12

eriod in Perspective

The World Before ModernTimes

Prehistory–1500

Around 3000 B.C., civilizations began to emerge in four dif-ferent areas of the world—Western Asia, Egypt, India, and

China—and give rise to the great empires of the ancientworld. By the beginning of the first millennium A.D., how-

ever, the great states of the ancient world were mostly indecline or at the point of collapse. On the ruins of the

ancient empires, new patterns of civilization began to takeshape.

At the same time, between 400 and 1500, new civiliza-tions were beginning to appear in a number of other parts

of the world—Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, and acrossthe Atlantic Ocean in the Americas. All of these states

were increasingly linked by trade into the first “global civilization.”

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 772–773 for primary source readings to

accompany Unit 1.

Use The World History Primary Source Document Library CD-Rom to find additional

primary sources about The World Before Modern Times.

The

! Grecian urns and potterywere often used to portraymythological scenes.

" The temple at Delphi was built to honor the Greek god Apollo.

“...let no day pass withoutdiscussing goodness...”

—Socrates, The Apology

13

451–450 B.C.Twelve Tables posted in Rome

A.D. 120Roman law governs the Mediterranean world

A.D. 533–534Justinian Code established

14

! Roman Republic

Laying the FoundationAround 451–450 B.C., a group of judges posted 12 tablets in Rome’s main

forum, or marketplace. According to legend, the common people of Romehad demanded that the laws be written down for all to see, so that theywould then know their rights.

The Twelve Tables, as they were called, remained in effect for almost1,000 years. When Roman armies conquered other nations, they broughttheir laws with them. By A.D. 120, the entire Mediterranean world wasgoverned by Roman law.

The Romans developed important legal principles: the law applied toall people regardless of wealth or power, and people should be ruled bylaw rather than the whims of their leaders. In A.D. 533–534, the Byzantineemperor Justinian consolidated all Roman law into a single written code.The Justinian Code, The Body of Civil Law as it is properly named,became the foundation of today’s civil law system.

Systems of LawLaw is a code of conduct and rights recognized by a society. It pro-vides social control, order, and justice, and it enables people toknow their rights and responsibilities. Law is also the cornerstone ofa constitutional government, helping to ensure justice and fair treat-ment of all citizens. “Where law ends, tyranny begins,” said WilliamPitt, an English leader in 1770.

Justinian Code

!"

#

" France

Unifying the LawIn 1799, a French general named Napoleon Bonaparte set out to build

an empire even larger than Rome’s. To rule this empire, Napoleon followed the Roman example. He appointed a commission to write a uniform code of laws. This code, known as the Napoleonic Code, wascompleted in 1804.

Although Napoleon ruled as emperor, he drew upon many of thelegal precedents first introduced by the Romans. This included theprinciple that the same laws should be used to govern all people.Under Napoleon, this code was adopted in areas across the globe,such as present-day Belgium, Spain, and Latin America.

The Romans developed the principle that people should be ruled by lawrather than by the whims of leaders. How did the United States ensure thatleaders would not place themselves above the law?

Why It Matters

15

A.D. 1787United States Constitution adopted

# The United States

A Model for Constitutional GovernmentThe founders of the United States knew about and admired the Romans

and their belief in limiting the power of government. When it came time todraw up a plan of government, the Framers wrote a constitution that bal-anced the powers of government among three branches.

To ensure that elected leaders did not place themselves above the law,the Framers included a provision that made the Constitution “the supremelaw of the land.” The Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787.

A.D. 1804Napoleonic Code established in France

Preamble to the United States Constitution

Napoleon Bonaparte

UNIT 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

16

The First Civilizations and Empires

Prehistory–A.D. 500

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of the first civilizations and empires.

• The agricultural revolution of the Neolithic Age gave rise to more complex human societies that became known as the first civilizations.

• The Sumerians in Mesopotamia were among the first groups to build a civilization. • Under the Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties, China developed into a flourishing empire and produced numerous cultural, scientific, and technological achievements.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• Paleolithic peoples used technological inventions to change their physical environment,just as humans do today.

• Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism continue to have a major impact on people and events around the world.

World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 1 video,“Before History,” chronicles the emergence of the first civilizations and empires.

2,500,000 B.C. 1,000,000 B.C. 100,000 B.C. 5000 B.C.

Paleolithic Erastone tools

Neanderthal tomb

16

2,500,000 B.C.Paleolithic Agebegins

1,500,000 B.C.Homo erectus appears

100,000 B.C.Neanderthalslive in Germany

3000 B.C.Sumerian citiesemerge in southernMesopotamia

1500 B.C. 1000 B.C. 500 B.C. A.D. 1 A.D. 500

17

Death mask of KingTutankhamen of Egypt

The Great Sphinx and the Great Pyramids at Giza, Egypt, symbolize the power and longevity of Egyptian kingdoms.

Han burial suit of jade

The Buddha

1567 B.C.New Kingdombegins

1333 B.C.King Tutankhamen rules Egypt

563 B.C.SiddharthaGautama,founder ofBuddhism, is born

221 B.C.Qin dynastybegins

A.D. 220Han dynastyends

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 1–Chapter Overview topreview chapter information.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

n the winter of 1849, a daring young Englishman made adifficult journey into the deserts and swamps of southern

Iraq. He moved south down the banks of the river Euphrateswhile braving high winds and temperatures that reached 120degrees Fahrenheit (48.9° C). The man, William Loftus, led asmall expedition in search of the roots of civilization. As hesaid, “From our childhood we have been led to regard thisplace as the cradle of the human race.”

Guided by native Arabs into the southernmost reaches ofIraq, Loftus and his small group of explorers were soon over-whelmed by what they saw. He wrote, “I know of nothingmore exciting or impressive than the first sight of one of thesegreat piles, looming in solitary grandeur from the surround-ing plains and marshes.”

One of these “piles” was known to the natives as themound of Warka. The mound contained the ruins of theancient city of Uruk, one of the first real cities in the worldand part of one of the world’s first civilizations. SouthernIraq, known to ancient peoples as Mesopotamia, was one of four areas in the world where civilization began.

IWhy It MattersIn the fertile river valleys of Meso-potamia, Egypt, India, and China,intensive farming made it possibleto support large groups of people.The people in these regions wereable to develop the organized soci-eties that we associate with civiliza-tion. The beginnings of Westerncivilization lie in the early civiliza-tions of Southwest Asia and Egypt.

History and You Make a list ofancient cities mentioned in this chap-ter. Using the Internet or library,research what current archaeologi-cal work is being conducted at those sites. Select one site and pre-pare a brief report on what types of artifacts are being recoveredfrom that area.

The Cradle of the Human Race

Sumerian ruins at Uruk

18

CHAPTER 1 The First Humans 19CHAPTER 1 The First Humans

The First HumansGuide to Reading

Main Ideas• By 10,000 B.C., Homo sapiens sapiens

had spread throughout the world.• Systematic agriculture brought about

major economic, political, and socialchanges for early humans.

Key Termshominid, nomad, Neolithic Revolution,systematic agriculture, domestication,civilization

People to IdentifyNeanderthals, Homo sapiens sapiens

Places to LocateAfrica, Europe

Preview Questions1. What important developments took

place during the Paleolithic Age?2. What changes occurred during the

Neolithic Revolution that made thedevelopment of cities possible?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information As you readthis section, fill in a chart like the onebelow listing six characteristics of acivilization.

!3,000,000 B.C. !100,000 B.C. !30,000 B.C. !10,000 B.C. !8000 B.C. !3000 B.C.

3,000,000 B.C. Australopithecines make simple stone tools

100,000 B.C.Neanderthals appear

30,000 B.C.Neanderthals are extinct

8000 B.C. Systematic agriculturedevelops

3000 B.C.River valley civilizations develop

Preview of Events

CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires 19

In 1879, a Spanish landowner, who was an amateur archaeologist, took his 12-year-old daughter Maria with him to examine a cave on their farm in northern Spain. Whileher father busied himself digging for artifacts at the entrance to the cave, Maria wandered inside, holding a lantern. She was startled by what she discovered:

“Ahead was a big dark hole like a doorway. Beyond it was a huge long room. I heldmy lantern high for a better look. Then, suddenly, I saw big red-and-black animals allover the ceiling. I stood amazed, looking at them.”

—Secrets from the Past, Gene S. Stuart, 1979

Today, the simple cave paintings made by Stone Age artists provide historians withclues to the lives of early humans.

Before HistoryHistorians rely mostly on documents, or written records, to create their pictures

of the past. However, an account of prehistory—the period before writtenrecords—depends on the work of archaeologists and anthropologists. These sci-entists rely on the analysis of artifacts and human fossils to construct theoriesabout the development of early human beings.

Early Stages of Development The earliest humanlike creatures lived in Africaas long as three to four million years ago. Called australopithecines (aw•STRAY•loh•PIH•thuh•SYNS), or “southern apes,” they flourished in eastern and southernAfrica. They were the first hominids (humans and other humanlike creatures thatwalk upright) to make simple stone tools.

