Toward a New World - Mrs. Hulsey's Class · 2019-08-15 · 130 CHAPTER 4 Toward a New World Harnessing the Power of Water and Wind Watermills use the power of running water to do

126

Toward a New World

800–1500

Key EventsAs you read, look for the key events in the history of medieval Europe and the Americas.

• The revival of trade in Europe led to the growth of cities and towns.• The Catholic Church was an important part of European people’s lives during the

Middle Ages.• The Mayan, Aztec, and Incan civilizations developed and administered complex

societies.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• The revival of trade brought with it a money economy and the emergence of capitalism, which is widespread in the world today.

• Modern universities had their origins in medieval Europe.• The cultures of Central and South America reflect both Native American and Spanish

influences.

World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 4 video,“Chaucer’s England,” chronicles the development of civilization in medievalEurope.

800 875 950 1025 1100 1175

Notre Dame CathedralParis, France

c. 800Mayancivilizationdeclines

900Toltec controlupper YucatánPeninsula

1163Work begins onNotre Dame

1210Francis of Assisifounds theFranciscan order

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The cathedral at Chartres, about 50 miles (80 km) southwest of Paris, is but one of the many great Gothic cathedrals built in Europe during the Middle Ages.

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 4–Chapter Overview topreview chapter information.

wh.mt.glencoe.com1250 1325 1400 1475 1550 1625

Detail from the Triumph of Deathby Jan Brueghel the Elder

Montezuma

1535Pizarro conquers the Inca

1347The Black Deathbegins todevastate Europe

1502Montezumarules AztecEmpire

1325Aztec buildTenochtitlán onLake Texcoco

1453HundredYears’ Warends

Aztec turquoise mosaic serpent

Two Cultures Collideernal Díaz, who accompanied Hernán Cortés on a Span-ish expedition to Mexico in 1519, could not believe his

eyes when he saw the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán in centralMexico:

“When we beheld so many cities and towns on the water, andother large settlements built on firm ground, and that broad cause-way running so straight and perfectly level to the city of Tenochti-tlán, we were astonished because of the great stone towers andtemples and buildings that rose up out of the water.”

To some of the soldiers accompanying Cortés, “All thesethings seemed to be a dream.”

The Aztec were equally astonished, but for quite differentreasons. One wrote, “They [the Spanish] came in battle array,as conquerors, and the dust rose in whirlwinds on the roads,their spears glinted in the sun, and their flags fluttered likebats. Some of them were dressed in glistening iron from headto foot; they terrified everyone who saw them.”

Within a short time, the Spanish had destroyed the AztecEmpire. Díaz remarked, “I thought that no land like it wouldever be discovered in the whole world. But today all that Ithen saw is overthrown and destroyed; nothing is leftstanding.”

B Why It MattersOrganized societies had begun totake root in Mexico and CentralAmerica by 1200 B.C. After A.D. 800,civilizations flourished on theplateau of central Mexico, thelowland regions along the Gulf ofMexico and extending into modern-day Guatemala, and the centralAndes. The entry of Europeans intothe Americas around A.D. 1500 led to the destruction of thesecivilizations.

History and You Using theInternet and traditional printsources, research the cities, innova-tions, and cultural contributions ofthe Aztec, Mayan, and Incan civiliza-tions. Create a database that showsboth the similarities and the differ-ences among the three.

128

Mask of an Aztec god

1000sFood production expands;Guilds are organized

1305Pope moves to Avignon

1347Black Death begins todevastate Europe

1417Great Schismends

Guide to Reading

Europe in theMiddle Ages

Preview of Events

1500Europe has 80 universities

In 1075, Pope Gregory VII issued the following decrees:

“(1) That the Roman [Catholic] Church was founded by God alone. (2) That thepope alone can with right be called universal. (3) That he alone can depose or rein-state bishops. . . . (10) That [the pope’s] name alone shall be spoken in the churches.(11) That his name is the only name in the world. (12) That it may be permitted to himto depose emperors. . . . (19) That he himself may be judged by no one. . . . (22) Thatthe Roman Church has never erred; nor will it err to all eternity, the Scripture bearingwitness.”

—Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, Ernest F. Henderson, ed., 1892

The popes of the Catholic Church exerted their power, as is evident from thesedecrees. Christianity was a crucial element in medieval European society.

The New AgricultureIn the early Middle Ages, Europe had a relatively small population. In the High

Middle Ages (1000–1300), however, population increased dramatically. The num-ber of people almost doubled, from 38 million to 74 million. What caused thishuge increase in population? For one thing, conditions in Europe were more set-tled and peaceful after the invasions of the early Middle Ages had stopped. Thisincreased peace and stability also led to a dramatic expansion in food productionafter 1000.

Voices from the Past

Main Ideas• New farming practices and the growth

of trade created a vigorous Europeansociety.

• The Catholic Church played a dominantrole during the Middle Ages.

Key Termsmanor, serf, money economy, commer-cial capitalism, guild, heresy, Inquisition,sacrament, theology, new monarchies

People to IdentifyPope Gregory VII, Henry IV, Hildegard ofBingen, Saint Francis of Assisi

Places to LocateVenice, Papal States, Rome, Avignon

Preview Questions1. Why were Church leaders often at

odds with European rulers?2. How did the Black Death impact Euro-

pean society?

Reading StrategyCause and Effect Use a chart like the onebelow to show the effects of the growth oftowns on medieval European society.

