASTERN INDIA
Orissa in Eastern India was specially significant for the great
popularity of the Saiva and Sakta creeds in the medieval period.
Monumental remains clearly illustrate that they are closely connected
with the hetrodox schools of Buddhism and Jainism, but the
Brahmanical Hindu cults were soon to make much head-way there.
Tantrism became the accepted religion of many princes and people
of the region, and the prevelance of Pasupata Tantra is testified by
numerous figures of Lakulisa that have been found in different parts.
Vaishnavism was a little late in making its authoritative
appearance in the purushottma-kshetra, known as Srikshetra in puri
region under the Eastern Ganga kings; but long before this pasupata
Saivam flourished in a great part of orissa, especially in its Ekamra
kshetra, Bhuvaneswara and its environs62. The Bhuma kara, the
kesari and a few other local dynasties, and many of their subjects
appear to have been mostly the adherents of Hindu religion. Zeal we
owe the construction of so many beautiful Siva temple there. Most of
the numerous temples that are still extent at Bhuvanesvara belong to
the Saiva creed, and the earliest of them to back to the 8th century
A.D.
To name and explain only a few among the most famous Siva
temples of Bhuvaneswar, one may begin with Parasurameswara well
preserved specimen of comparatively small size, a square sanctuary
to which was later added, a columned hall with remarkable pierced
stone windows. The sanctuary has its outer walls provided with
protecting central niches flanked by smaller crones at either side.
The superstructure has three vertical lands framing two recesses,
and rises in a number of layers. Created by horizontal moldings
decorated with arched forms whose interiors have carved figures and
faces. Ribbed fruit motifs at either side divide the superstructure into
storeys and, in an enlarged and flattered form, the to were with a pot
final above, many of these elements are taken beneath the cornice to
decorate the niches on the walls.
On the east face of the tower is an enlarged arch upon a split
pair of arches, the interiors of which are carved with scenes from the
mythology of Siva63. The lintel of the sanctum door consists
Astagraha figure of Ravi, Soma, Mangala, Budha, Brakaspathi,
Sukra, Sani, and Rahu, Ketu came to be added to them in later times,
especially during the period of eastern Ganga rulers. The
Navagrahas were almost invariably used to decorate the door lintel of
the sanctorum belonging to Vaishnava, Saiva, and Saura cults in
Orissa.
The outer surface of the sanctorum walls of the
Parasurameswara temple have three niches on the northern, western
and Southern sides contained respectively the figures of Parvathi,
Skanda-Karthikeya and Ganesa. This is almost invariably the order
of the disposition of the Parasvadevatas of the Orissan Siva temples
of the medieval period. This is unfortunate that the figures of many of
their companion deities were carried away by unscrupulours curio
hunters and are now missing. The outside walls of the garbhagraha
and the Jagmohana of this temple is full of beautifully carved reliefs,
their subject matter being mainly associated with Saivism.
The most beautiful and smallest temple at Bhuvaneswara is
that of Mukteswara situated in a place called Siddharanya very near
Parasurameswara. It shows some development in Orissan temple
style and represents the early phase of architectural activity in Orissa
at its maturity. It has been called as the gem of Orissan architecture.
On the lintel of one small subsidiary shrine in the temple compound
can be recognized the figure of Lakulisa and a few other Pasupata
Acharyas sitting on either side of it. According to S.K. Saraswathi the
Mukteswara cannot be dated later than the 9th century A.D. It may be
even a little earlier64.
The temple of Rajarani of a date little later than that of
Mukteswara has also on the centre of the lintel of its shrine door the
figures of Lakulisa and Pasupatha Acharyas, thus clearly
emphasizing its association with the Pasupatha from of Saivism65.
Architecturally , however, this temple possesses some exotic
features. The chief among them is the shape and disposition of the
angasiharas round the exterior of the central part of its Sikaras. This
particular mode of using the decorative motif in this manner did not
seem to have found much favour with the Orissan architects in
general. The ‘Orissan Architects’ appear to have keener eye for
architectural effect, and they took care to make very judicious use of
these newer elements in order that they might not be’obtrusive
enough to break up the linear ascent of the main tower’. The
Jagamohana of the temple seems to have been left unfinished; the
outer surface of its sanctuary walls was profusely filled with
magnificent reliefs and decorations.
Brahmeswara is one of the more finished examples of Orissan
temple architecture types. According to inscriptional evidence it was
built by Kolavati, and dated about the middle of the 11th century A.D.
It is of the Panchayatana type, the four subsidiary shrines one on
each corner of the quadrangle housing for Sivalingams.
Other architectural features characteristic of this temple prove
that the great temple Lingaraja was just one step removed from it in
the final development., of the Orissan Temple architecture.
Coomarasamy dated this temple complex in the beginning of the 11th
century A.D. 66 But S.K.Saraswathi puts it date in the end of the
same century, on the basis of that of the Brahmeswara67. The
whole complex is situated within an extensive compound enclosed
by massive walls and full of subsidiary structures, some of which like
the Bagavathi temple are excellent examples of religious art. The
usual Parsuvadevata’s - Parvathi, skanda-Karthikeya and Ganesa
– are exquisitely carved figures of substantial size, and they add
beauty and grandeur to the temple. The God Tribhuraneswara in the
shape of an extensive circular basement of his emblem is still being
worshipped with great zeal and veneration. Unlike the main object of
worship inside the sanctorum of Lingaraja the one that was set up in
the architecturally peculiar Siva shrine of Baskareswara for worship
as a stone column of substantial height and grith. The Lakulisa –
Pasupata cult was well in vogue in the vicinity of this region is fully
substantiated by the discovery of a few old caves in a depression
near the Baskarewara temple, inside which several early medieval
sculptures depicting Lakulisa and his disciples have been
discovered68.