Voices from the Past

8000 B.C.Neolithic Age begins

Cave painting of a bison in Altamira, Spain

1. 4.2. 5.3. 6.

CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

A second stage in early human developmentoccurred with the appearance of Homo erectus(“upright human being”), a species that emergedaround 1.5 million years ago. Homo erectus made useof larger and more varied tools.

Around 250,000 years ago, a third—and crucial—stage in human development began with the emer-gence of a new species, Homo sapiens (“wise humanbeing”). Two distinct subgroups, Neanderthals andHomo sapiens sapiens, both developed from Homosapiens.

Neanderthals were first found in the Neander Val-ley in Germany. Their remains have been datedbetween 100,000 and 30,000 B.C. and have been foundin Europe and Southwest Asia. Neanderthals reliedon a variety of stone tools and seem to be the firstearly people to bury their dead.

The first anatomically modern humans (peoplewho looked like us), known as Homo sapiens sapiens(“wise, wise human being”), appeared in Africabetween 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. Recent evi-dence indicates that they began to spread outsideAfrica around 100,000 years ago.

The Spread of Homo Sapiens Sapiens By 30,000B.C., Homo sapiens sapiens had replaced the Nean-derthals, who had largely died out, possibly as aresult of conflict between the two groups.

The spread of these first modern humans was aslow process, but by 10,000 B.C., members of theHomo sapiens sapiens subgroup of the species Homosapiens could be found throughout the world. Allhumans today, whether they are Europeans, Aus-

tralian Aborigines (A•buh•RIJ•NEES), or Africans,belong to the same subgroups of human beings.

Summarizing Identify and describethe three stages of early human development.

The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age

Just as people do today, Paleolithicpeoples used technological innovations, including stonetools, to change their physical environment.The term Paleolithic Age is used to designate the

early period of human history from approximately2,500,000 to 10,000 B.C. in which humans used simplestone tools. Paleolithic is Greek for “old stone,” and the Paleolithic Age is sometimes called the OldStone Age.

For hundreds of thousands of years, humanbeings lived in small communities, seeking to sur-vive by hunting, fishing, and gathering in an oftenhostile environment. Over a long period of time,Paleolithic peoples learned how to create moresophisticated tools; how to use fire; and how to adaptto, and even change, their physical environment.Paleolithic peoples were primarily nomads (peoplewho moved from place to place) who hunted animalsand gathered wild plants for survival. They also cre-ated a human culture that included sophisticatedcave paintings.

Identifying What are the two mostimportant technological innovations of Paleolithic peoples?Reading Check

Reading Check

20

Although he was found in a glacier in theAlps, this Iceman actually died more than5,000 years after the Ice Age. Recent discov-eries prove that he was killed by an arrow.The cold mummified his remains. After the end of the last Ice Age (c. 8000 B.C.),what important change occurred thataltered the pattern of human living?

History

CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires 21

The Neolithic RevolutionDespite all of our technological

progress, human survival still depends on the system-atic growing and storing of food, an accomplishment ofpeople in the Neolithic Age. The end of the last Ice Age, around 8000 B.C.,

was followed by what is called the NeolithicRevolution—that is, the revolution that occurred inthe Neolithic Age, the period of human history from8000 to 4000 B.C. The word neolithic is Greek for “new stone.” The name New Stone Age is somewhatmisleading, however. The real change in the Neo-lithic Revolution was the shift from the hunting ofanimals and the gathering of food to the keeping ofanimals and the growing of food on a regular basis—what we call systematic agriculture.

The planting of grains and vegetables provided aregular supply of food. The domestication (adapta-tion for human use) of animals added a steady sourceof meat, milk, and wool. Animals could also be usedto do work. The growing of crops and the taming offood-producing animals created what historians callan agricultural revolution. Some believe this revolu-tion was the single most important development inhuman history.

The growing of crops on a regular basis gave riseto more permanent settlements, which historians callNeolithic farming villages. Once people began set-tling in villages or towns, they saw the need to buildhouses for protection and other structures for stor-age. Organized communities stored food and othermaterial goods, which encouraged the developmentof trade.

As village inhabitants mastered the art of farming,they gradually began to develop more complex soci-eties. As their wealth increased, these societies beganto create armies and to build walled cities. By 3000B.C., large numbers of people were concentrated inthe river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, andChina. This would lead to a whole new pattern forhuman life.

Identifying What changes resultedfrom the development of systematic agriculture?Reading Check

,

00 B.C.

5000 B.C.

8000 B.C.

5500 B.C.

4000 B.C.

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

TROPIC OF CANCER

ARCTIC CIRCLE

EQUATOR

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NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHAMERICA

AFRICA

ASIA

EUROPE

AUSTRALIA

3,000 kilometers0Winkel Tripel projection

3,000 miles0

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Spread of Farming to 1 B.C.

Agriculture developed independently in different regions of the world.

1. Interpreting Maps Between what latitudes did the earliest farming develop?

2. Applying Geography Skills What geologic, geo-graphic, and climatic factors influenced the developmentof farming?

Development of systematic agriculture:

Before 5000 B.C.Before 2000 B.C.Before 1 B.C.

BarleyBeansMaize

RiceWheat

The Emergence of CivilizationIn general terms, the culture of a people is the way

of life that they follow. As we have seen, early humanbeings formed small groups that developed a simpleculture that enabled them to survive. As humansocieties grew and became more complex, a newform of human existence—called civilization—cameinto being.

A civilization is a complex culture in which largenumbers of human beings share a number of com-mon elements. Historians have identified the basiccharacteristics of civilizations. Six of the most impor-tant characteristics are cities, government, religion,social structure, writing, and art.

22 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

An increase in food production in the river valleysof Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China led to a sig-nificant growth in human population and the rise ofcities. Growing numbers of people, the need to main-tain the food supply, and the need to build walls fordefense soon led to the growth of governments inthese new urban civilizations.

All of the new urban civilizations developed reli-gions to explain the workings of the forces of natureand the fact of their own existence. Rituals weredeveloped to please the gods and goddesses. A newsocial structure based on economic power also arose.Rulers and an upper class of priests, government offi-cials, and warriors dominated society.

Abundant food supplies created new opportuni-ties, enabling some people to work in occupationsother than farming. The demand of the upper classfor luxury items encouraged artisans and crafts-people to create new products.

Writing was an important feature in the life ofthese new civilizations. Above all, rulers, priests,merchants, and artisans used writing to keep accu-rate records. Significant artistic activity was anotherfeature of the new civilizations. Temples and pyra-mids were built as places for worship or sacrifice, orfor the burial of kings and other important people.The emergence of civilizations was a dramatic newstage in the story of world history.

Describing Describe the relationshipbetween an increase in food production and the rise of citiesand governments.

Reading Check

The First RazorArchaeologists have unearthed evidence thatprehistoric men were shaving as early as18,000 B.C. Some cave paintings portraybeardless men, and early gravesites containsharpened shells that were the first razors.Later, people hammered razors out of bronzeand eventually out of iron.

Checking for Understanding1. Define hominid, nomad, Neolithic Rev-

olution, systematic agriculture, domesti-cation, civilization.

2. Identify Neanderthals, Homo sapienssapiens.

3. Locate Africa, Europe.

4. Contrast the evidence that archaeolo-gists and anthropologists use to under-stand the past to that used byhistorians.

5. List the species that emerged duringthe different stages of humandevelopment.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze Does the development of sys-

tematic agriculture by Neolithic peoplesafter the end of the last Ice Age deserveto be called a revolution? Why was theshift to systematic agriculture importantto the development of civilization?

7. Sequencing Information Create a dia-gram like the one below to show howchanges during the Neolithic Revolutionled to the emergence of civilization. Inthe last box, write where the first civi-lizations appeared.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the cave painting of a bison

shown on page 19. Many cave paint-ings from the prehistoric period depictsimilar subjects. What do these paint-ings tell us about the lifestyles of pre-historic peoples?

9. Expository Writing Much disagree-ment exists about the interpretationof available data on the origins ofhumankind. Discuss and documentat least two different points of view besides the one presented in the text.

civilization

CHAPTER 1 The First Humans 23

Understanding Cause and EffectWhy Learn This Skill?

It is important to understand how or why anevent occurred. What action or situation caused aparticular event? What were the effects or conse-quences of that particular action or situation?

Learning the SkillUnderstanding cause and effect involves consid-

ering how or why an event occurred. A cause is theaction or situation that produces an event. An effectis the result or consequence of an action or situation.To identify cause-and-effect relationships, followthese steps:

• Identify two or more events or developments.

• Decide whether or not one event caused theother. Look for “clue words” such as because, ledto, brought about, produced, as a result of, so that,since, and therefore.

• Identify the outcomes of events.

Making a graphic organizer can help you under-

stand cause and effect. Read the passage below andexamine the graphic organizer:

Unlike the floods on Mesopotamia’s rivers, theflooding of the Nile was gradual and predictable.The river was seen as life-giving, not life-threaten-ing. Whereas massive, state-controlled irrigation andflood control were needed in Mesopotamia, thesmall villages along the Nile easily managed smallirrigation systems that required no state assistance.As a result, Egyptian civilization tended to remainmore rural. Many small villages were gathered alonga narrow band of land on both sides of the Nile.

Practicing the SkillOn a separate piece of paper, make a cause-and-

effect diagram for each of the following statements.Some of the statements may have more than onecause and effect.

1 Irrigation and drainage ditches made it possibleto grow crops on a regular basis. The resultingabundance of food supplies enabled large num-bers of people to live together in cities.

2 Under Hammurabi’s code, a son found guilty ofstriking his father had his hand cut off.

3 The Hyksos invaded Egypt and defeated theEgyptian soldiers. Their new rulers taught theconquered Egyptians how to use bronze tomake tools and weapons.

23

Cause and Effect

Cause

Effects• Villages used small irrigation

systems that required no stateassistance.

• Egyptian civilization tended toremain rural, with many smallvillages gathered along the Nile.

• The flooding of the Nile wasgradual and predictable.

Applying the Skill

Read an account of a current event in your communityas reported in a local newspaper. Determine at leastone cause and one effect of that event. Show the cause-and-effect relationship in a chart.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

Western Asia and Egypt

24

1200 B.C.Israelites emerge as a distinct group of people

Preview of Events!3500 B.C. !3000 B.C. !2500 B.C. !2000 B.C. !1500 B.C. !1000 B.C. !500 B.C.

Guide to ReadingMain Ideas• The civilizations of western Asia and

Egypt contributed technology andbeliefs that affect our lives today.

• The rise and fall of empires is an impor-tant part of history.

Key Termscity-state, empire, patriarchal, cuneiform,dynasty, hieroglyphics, Judaism,monotheistic

People to IdentifySargon, Hammurabi, Menes, KingSolomon, Cyrus

Places to LocateTigris River, Euphrates River, FertileCrescent, Nile River, Lower Egypt, UpperEgypt, Jerusalem, Royal Road

Preview Question1. How did geography affect the civiliza-

tions of western Asia and Egypt?

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthis section complete a chart like the onebelow listing the geographic locations of the civilizations of western Asia andEgypt.

1792 B.C.Hammurabi comes to power

3100 B.C.King Menes unitesUpper and Lower Egypt

559 B.C.Cyrus rules Persian Empire

c. 3000 B.C.Sumerians establishindependent city-states

Western Asia Egypt

Shepherd and his sheep on the banks of the Nile River

The Nile was crucial to the development of Egyptian civilization.

“The Egyptian Nile,” wrote one Arab traveler, “surpasses all the rivers of the worldin sweetness of taste, in length of course and usefulness. No other river in the worldcan show such a continuous series of towns and villages along its banks.” In their“Hymn to the Nile,” Egyptians wrote of their reliance on the river: “The bringer offood, rich in provisions, creator of all good, lord of majesty, sweet of fragrance. . . .[The Nile] makes the granaries wide, and gives things to the poor. He who makesevery beloved tree to grow.”

—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, James B. Pritchard, 1969

Egypt, like Mesopotamia, was one of the first river valley civilizations. Like the peo-ple of Mesopotamia, the Egyptians left records of their developing civilization.

The City-States of Ancient MesopotamiaThe ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates

Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the rivers.” Mesopotamia was at theeastern end of an area known as the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from theMediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Because this land had rich soil and abun-dant crops, it was able to sustain an early civilization.

Farming in ancient Mesopotamia could be done only when people controlledthe flow of the rivers. Irrigation and drainage ditches—part of a large-scale sys-tem of water control—made it possible to grow crops on a regular basis. Theresulting abundance of food enabled large numbers of people to live together in cities.

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires24

The first states in Mesopotamia were city-states(cities that came to have political and economic controlover the surrounding countryside). They were createdby the Sumerians, a people whose origin remains amystery. By 3000 B.C., the Sumerians had established anumber of independent city-states in southernMesopotamia, including Eridu, Ur, and Uruk.

The most prominent building in a Sumerian citywas the temple dedicated to the chief god or goddessof the city. The Sumerians believed that gods andgoddesses owned the cities. The people devotedmuch of their wealth to building temples, as well aselaborate houses for the priests and priestesses whoserved the gods.

Priests and priestesses, who supervised the tem-ples and their property, had a great deal of power.Eventually, however, ruling power passed into thehands of kings. Kings led armies and organizedworkers for the irrigation projects on whichMesopotamian farming depended.

Explaining What role did geographyplay in the development of Mesopotamian civilization?

Empires in Ancient MesopotamiaAs the number of Sumerian city-states grew

and the city-states expanded, new conflicts arose.

Reading Check

City-state fought city-state for control of land andwater. Located on the flat land of Mesopotamia, theSumerian city-states were also open to invasion byother groups.

To the north of the Sumerian city-states were theAkkadians (uh•KAY•dee•uhnz). Around 2340 B.C.,Sargon, leader of the Akkadians, overran the Sumer-ian city-states and set up the first empire in worldhistory. An empire is a large political unit or state,usually under a single leader, that controls manypeoples or territories. Empires are often easy to createbut difficult to maintain. The rise and fall of empiresis an important part of history.

Attacks from neighboring hill peoples eventuallycaused the Akkadian Empire to fall. Its end by 2100B.C. brought a return to warring city-states. Not until1792 B.C. did a new empire come to control much ofMesopotamia. Leadership came from Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad, where Hammurabi (HA•muh•RAH•bee) came to power. He gained control ofSumer and Akkad, thus creating a new Mesopo-tamian kingdom. As ruler, Hammurabi built temples,encouraged trade, and brought an economic revivalto his land. After his death in 1750 B.C., however,Hammurabi’s empire fell to new invaders.

Evaluating Why was it so easy forSargon and his army to invade the Sumerian city-states?Reading Check

25CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires 25

The Royal Standard of Ur is a box, createdabout 2700 B.C., thatdepicts different Sumer-ian scenes. This panelshows a royal celebration following a military victory.

for a tooth”) was a fundamental part of this systemof justice.

The law code encouraged the proper performanceof work with what could be called consumer protec-tion laws. Builders were held responsible for thebuildings they constructed. If a house collapsed andcaused the death of the owner, the builder was put todeath. If the collapse caused the death of the son ofthe owner, the son of the builder was put to death. Ifgoods were destroyed, they had to be replaced andthe house rebuilt at the builder’s expense.

The largest category of laws in the Code of Ham-murabi focused on marriage and the family. Parents

26 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

The Code of HammurabiHammurabi is remembered for his

law code, a collection of 282 laws. Many of its ideas weresimilar to later Israelite codes. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system

of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses weresevere, and they varied according to the social classof the victim. A crime against a member of the upperclass (a noble) by a member of the lower class (acommoner) was punished more severely than thesame offense against a member of the lower class.The principle of retaliation (“an eye for an eye, tooth

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Ancient Mesopotamia

Several important cultures and civiliza-tions developed in Mesopotamia.

1. Interpreting Maps What mountainrange forms the eastern border of theFertile Crescent?

2. Applying Geography Skills Inwhich direction do the Tigris andEuphrates Rivers flow? In which direc-tion does the Nile flow?

Ancient shoreline

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arranged marriages for their children. After marriage,the two parties signed a marriage contract. Without acontract, no one was considered legally married.

Society in ancient Mesopotamia was patriarchal—that is, Mesopotamian society was dominated by men.Hammurabi’s code makes it clear that women had farfewer privileges and rights in marriage than did men.

A woman’s place was in the home. If she failed tofulfill her duties, her husband had legal grounds fordivorce. If a wife was not able to bear children ortried to leave home to engage in business, her hus-band could divorce her. A wife who was a “gadabout. . . neglecting her house [and] humiliating her hus-band,” could be drowned.

Fathers ruled their children as well as their wives.Obedience was expected: “If a son has struck hisfather, he shall cut off his hand.” If a son committeda serious enough offense, his father could disinherithim. Obviously, Hammurabi’s law code coveredalmost every aspect of people’s lives.

Identifying Identify at least threeaspects of Mesopotamian society as revealed by the Code ofHammurabi.

The Creativity of the SumeriansThe Sumerians invented the oldest writing sys-

tem. Historians also credit them with many techno-logical innovations.

Writing Around 3000 B.C., the Sumerians created acuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) system of writing.Using a reed stylus (a tool for writing), they madewedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets, whichwere then baked or dried in the sun. Once dried,these tablets lasted a very long time. Several hundredthousand tablets have been found. They have been avaluable source of information for modern scholars.

Writing was important because it allowed a societyto keep records and to pass along knowledge fromperson to person and generation to generation. Writ-ing also made it possible for people to communicateideas in new ways. This is especially evident in TheEpic of Gilgamesh, a Mesopotamian poem that recordsthe exploits of a legendary king named Gilgamesh.