Mukalingam, a village in the Parlakimedi Taluk of the Gunjam
District has a few old Siva temples, one of which now known as
Someswara can be recognised the figures of Lakulisa and his
disciples or the other Pasupata teachers. Another earlier temple
known by the name of Madukeswara still in worship contains the
Lakulisa reliefs, and alongwith the Someswara comprises excellent
examples of the Orissan type of Indo-Aryan Architecture. The
decorative reliefs on them are remarkable for their artistic beauty and
excellence.
11. MEDIEVAL SIVA TEMPLES OF BENGAL
We can see some beautiful mediaeval and far between
temples in Bengal. The still existence of very few temples does not
mean that Siva worship was not much in vogue there during the time.
Numerous images of aniconic and iconic aspects connected with
that of Siva, as well as several inscriptions, all found in Bengal
substantiate the existence of this religion in the country. The Palas
were no doubt Buddhas, but their general attitude towards other
creeds was one of toleration. The Senas hailing from Karnataka
were mostly Saivas, In some of their inscriptions explicit mention is
made of forms of Siva and Siva temples.
Thus the Madhainagar copperplate of Lakshmanasana, one of
the sena dynasty popularly known as Parama – Narasimha refers to
the forms of Uma Maheswara, Hari-Hara, Aghora and
Gajasurasamharamurtis of Siva69. The Naihati copperplate inscription
of Vallalasena who is described as Paramamaheswara invokes Siva
in his Ardhanarisvara form in the first few lines70. The Deopara
inscription of Vijayasena again refers to the construction of the
temple of Pradyumneswara of great height and grandeur by him and
to the excavation of a big tank in its vicinity. A verse in this record
talk us that the main object of worship inside the temple was a
syncretic image, a skillful and artistic combination of Siva-Parvathi
and Lakshmi-Narayana71.
Among the five temples found at Barakar in the district of
Burdwan in west Bengal, two were definitely old. They are listed
there as Nos.4 and 5 and of them No.4 is now gone72. The
description given by J.D.Beglar of this now vanished , No.4 Temple is
very interesting, though it is not possible to check it at present.
Standing by itself and facing west, somewhat an unusual
feature, it consisted of a single cell sheltered by a pyramidal roof. Its
basement mouldings are unadorned by relief carvings. But what is
specially to be noted in Beglar’s description of the object of worship
inside the sanctrum cella. ‘It is the figure of a fish lying flat, servicing
as an argha to five lingam holes cut in it ……….The fish is 5’9” long
from the snout to the tip of the tail; 2’, 3” wide at the swell below the
head; and 1’9” at the junction of the tail. The tail itself is 9” long and
by 2’3” wide at its extremity. This enormous fish does not seem to
have had any connection with the Matsya Avatar of Vishnu, abd
assuming the correctness of Beglar’s description. It might have been
associated with some unique and at present unknown form of
Tantric-Saivism in Bengal73.
In any case one can unhesitatingly endorse Beglar’s
observation that ‘in the history of Indian symbolism this unque
sculpture will occupy a very interesting and important position. The
other old monument No.5 in Beglar’s account known also as Begunia
temple stands facing east within a partially enclosed courtyard, the
walls of the latter being later additions or restorations. It consists of a
cell and in antarala. The object enshrined inside is Sivalinga on a
great yonipitha, 4’7” in diameter. Lying inside and outside the cell,
Beglar noticed and listed the images the whole of fragmentary of
Ganesa four armed parvathi, four armed skanda-Karthikeya etc.,
which might possibly stand for the original Parsvadevatas of the
Saiva shrine74.
Saraswathi , the Goddess of wisdom finds a great deal of
architectonic similarity of this old structure of Bengal with the
Parasurameswara temple of Bhuvaneswara. According to Beglar’s
opinion the Begunia temple was built not very long after the date of
the early Orissan Siva, shrine75. One important feature of this shrine,
which could not be noticed by Beglar was the presence of the tiny
figure of Rakutesa, in the centre of the front elevations of its Sikaras
which feature clearly indicates its association with the Lakulisa-
Pasupatha from of Saivism. This is one of the few indications, that
this form of Saiva religion was current in medieval Bengal.
One of the finest brick temples of Bengal of the medieval time
is that of Siddeswara at Bahulara on the right bank of Darakes’vara
about 12 miles distant from Bankura. The object of worship inside
the sanctrum is a large stone Sivalinga. From Beglar’s description, it
appears that the temple was a Panchayatana one, with a few other
subsidiary brick shrines within a square compound enclosed by brick
walls76. There were figures of naked Thirthankara standing in the
Kayotsarga pose, a ten armed goddess evidently Durga, Ganesa, the
last two perhaps representing two of the original companion deities.
The presence of a Digambara Jaina figure here offords a clear proof
for the existence of Jaina religion in these parts in olden times.
Among the number of temple still standing at Telkupi, they are
shortly to be submerged due to the construction of the kangsvati dam
in the irrigation project of the state of west Bengal and one at saf
Denliya at Bordwan district some were unexpectedly Jaina in their
original cult affiliation, but were appropriated subsequently for the use
of the Saivas.77
12. TEVARAPATAL PERTTA THIRU THALANGAL
The 63 Saiva saint called Nayanmars, praised the lord Siva by
their devotional song in various places are called Tevarapatal pertta
Thiruthalangal. The Tevarapalpertta Thiruthalangal are 274 in
number. The List of 274 Siva temples are closed at end of the
thesis.