Technology The Sumerians also invented severaltools and devices that made daily life easier andmore productive. They developed the wagon wheel,for example, to help transport people and goods fromplace to place. The potter’s wheel to shape contain-ers, the sundial to keep time, and the arch used in

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construction are other examples of Sumerian technol-ogy. The Sumerians were the first to make bronze outof copper and tin, creating finely crafted metalwork.

The Sumerians also made outstanding achieve-ments in mathematics and astronomy. In math, theydevised a number system based on 60. Geometry wasused to measure fields and to erect buildings. Inastronomy, the Sumerians charted the heavenly con-stellations. A quick glance at your watch and its divi-sion into 60 minutes in an hour should remind you ofour debt to the Sumerians.

Identifying Name two major inven-tions of the Sumerians and tell how those inventions affect ourlives today.

The Course of Egyptian HistoryThe Nile is a unique river, beginning in the heart of

Africa and coursing northward for more than 4,000miles (6,436 km). It is the longest river in the world.Before it empties into the Mediterranean, the Nilesplits into two major branches. This split forms a tri-angular territory, the delta. The Nile Delta is calledLower Egypt; the land upstream, to the south, is calledUpper Egypt. Egypt’s important cities developedat the tip of the delta, the point at which the Niledivides.

Egyptian history can be divided into three majorperiods: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, andthe New Kingdom. These were periods of long-termstability marked by strong leadership, freedom frominvasion, the building of temples and pyramids, andconsiderable intellectual and cultural activity. Betweenthe periods of stability were ages of political chaos andinvasion, known as the Intermediate periods.

The history of Egypt begins around 3100 B.C.,when Menes (MEE•NEEZ) the king united the vil-lages of Upper and Lower Egypt into a single king-dom and created the first Egyptian royal dynasty. Adynasty is a family of rulers whose right to rule ispassed on within the family.

The Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom, which lastedfrom around 2700 to 2200 B.C., was an age of pros-perity and splendor. Like the kings of the Sumeriancity-states, the monarchs of the Old Kingdom werepowerful rulers over a unified state. Among the var-ious titles of Egyptian monarchs, that of pharaoh(originally meaning “great house” or “palace”) even-tually became the most common.

Kingship was a divine institution in ancient Egyptand formed part of a universal cosmic order: “What

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27CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

History

The mummy of Ramses theGreat has remained intactfor 3,000 years. Ramses,who ruled Egypt from 1279to 1213 B.C., was nearly 90when he died. What mightmedical investigators dis-cover about Egyptian lifefrom this mummy?

is the king of Upper and Lower Egypt? He is a god bywhose dealings one lives, the father and mother of allmen, alone by himself, without an equal.” In obeyingtheir pharaoh, subjects believed that they were help-ing to maintain a stable world order.

The Pyramids One of the great achievements ofEgyptian civilization, the building of pyramids,occurred in the time of the Old Kingdom. Pyramidswere built as part of a larger complex of buildingsdedicated to the dead—in effect, a city of the dead.The area included several structures: a large pyra-mid for the pharaoh’s burial; smaller pyramids forhis family; and several mastabas, rectangular struc-tures with flat roofs used as tombs for the pharaoh’sofficials.

To preserve the physical body after death, theEgyptians practiced mummification, a process ofslowly drying a dead body to prevent it from rotting.This process took place in workshops run by priests,primarily for the wealthy families who could affordit. Workers first removed the liver, lungs, stomach,and intestines and placed them in four special jarsthat were put in the tomb with the mummy. Thepriests also removed the brain by extracting itthrough the nose. They then covered the corpse witha natural salt that absorbed the body’s water. Later,they filled the body with spices and wrapped it withlayers of linen soaked in resin. At the end of theprocess, which took about 70 days, a lifelike mask

28 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

was placed over the head and shoulders of themummy. The mummy was then sealed in a case andplaced in its tomb.

Pyramids were tombs for the mummified bodiesof pharaohs and their families. The largest and mostmagnificent of all the pyramids was built under KingKhufu (KOO•FOO). Constructed at Giza around 2540B.C., the famous Great Pyramid of King Khufu covers13 acres (5.3 ha), measures 756 feet (230 m) at eachside of its base, and stands 481 feet (147 m) high.

Guarding the Great Pyramid at Giza is a hugestatue carved from rock, known as the Great Sphinx.This colossal statue is 240 feet (73 m) long and 66 feet(20 m) high. It has the body of a lion and a humanhead. The head is believed by many to be a likenessof Khufu’s son Khafre, who ordered the statue’sconstruction.

The Middle Kingdom The Old Kingdom’s collapsewas followed by a period of chaos that lasted about150 years. Eventually, a new royal dynasty gainedcontrol of all Egypt and began the Middle Kingdom,a period of stability lasting from about 2050 to 1652B.C. Egyptians later portrayed the Middle Kingdomas a golden age—an age of stability.

One feature of the Middle Kingdom was a newconcern of the pharaohs for the people. Pharaohs ofthe Middle Kingdom undertook a number of helpfulprojects. The draining of swampland in the NileDelta provided thousands of acres of new farmland.

HatshepsutRuled 1503–1482 B.C.Egyptian pharaoh

Hatshepsut was the daughter of thepharaoh Thutmose I. She married her half-brother, who became the pharaoh ThutmoseII. When he died, Hatshepsut assumed the fullpower of pharaoh. Statues show Hatshepsutclothed and bearded as a king would be. Shewas addressed as “His Majesty.”Hatshepsut’s reign was a prosperous one. She is bestknown for the temple dedicated to herself at Deir elBahri on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes. One of theinscriptions she had placed there reads: “Now my heartturns to and fro, in thinking what will the people say,they who shall see my monument in later years, andshall speak of what I have done.”

The digging of a canal to connect the Nile to the RedSea aided trade and transportation.

The New Kingdom The Middle Kingdom came toan end around 1652 B.C. with the invasion of Egyptby a group of people from western Asia known to theEgyptians as the Hyksos (HIK•SAHS). The Hyksosused horse-drawn war chariots and overwhelmedthe Egyptian soldiers, who fought from donkey carts.

For almost a hundred years, the Hyksos ruledmuch of Egypt. The conquered Egyptians learned agreat deal, however, from their conquerors. From theHyksos, the Egyptians learned to use bronze in themaking of their farming tools and their weapons. TheEgyptians also mastered many of the military skillsof the Hyksos, especially the use of horse-drawn warchariots.

Eventually, a new dynasty of pharaohs used thenew weapons to drive out the Hyksos and reuniteEgypt. The New Kingdom was established andlasted from approximately 1567 to 1085 B.C. Thisreunification launched the Egyptians along a newmilitaristic path. During the period of the New King-dom, Egypt created an empire and became the mostpowerful state in Southwest Asia.

Massive wealth boosted the power of the NewKingdom pharaohs. The Egyptian rulers showedtheir wealth by building new temples. Hatshepsut—the first woman to become pharaoh—built a greattemple at Deir el Bahri, near Thebes.

The New Kingdom was not without troubles,however. New invasions in the thirteenth centuryB.C. by the “Sea Peoples,” as Egyptians called them,drove the Egyptians back within their old frontiersand ended the Egyptian Empire. The New Kingdomitself collapsed in 1085 B.C.

29CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

The Egyptians learned much, including the use of war chariots, from the Hyksos.

For the next thousand years, Egypt was domi-nated by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and finallyMacedonians after the conquest of Alexander theGreat (see Chapter 2). In the first century B.C., thepharaoh Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt’sindependence. However, her involvement withRome led to her defeat and suicide, and Egyptbecame a province in Rome’s mighty empire.

Contrasting What were the majordifferences between the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom,and the New Kingdom?

Society in Ancient EgyptOver a period of thousands of years, Egyptian

society maintained a simple structure. It was organ-ized like a pyramid, with the god-king at the top. Thepharaoh was surrounded by an upper class of noblesand priests, who joined in the elaborate rituals of thepharaoh’s life. The members of this ruling class ranthe government and managed their own landedestates. ; (See page 772 to read excerpts from Vizier Ptah-hotep’s An Egyptian Father’s Advice to His Son in the PrimarySources Library.)

Below the upper class were merchants, artisans,scribes, and tax collectors. Merchants carried on anactive trade up and down the Nile, as well as in townand village markets. Egyptian artisans made an

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30 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

Geography

Rivers

Natural Barriers

Religion

Government

Social Structure

Economy

Written Language

Mesopotamia

Fertile Crescent (Southwest Asia)

Tigris and Euphrates

Flat plains

Polytheistic

City-states; theocracy; largebureaucracy; kings ruled

Nobles, commoners, slaves

Farming and trade

Cuneiform

Egypt

Africa

Nile

Deserts, seas, cataracts

Polytheistic

Rural villages; dynasties;divine kings ruled

Upper classes, merchants,artisans, peasants

Farming and trade

Hieroglyphics

Comparing Life in Mesopotamia and Egypt

Ancient civilizations thrived in bothMesopotamia and Egypt.

1. Making Comparisons Create amap of Mesopotamia and Egypt.Develop icons to illustrate the differ-ences and similarities in the cultures.

2. Evaluating How did geographicaldifferences influence the develop-ment of these cultures?

incredible variety of well-built, beautiful goods: stonedishes; painted boxes; wooden furniture; gold, silver,and copper tools and containers; and linen clothes.

By far, the largest number of people in Egypt sim-ply worked the land. In theory, the pharaoh ownedall the land but granted portions of it to the subjects.Most of the lower classes were peasants who farmedthe land of these estates. They paid taxes in the formof crops to the pharaoh, nobles, and priests; lived insmall villages or towns; and provided military serv-ice and forced labor for building projects.

Summarizing List the social classesof ancient Egypt and identify their roles.

Writing, Art, and ScienceWriting in Egypt emerged around 3000 B.C. The

Greeks later called this earliest Egyptian writinghieroglyphics, meaning “priest-carvings” or “sacredwritings.” The hieroglyphic system of writing, whichused both pictures and more abstract forms, wascomplex. Learning and practicing it took much timeand skill. Hieroglyphic script was used for writing ontemple walls and in tombs. A highly simplified ver-sion of hieroglyphics, known as hieratic script, cameinto being. It used the same principles as hieroglyphicwriting, but the drawings were simplified by usingdashes, strokes, and curves to represent them. Hier-atic script was used for business transactions, recordkeeping, and the general needs of daily life. Egyptianhieroglyphs were at first carved in stone. Later, hier-atic script was written on papyrus, a paper madefrom the papyrus reed that grew along the Nile.

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Pyramids, temples, and other monuments bearwitness to the architectural and artistic achievementsof the Egyptians. Artists and sculptors were expectedto follow particular formulas in style. This gaveEgyptian art a distinctive look for thousands of years.For example, the human body was often portrayed asa combination of profile, semiprofile, and frontalview to accurately represent each part.

Egyptians also made advances in mathematicsand science. Mathematics helped them in buildingtheir massive monuments. Egyptians were able tocalculate area and volume and used geometry to sur-vey flooded land. The Egyptians developed an accu-rate 365-day calendar by basing their year not onlyon the movements of the moon, but also the brightstar Sirius. Egyptians also had medical expertise.Archaeologists have recovered directions fromEgyptian doctors for treating wounds and diseases.

Contrasting What are the differ-ences between hieroglyphics and hieratic script?

New Centers of Civilization: The Israelites

By 1500 B.C., much of the creative impulse of theMesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations wasbeginning to decline. By 1200 B.C., a power vacuumhad emerged in western Asia that allowed a numberof small states to emerge and flourish. The Israeliteswere one of these peoples. Though the Israelites didnot create an empire, their religion, Judaism, flour-ished as a world religion and later influenced thereligions of Christianity and Islam.

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31CHAPTER 1 The First HumansCHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

Conflict in PalestineConflict in Southwest Asia has a long history. When

the Israelites entered Canaan, around 1220 B.C., otherpeoples were already settled there. One of these peo-ples was the Philistines. For over two centuries, Israelitesand Philistines fought for control.

By 1020 B.C., the Israelites found themselves on theverge of being conquered by the Philistines. TheIsraelites decided to give up their loose tribal organiza-tion, choosing to unite behind one of their members—Saul—as king.

At first, Saul and the small army he organized weresuccessful. Around 1000 B.C., however, when they daredto meet the Philistines on an open plain, Saul and hisarmy were defeated.

David, the next king of the Israelites, defeated thePhilistines and established control over much of Canaan.Although the Israelites eventually would be conqueredand scattered, Canaan (later called Palestine) remainedthe Promised Land in the minds of many Jews.

In 1948, the independentJewish state of Israel was estab-lished in part of Palestine. About90 percent of the people inPalestine were Arabs who werenot eager to be governed by theIsraelis. Arab neighbors of thenew state were outraged. In1964, an Arab organization calledthe Palestine Liberation Organi-zation was founded to bringabout an independent Arab stateof Palestine. Conflict betweenArabs and Israelis over Palestinecontinues to this day.

! Conflict in the Middle East

Research the steps that have been taken to reach asettlement between the Israelis and Palestinian Arabsover the past five years. What actions have been themost successful? What are the most significant rea-sons that a lasting peace still does not exist?

The “Children of Israel” The Israelites were a groupof Semitic-speaking people. Much of the history andthe religious beliefs of the Israelites were eventuallyrecorded in written form in the Hebrew Bible, partsof which are known to Christians as the Old Testa-ment. According to their history, the Israelitesmigrated from Mesopotamia to the land that theyreferred to as Canaan. They followed a lifestyle basedon grazing flocks and herds rather than on farming.Then, because of drought, the Israelites migrated toEgypt, where they were enslaved until a leadernamed Moses led them out of Egypt. They wanderedfor many years in the desert of the Sinai Peninsulauntil they returned to Canaan.

Recent interpretations of archaeological evidencesometimes contradict the details of the biblicalaccount. What is generally agreed, however, is thatbetween 1200 and 1000 B.C., the Israelites emerged asa distinct group of people, organized in tribes, whoestablished a united kingdom known as Israel.

By the time of King Solomon, who ruled fromabout 970 to 930 B.C., the Israelites had established con-trol over much of Canaan and had made Jerusalem

into the capital of Israel.Solomon greatly strengthenedroyal power. He expanded thegovernment and army andencouraged trade. Solomon isbest known for building atemple in the city of Jerusalem.The Israelites viewed the templeas the symbolic center of their reli-gion and of the Israelite kingdomitself. Under Solomon, ancientIsrael was at the height of its power.

After Solomon’s death, tension between the north-ern and southern Israelite tribes led to the creation oftwo separate kingdoms—a northern kingdom ofIsrael and a southern kingdom of Judah. Both king-doms eventually fell to the large empires of theAssyrians and Babylonians. However, the people ofJudah survived, eventually becoming known as theJews and giving their name to Judaism. It became astateless religion based on the belief that God was notfixed to one particular land but instead was creatorand lord of the whole world.

King Solomon

The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel According toJewish beliefs, there is but one God, called Yahweh(YAH•WAY), the Creator of the world and everythingin it. In the Jewish view, God ruled the world; all peo-ples were his servants, whether they knew it or not.God had created nature but was not in nature. Thestars, moon, rivers, wind, and other natural phenom-ena were not gods, as other ancient peoples believed,but God’s handiwork. All of God’s creations could beadmired for their awesome beauty, but not wor-shipped as gods.

This powerful creator, however, was not removedfrom the life he had created. God was just and good,and he expected goodness from his people. If theydid not obey his will, they would be punished. How-ever, God was also full of mercy and love: “The Lordis gracious and compassionate, slow to anger andrich in love. The Lord is good to all; he has compas-sion on all he has made.” Each person could have apersonal relationship with this powerful being.

The Jews were monotheistic; they believed in oneGod. The covenant, law, and prophets were threeaspects of the Jewish religious tradition. The Jewsbelieved that during their exodus from Egypt, whenMoses led his people out of bondage toward thepromised land, God made a covenant, or contract,with them. Yahweh promised to guide them if theyobeyed the law of God stated in the Ten Command-

ments. According to the Bible, Yahweh gave thesecommandments to Moses on Mount Sinai.

The Jews believed that certain religious teachers,called prophets, were sent by God to serve as hisvoice to his people. The following selection from thebiblical book of Isaiah makes clear the prophets’ beliefthat unjust actions would bring God’s punishment.

“The Lord enters into judgment against the eldersand leaders of his people: ‘It is you who have ruinedmy vineyard; the plunder from the poor is in yourhouses. What do you mean by crushing my peopleand grinding the faces of the poor?’ declares the Lord,the Lord Almighty. The Lord says, ‘The women of Zionare haughty . . . with ornaments jingling on theirankles. Therefore the Lord will bring sores on theheads of the women of Zion; the Lord will make theirscalps bald. . . . Instead of fragrance there will be astench; . . . instead of fine clothing, sackcloth; insteadof beauty, branding. Your men will fall by the sword,your warriors in battle. The gates of Zion will lamentand mourn; destitute, she will sit on the ground.’”

The age of prophecy lasted from the eleventh tothe fifth centuries B.C., during the time when the peo-ple of Israel and Judah faced threats or endured con-quests by powerful neighbors. The prophets declaredthat faithlessness to God would bring punishmentand catastrophe, but that turning from evil wouldbring God’s mercy.

From the prophets came new concepts thatenriched the Jewish tradition. Later prophets, such as Isaiah, embraced a concern for all humanity. Allnations would someday come to the God of Israel.This vision included the end of war and the estab-lishment of peace for all the nations of the world. Inthe words of the prophet Isaiah:

“He will judge between the nations and will settledisputes for many people. They will beat their swordsinto plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks.Nation will not take up sword against nation, nor willthey train for war anymore.”

The prophets also cried out against social injustice.They condemned the rich for causing the poor to suf-fer. They denounced luxuries as worthless, and theythreatened Israel with prophecies of dire punishmentsfor these sins. They said that God’s command was tolive justly, share with one’s neighbors, care for thepoor and the unfortunate, and act with compassion.

The religion of Israel was unique among the reli-gions of western Asia and Egypt. The most dramaticdifference was the Jewish belief that there is only one

32 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

The Ten Commandments1. I am the Lord thy God . . . . Thou shalt have no

other gods before me.

2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any gravenimage . . . .

3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy Godin vain . . . .

4. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.

5. Honor thy father and thy mother . . . .

6. Thou shalt not kill.

7. Thou shalt not commit adultery.

8. Thou shalt not steal.

9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thyneighbor.

10. Thou shalt not covet . . . anything that is thyneighbor’s.

Source: Exodus 20:1–17

God for all peoples (monotheism). In all other religions at that time, only priests (and some rulers)had access to the gods. In the Jewish tradition, God’swishes, though communicated to the people throughprophets, had all been written down. No spiritualleader could claim that he alone knew God’s will.This knowledge was open to anyone who could readthe Torah.

Identifying Which aspect of theIsraelite culture had the greatest impact on Western civilization?

The Rise of New EmpiresA small and independent Israelite state could exist

only as long as no larger state dominated western

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Asia. New empires soon arose in Assyria and Persia,however, that conquered vast stretches of the ancientworld.

The Assyrian Empire The first of the new empireswas formed in Assyria, located on the upper TigrisRiver. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking peoplewho exploited the use of iron weapons to establish anempire by 700 B.C. The Assyrian Empire includedMesopotamia, parts of the Iranian Plateau, sectionsof Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt down toThebes. Within less than a hundred years, however,internal strife and resentment of Assyrian kingsbegan to tear the Assyrian Empire apart. In 612 B.C.,the empire fell to a coalition of Chaldeans and Medes(people who lived in the East), and was dividedbetween those two powers.

The Assyrians used terror as an instrument of war-fare. They regularly laid waste to the land in whichthey were fighting. They smashed dams; looted anddestroyed towns; set crops on fire; and cut downtrees, particularly fruit trees. The Assyrians wereespecially known for committing atrocities on their

33CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

500 kilometers0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

500 miles0

N

SEW

60°E40°E 50°E30°E

40°N

30°N

Nile

R.

Indu

sR

.

Tigris R.

Am

uDarya R.

Euphrates R

.

Arabian Sea

AralSea

Caspian

Sea

Red

Sea

PersianGulf

Mediterranean Sea

AegeanSea

Black Sea

A r a b i a nD e s e r t

Syr ianDeser t

Zag r o s M t s .

I r a n i a nP l a t e a u

Mesopotamia

Caucasus Mts .

Crete

Cyprus

ASIAMINOR

PERSIA

LYDIA

PHOENICIA

BABYLONIA

PALESTINE

SYRIA

EGYPT

GREECE

THRACE

LIBYA

I ND I A

Persepolis

Sardis

ByblosSidon

Tyre

Jerusalem

Thebes

Nineveh

SusaBabylon

Cyrus and his successors developed the Persian state intothe largest empire the world had ever seen.

1. Interpreting Maps Explain why the Royal Road wasconstructed and why it was constructed where it was.

2. Applying Geography Skills Using your text, identifythe areas added to the empire by Cyrus, Cambyses, andDarius. What problems might these rulers have encoun-tered as the empire grew?

Persian Empire, 500 B.C.

Persian EmpireRoyal Road

captives. King Ashurnasirpal recorded this accountof his treatment of prisoners: “3,000 of their combattroops I felled with weapons. . . . Many I took alive;from some of these I cut off their hands to the wrist,from others I cut off their noses, ears and fingers; Iput out the eyes of many of the soldiers. . . . I burnedtheir young men and women to death.”

The Persian Empire The Persians were an Indo-European people who lived in what is today south-western Iran. Primarily nomadic, the Persians wereorganized in groups until one family managed tounify them. One of the family’s members, Cyrus, cre-ated a powerful Persian state that stretched from AsiaMinor to western India.

Cyrus ruled from 559 to 530 B.C. In 539 B.C., heentered Mesopotamia and captured Babylon. Histreatment of Babylonia showed remarkable restraintand wisdom. Cyrus also issued an edict permittingthe Jews, who had been brought to Babylon earlier inthe century, to return to Jerusalem.

The people of his time called Cyrus “the Great.”Indeed, he must have been an unusual ruler for histime, a man who demonstrated much wisdom andcompassion in the conquest and organization of hisempire. Unlike the Assyrian rulers, Cyrus had a rep-utation for mercy. Cyrus had a genuine respect forother civilizations. In building his palaces, for exam-ple, he made use of Assyrian, Babylonian, and Egyp-tian designs and building methods.

Cyrus’s successors extended the territory of thePersian Empire. His son Cambyses (kam•BY•SEEZ)successfully invaded Egypt. Darius, who ruled from521 to 486 B.C., added a new Persian province inwestern India that extended to the Indus River. Hethen moved into Europe, conquering Thrace and cre-ating the largest empire the world had yet seen.

An efficient system of communication was crucialto sustaining the Persian Empire. Well-maintainedroads made it easy for officials to travel throughoutthe entire kingdom. The Royal Road stretched fromLydia to Susa, the chief capital of the empire. Like theAssyrians, the Persians set up way stations that pro-vided food and shelter, as well as fresh horses, for theking’s messengers.

In this vast system, the Persian king—the “GreatKing”—occupied an exalted position. The Great Kingheld the power of life and death.

After Darius, the Persian kings became more andmore isolated at their courts, surrounded by luxuriesprovided by the immense quantities of gold and sil-ver that flowed into their treasuries. As the Persiankings increased taxes to gain more wealth, loyalty tothe empire declined. Struggles over the throne weak-ened the monarchy (rule by a king or queen). Over aperiod of time, this bloody struggle for the throneweakened the empire and led to its conquest by theGreek ruler Alexander the Great during the 330s B.C.

Examining What caused the PersianEmpire to decline after the death of Darius?Reading Check

34 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

Checking for Understanding1. Define city-state, empire, patriarchal,

cuneiform, dynasty, hieroglyphics,Judaism, monotheistic.

2. Identify Sargon, Hammurabi, Code ofHammurabi, Menes, King Solomon,Cyrus.

3. Locate Tigris River, Euphrates River,Fertile Crescent, Nile River, Lower Egypt,Upper Egypt, Jerusalem, Royal Road.

4. Explain why Cyrus was called “theGreat.”

5. List the technological achievements of the civilizations of western Asia and Egypt.

Critical Thinking6. Describe What were the unique

aspects of the Jewish religion comparedto the other religions of western Asiaand Egypt? Include the impact ofJudaism on the development of Islamand Christianity.

7. Organizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to compare the OldKingdom, Middle Kingdom, and NewKingdom of Egypt.

Analyzing Visuals8. Compare the Royal Standard of Ur on

page 25 with the photo of the warchariot on page 29. What can historianslearn about the cultures of the Sumeri-ans and the Egyptians from these twopieces of art? What technologies andcultural values are evident?

9. Expository Writing Explain whyHammurabi’s code was a significantdevelopment. Develop a set of lawsbased on the Code of Hammurabithat would apply to your communitytoday. Explain why your code differsfrom that developed by Hammurabi,or why it is similar.

Dates AchievementsOld KingdomMiddle KingdomNew Kingdom

35

Hammurabi’s CodeALTHOUGH THERE WERE EARLIERMesopotamian legal codes, the Code of Hammurabi is the most complete. The law code emphasizes the principle of retribution (“an eye for an eye”) and punishments that vary according to social status. Punishmentscould be severe, as these examples show.

22: If a man has committed highway robbery and hasbeen caught, that manshould be put to death.

23: If the highwayman hasnot been caught, theman that has beenrobbed shall state onoath what he has lostand the city or districtgovernor in whoseterritory or district therobbery took placeshall restore to himwhat he has lost.

25: If fire broke out in afree man’s house anda free man, who wentto extinguish it, casthis eye on the goodsof the owner of thehouse and has appro-priated the goods ofthe owner of thehouse, that free manshall be thrown intothat fire.

196: If a free man hasdestroyed the eye of a member of the aristocracy, they shalldestroy his eye.

198: If he has destroyed the eye of a commoneror broken the bone of a commoner, heshall pay one mina of silver.

199: If he has destroyed the eye of a free man’sslave or broken the bone of a free man’sslave, he shall pay one-half his value.

229: If a builder constructed a house for a nobleman but did not make his workstrong, with the result that the house which he built collapsed and so has caused the death of the owner of thehouse, that builder shall be put to death.

232: If it has destroyed goods, he shallmake good whatever it destroyed;also, because he did not make thehouse strong that he built and itcollapsed, he shall reconstruct thehouse that collapsed at his ownexpense.

—The Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi’s code was written on astone monument, approximately sevenfeet (2.1 m) tall, called a stele. The uppersection of the stele shows Hammurabistanding in front of the seated sun god.

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. Explain the principle of retribution.2. According to the Code of Hammurabi, what was

most highly valued in Mesopotamian society? What was the least valued? Explain youranswers.

3. What is the guiding principle in theAmerican criminal justice system? Howdoes this compare with Hammurabi’sjustice?

India and China

Confucius wanted to promote good government in China. Confucius said:

“If the people be led by laws, and uniformity be imposed on them by punishments,they will try to avoid the punishment, but will have no sense of shame. If they be ledby virtue, and uniformity be provided for them by the rules of propriety, they will havethe sense of shame, and will become good.” He also said, “Let the ruler be filial andkind to all people; then they will be faithful to him. Let him advance the good andteach the incompetent; then they will eagerly seek to be virtuous.”

—The Chinese Classics, James Legge, 1893

Confucianism, an ancient Chinese philosophy, sought to spell out the principles thatwould create stability and order in society.

Early Civilization in IndiaIndia is a land of diversity. Today, about 110 languages and more than 1,000

dialects (varieties of language) are spoken in India. Diversity is also apparent in India’s geography. The Indian subcontinent, shaped like a triangle hangingfrom the southern ridge of Asia, is composed of a number of core regions, includ-ing mountain ranges, river valleys, a dry interior plateau, and fertile coastalplains.

As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, early civilization in India emerged in river val-leys. Between 3000 B.C. and 1500 B.C., the valleys of the Indus River supported aflourishing civilization. It extended hundreds of miles from the Himalaya, thehighest mountains in the world, to the coast of the Arabian Sea. Archaeologistshave found the remains of more than a thousand settlements in this region. Two

Voices from the Past

36 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires36

c. 500 B.C.Buddhism develops

202 B.C.Han dynasty begins

c. A.D.100Silk Road connects Chinaand Mesopotamia

Guide to Reading

Preview of Events

480 B.C.Gautama (theBuddha) dies

232 B.C.Asoka dies

!500 B.C. !400 B.C. !300 B.C. !200 B.C. !100 B.C. !A.D. 1 !A.D. 100

Main Ideas• The caste system was a set of rigid

social categories in Indian society.• Like other empires, Chinese dynasties

followed a rise-and-fall pattern.

Key Termscaste system, Hinduism, reincarnation,Buddhism, Mandate of Heaven, Dao, filialpiety, Confucianism

People to IdentifyAryans, Siddhartha Gautama, Asoka, QinShihuangdi, Confucius

Places to LocateIndia, Indus River, Hindu Kush, DeccanPlateau, China, Gobi

Preview Questions1. How did the caste system influence

the lives of people in ancient India?2. Why was the Mandate of Heaven

important to Chinese rulers?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast As you read thissection, prepare a Venn diagram like theone below to show the similarities anddifferences between Hinduism andBuddhism.

Confucius

Hinduism Buddhism

A priest-king and the restored city ofMohenjo-Daro are pictured. What elements of an advanced civilizationcan you find in these photos?

History

Eventually they extended their control throughoutall of India.

Society in Ancient India The conquest by theAryans had a lasting impact on Indian society. Out ofthe clash between conqueror and conquered came aset of social institutions and class divisions that haslasted in India, with only minor changes, to the pres-ent day.

The caste system of ancient India was a set of rigidsocial categories that determined not only a person’soccupation and economic potential, but also his orher position in society. There were five major divi-sions of Indian classes (known as castes in English) inancient times.

The priestly class, whose members were known asthe Brahmans, was usually considered to be at thetop of the social scale. They were in charge of the reli-gious ceremonies that were so important in Indiansociety. The second caste was the Kshatriyas (KSHA•tree•uhz), or warriors. The third-ranked caste inIndian society was the Vaisyas (VYSH•yuhz), orcommoners. The Vaisyas were usually the merchantswho engaged in commerce.

Below these three castes were the Sudras (SOO•druhz), who made up the great bulk of the Indianpopulation. Most Sudras were peasants, artisans, orpeople who worked at other forms of manual labor.They had only limited rights in society.

At the lowest level of Indian society—and in factnot even considered a real part of the caste system—

of the ruins, about 400miles (643.6 km) apart,were sites of whatonce were the majorcities of Harappa(huh•RA•puh) andMohenjo-Daro (moh•HEHN•joh DAHR•oh). An advanced civilization—known as Harappan or Indus civilization—flour-ished in these cities for hundreds of years.

The Arrival of the Aryans Eventually, floods, anearthquake, changes in climate, and even a change inthe course of the Indus River weakened the once-flourishing civilization in the Indus River valley.Invaders brought its final end.

Around 1500 B.C., a group of Indo-Europeannomadic peoples began to move out of their originalhomeland in central Asia. Known as the Aryans, theymoved south across the Hindu Kush mountain rangeinto the plains of northern India. They invaded andconquered the Harappans and created a new Indiansociety based on Aryan culture and institutions.

Like other nomadic peoples, the Aryans excelledat the art of war. Between 1500 and 1000 B.C., the

Aryan peoples graduallyadvanced eastward from theIndus Valley, across the fertileplain of the Ganges River.Later they moved southwardinto the Deccan Plateau.

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were the Untouchables. The Untouchables probablymade up about 5 percent of the total population ofancient India. The Untouchables were given menial,degrading tasks that other Indians would not accept,such as collecting trash and handling dead bodies.They were not considered human, and their verypresence was considered harmful to members of theother classes.

Summarizing What are the namesof the castes in Indian society?Reading Check

HinduismTwo of the world’s great

religions, Hinduism andBuddhism, began in India.Hinduism had its origins inthe religious beliefs of theAryan peoples who settledin India after 1500 B.C. Evi-dence about the religiousbeliefs of the Aryan peoplescomes from the Vedas,collections of hymns andreligious ceremonies that were passed down orallythrough the centuries byAryan priests and theneventually written down.

Early Hindus believedin the existence of a singleforce in the universe, aform of ultimate reality orGod, called Brahman. It wasthe duty of the individualself—called the atman—toseek to know this ultimatereality. By doing so, the selfwould merge with Brah-man after death.

By the sixth century B.C.,the idea of reincarnationhad appeared in Hindu-ism. Reincarnation is the

belief that the individual soul is reborn in a differentform after death. After a number of existences in theearthly world, the soul reaches its final goal in aunion with Brahman.

Important to this process is the idea of karma, theforce generated by a person’s actions that determineshow the person will be reborn in the next life.According to this idea, what people do in their cur-rent lives determines what they will be in their nextlives. In the same way, a person’s current status is notsimply an accident. It is a result of the person’sactions in a past existence.

The system of reincarnation provided a religiousbasis for the rigid class divisions in Indian society. Itjustified the privileges of those on the higher end ofthe scale. After all, they would not have these privi-leges if they were not deserving. At the same time,the concept of reincarnation gave hope to those loweron the ladder of life. The poor, for example, could

38 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

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The Aryans were nomadic peoples who moved throughIndia. Eventually, they controlled most of India.

1. Interpreting Maps What geographical feature enabledthe Aryans to end their nomadic lifestyle?

2. Applying Geography Skills Examine the pattern ofAryan migration. Why do you think the Aryans followedsuch a route?

2000–1500 B.C.

1500–1000 B.C.

1000–500 B.C.

Aryan migration:

Modern-day border

hope that if they behaved properly in this life, theywould improve their condition in the next.

How does one achieve oneness with God? Hindusdeveloped the practice of yoga, a method of trainingdesigned to lead to such union. (In fact, yoga means“union.”) The final goal of yoga was to leave behindthe cycle of earthly life and achieve union with Brah-man, seen as a kind of dreamless sleep.

Most ordinary Indians, however, could not easilyrelate to this ideal and needed a more concrete formof heavenly salvation. It was probably for this reasonthat the Hindu religion came to have a number ofhumanlike gods and goddesses, including threechief ones: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver,and Siva (SIH•vuh) the Destroyer. Many Hindusregard the multitude of gods as simply differentexpressions of the one ultimate reality, Brahman.However, the various gods and goddesses give ordi-nary Indians a way to express their religious feelings.Hinduism is the religion of the vast majority of theIndian people.

Comparing How do karma and yogarelate to reincarnation?

BuddhismIn the sixth century B.C., a new doctrine, called

Buddhism, appeared in northern India and soonbecame a rival of Hinduism. Buddhism was theproduct of one man, Siddhartha Gautama (sih•DAHR•tuh GOW•tuh•muh). Born around 563 B.C.,Siddhartha Gautama is better known as the Buddha, or “Enlightened One.”

In his lifetime, Siddhartha gained thousands ofdevoted followers. People would come to him seek-ing to know more about him. They asked, “Are you a god?”

“No,” he answered.“Are you an angel?”

“No.”“Are you a saint?”“No.”“Then what are you?”The Buddha replied,

“I am awake.”The religion of Buddhismbegan with a man whoclaimed that he hadawakened and seen theworld in a new way.

Siddhartha denied thereality of the material

Reading Checkworld. The physical surroundings of humans, hebelieved, were simply illusions. The pain, poverty,and sorrow that afflict human beings are caused bytheir attachment to things of this world. Once peoplelet go of their worldly cares, pain and sorrow can beforgotten. Then comes bodhi, or wisdom. (The wordbodhi is the root of the word Buddhism and of Sid-dhartha’s usual name—Gautama Buddha.) Achiev-ing wisdom is a key step to achieving nirvana, orultimate reality—the end of the self and a reunionwith the Great World Soul.

Siddhartha preached this message in a sermon tohis followers in the Deer Park at Sarnath (outsideIndia’s holy city of Banaras). It is a simple messagebased on the Four Noble Truths:

1. Ordinary life is full of suffering.2. This suffering is caused by our desire to satisfy

ourselves.3. The way to end suffering is to end desire for

selfish goals and to see others as extensions ofourselves.

4. The way to end desire is to follow the MiddlePath.

This Middle Path is also known as the EightfoldPath, because it consists of eight steps:

1. Right view We need to know the Four NobleTruths.

2. Right intention We need to decide what wereally want.

3. Right speech We must seek to speak truth and tospeak well of others.

39CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

The Buddha

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site atwh.mt.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 1–Student Web Activity to learn more aboutBuddhism.

4. Right action The Buddha gave five precepts:“Do not kill. Do not steal. Do not lie. Do not beunchaste. Do not take drugs or drink alcohol.”

5. Right livelihood We must do work that upliftsour being.

6. Right effort The Buddha said, “Those who fol-low the Way might well follow the example ofan ox that arches through the deep mud carry-ing a heavy load. He is tired, but his forward-looking gaze will not relax until he comes outof the mud.”

7. Right mindfulness We must keep our minds incontrol of our senses.

8. Right concentration We must meditate to see theworld in a new way.

Siddhartha accepted the idea of reincarnation, buthe rejected the Hindu division of human beings intorigidly defined castes based on previous reincarna-tions. He taught instead that all human beings couldreach nirvana as a result of their behavior in this life.

Contrasting How does Buddhismdiffer from Hinduism?

New Empires in IndiaFor most of the time between 325 B.C. and A.D. 500,

India was a land of many different states. Two majorempires, however, were able to create large, unifiedIndian states.

The first of these empires, the Mauryan Empire in northern India, lasted from 324 to 183 B.C. The

Reading Check

Mauryan Empire flourished during the reign ofAsoka (uh•SHOH•kuh), who ruled from 269 until232 B.C. Asoka is generally considered to be the great-est ruler in the history of India.

After his conversion to Buddhism, Asoka usedBuddhist ideals to guide his rule. He set up hospitalsfor both people and animals. He sent missionariesto China and other parts of Asia, thus introducingBuddhism to those areas.

Asoka was more than a kind ruler, however. Hiskingdom prospered as India’s role in regional tradebegan to expand. India became a major crossroads ina vast commercial network.

One of the most important parts of that networkwas the route known as the Silk Road, so calledbecause silk was China’s most valuable product. TheSilk Road reached from the city of Changan in Chinaacross central Asia to Mesopotamia, covering a dis-tance of about 4,000 miles (6,436 km). People usedcamels to transport goods through the mountainsand deserts of the Silk Road, winding up at Antioch,a port city on the Mediterranean Sea. At Antioch, lux-ury goods from the West were traded for luxurygoods from the East, which were then shipped acrossthe Mediterranean to Greece and Rome.

After Asoka’s death in 232 B.C., the MauryanEmpire began to decline, and in 183 B.C., it collapsed.India then fell back into disunity until a new empirearose. This new empire, the Gupta Empire, flour-ished from A.D. 320 until the late fifth century whenthe invasion of the Huns reduced its power.

Evaluating Why was Asoka consid-ered a great ruler?

Early Chinese CivilizationsOf the great civilizations discussed so far, China

was the last to come into full flower. By the time thefirst Chinese dynasty began to emerge as an organ-ized state, the societies in Mesopotamia, Egypt, andIndia had already reached an advanced level of civi-lization. One likely reason for China’s late arrivalwas its isolation from the emerging centers of cultureelsewhere in the world. Basically, China was forcedto develop on its own.

The Shang Dynasty The Shang dynasty (about1750 to 1045 B.C.) created the first flourishing Chinesecivilization. Under the Shang, China developedorganized government, a system of writing, andadvanced skills in the making of bronze vessels.

Reading Check

Stone pillars built during the rule ofAsoka were topped with decorativecapitals. The Lions of Sarnath capital(left) is famous for its beauty andBuddhist symbolism.

The Zhou dynasty claimed that it ruled Chinabecause it possessed the Mandate of Heaven. TheZhou believed that Heaven—which was an imper-sonal law of nature—kept order in the universethrough the Zhou king. Thus, he ruled over allhumanity by a mandate, or authority to command,from Heaven. The king, who was chosen to rulebecause of his talent and virtue, was then responsiblefor ruling the people with goodness and efficiency.

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Trade in the ancient world brought many cultures and king-doms together. The Silk Road was one of the main routes oftrade, allowing people and camels to move goods across4,000 miles (6,436 km).

1. Interpreting Maps How was the Silk Road differentfrom the other trade routes of the ancient world?

2. Applying Geography Skills What pattern do you seebehind the location of the ancient trade routes?

Silk Road

Other trade routes

The Chinese believed they could communicatewith supernatural forces to obtain help in worldlyaffairs. To do so, they made use of oracle bones.These were bones on which priests scratched ques-tions asked by the rulers, such as: Will the king bevictorious in battle? Will the king recover from hisillness? Heated metal rods were then stuck into thebones, causing them to crack. The priests interpretedthe shapes of the cracks as answers from the gods.The priests wrote down the answers, then the boneswere stored. The inscriptions on the bones havebecome a valuable source of information about theShang period.

The Zhou Dynasty During the Zhou dynasty (1045to 256 B.C.), China began to adopt many of the fea-tures that characterized Chinese civilization for cen-turies. Especially important politically was theMandate of Heaven.

CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires 41

The Mandate of Heaven, however, was double-edged. The king was expected to rule according tothe proper “Way,” called the Dao (DOW). It was hisduty to keep the gods pleased in order to protect thepeople from natural disaster or a bad harvest. If theking failed to rule effectively, he could be overthrownand replaced by a new ruler.

The Mandate of Heaven was closely tied to thepattern of dynastic cycles. From the beginning ofChinese history to A.D. 1912, China was ruled by aseries of dynasties. The Zhou dynasty, as we haveseen, lasted for almost eight hundred years. Othersdid not last as long, but the king of each dynastyruled with the Mandate of Heaven.

No matter how long the dynasties lasted, all wentthrough a cycle of change. A new dynasty establishedits power, ruled successfully for many years, and thenbegan to decline. The power of the central govern-ment would begin to collapse, giving rise to rebellionsor invasion. Finally, the dynasty collapsed and a newdynasty took over, beginning another dynastic cycle.

The Qin Dynasty The collapse of the Zhou dynastywas followed by two hundred years of civil war. Anew dynasty, known as the Qin, then created an eraof Chinese unity. The Qin dynasty was founded byQin Shihuangdi (CHIN SHUR•HWONG•DEE),meaning “the First Qin Emperor.”

Qin Shihuangdi, a person of much ambition, uni-fied the Chinese world, but his major foreign concernwas in the north. In the vicinity of the Gobi resided anomadic people known to the Chinese as theXiongnu (SYEN•NOO), who often made raids intoChinese territory. Qin Shihuangdi’s answer to thisproblem was to strengthen the existing system ofwalls to keep the nomads out.

Today we know Qin Shihuangdi’s project as theGreat Wall of China. However, the Great Wall that weknow today from films and photographs was built1,500 years after the rule of Qin Shihuangdi. Some ofthe walls built by Qin Shihuangdi do remain standing,but many of them were constructed of loose stone,sand, or piled rubble, and disappeared long ago.

42 CHAPTER 1 The First Civilizations and Empires

The Great Wall of China

This is not to say, of course, that Qin Shihuangdi’swall was not a massive project. It required the effortsof thousands of laborers. Many of them died whileworking there and, according to legend, are nowburied within the wall. The wall enabled the FirstQin Emperor to enjoy some success in fighting offthe threat of the nomads, but the victory was onlytemporary.

The Han Dynasty The First Qin Emperor was alsothe last of his dynasty. A new dynasty—the Han—then establis