CHAPTER 4 Toward a New World 129

!1000 !1100 !1200 !1300 !1400 !1500

Cause Effects

Growth ofTowns

Pope Gregory VII, who served as pope from 1073 to 1085

130 CHAPTER 4 Toward a New World

Harnessing the Power of Water and Wind

Watermills use the power of running water to do work.The watermill was invented as early as the second cen-

tury B.C. It was not used much in the Roman Empire becausethe Romans had many slaves and had no need to mechanize.In the High Middle Ages, watermills became easier to build asthe use of metals became more common. In 1086, the surveyof English land known as the Domesday Book listed six thousand watermills in England.

Located along streams, mills powered by water were at first used togrind grains for flour. Gradually, mill operators were able to mechanizeentire industries. Waterpower was used in mills for making cloth and insawmills for cutting wood and stone, as well as in the working of metals.

Rivers, however, were not always available. Where this was the case,Europeans developed windmills to harness the power of the wind. Histori-ans are unsure whether windmills were imported into Europe (they wereinvented in Persia) or designed independently by Europeans. Like thewatermill, the windmill was first used for grinding grains. Later, however,windmills were used for pumping water and even cutting wood. However,they did not offer as great a range of possible uses as watermills.

The watermill and windmill were the most important devices for har-nessing power before the invention of the steam engine in the eighteenthcentury. Their spread had revolutionary consequences, enabling Europeansto produce more food and to more easily manufacture a wide array ofproducts.

Comparing How are water and wind power used today?

Watermill on Certovka River in Prague, Czech Republic

Workings of a basic windmill

Wind shaft

Sail

Greatspurwheel

Breakwheel

Grindstone

In part, food production increased because achange in climate during the High Middle Agesimproved growing conditions. In addition, more landwas cultivated as peasants of the eleventh and twelfthcenturies cut down trees and drained swamps.

Changes in technology also aided the develop-ment of farming. The Middle Ages witnessed anexplosion of labor-saving devices. For example, thepeople of the Middle Ages harnessed the power ofwater and wind to do jobs once done by humans oranimals.

Many new devices were made from iron, whichwas mined in various areas of Europe. Iron was cru-cial in making the carruca, a heavy, wheeled plowwith an iron plowshare. Unlike earlier plows, thisplow could easily turn over heavy clay soils.

The shift from a two-field to a three-field system ofcrop rotation added to the increase in food produc-tion. In the early Middle Ages, peasants divided theirland into two fields of equal size. One field wasplanted, while the other was allowed to lie fallow, orremain unplanted, to regain its fertility. Now, how-ever, lands were divided into three parts. One fieldwas planted in the fall with grains (such as rye andwheat) that were harvested in summer. The secondfield was planted in the spring with grains (oats andbarley) and vegetables (peas and beans) that wereharvested in the fall. The third field was allowed tolie fallow. The three-field system meant that onlyone-third, rather than one-half, of the land lay fallowat any time. The rotation of crops also kept the soilfrom becoming exhausted so quickly.

The Manorial System Landholding nobles were amilitary elite whose ability to be warriors dependedon their having the leisure time to pursue the arts ofwar. Landed estates, located on the fiefs given to avassal by his lord, and worked by peasants, providedthe economic support that made this way of life pos-sible. ; (See page 773 to read excerpts from Christine de Pizan’sA Woman May Need to Have the Heart of a Man in the PrimarySources Library.)

A manor was an agricultural estate run by a lordand worked by peasants. Although free peasants con-tinued to exist, increasing numbers of free peasantsbecame serfs, or peasants legally bound to the land.Serfs had to provide labor services, pay rents, and besubject to the lord’s control. By 800, probably 60 per-cent of the people of western Europe were serfs.

Daily Life of the Peasants The life of peasants inEurope was simple. Their cottages had wood framessurrounded by sticks, with the spaces between sticksfilled with straw and rubble and then plastered overwith clay. Roofs were simply thatched.

The houses of poorer peasants consisted of a sin-gle room. Others, however, had at least two rooms—a main room for cooking, eating, and other activitiesand another room for sleeping. There was little pri-vacy in a medieval peasant household.

The position of peasant women in manorial soci-ety was both important and difficult. They wereexpected to work in the fields and at the same timebear children. Their ability to manage the householdmight determine whether a peasant family wouldstarve or survive in difficult times.

The seasons of the year largely determined peas-ant activities. Each season brought a new round oftasks. Harvest time in August and September wasespecially hectic. A good harvest of grains for makingbread was crucial to survival in the winter months. Inevery season, of course, the serfs worked not onlytheir own land but also the lords’ lands.

A new cycle of labor began in October, when peas-ants worked the ground for the planting of wintercrops. In November came the slaughter of excesslivestock, because there was usually not enough foodto keep the animals alive all winter. The meat wouldbe salted to preserve it for winter use. In Februaryand March, the land was plowed for the planting ofspring crops—oats, barley, peas, and beans. Earlysummer was a fairly relaxed time, although therewas still weeding and sheepshearing to be done.

Explaining How did the seasons ofthe year affect peasant activities?Reading Check

The Revival of TradeMedieval Europe was an agricultural society in

which most people lived in small villages. In theeleventh and twelfth centuries, however, a revival oftrade and an associated growth of cities changed theeconomic foundation of European civilization.

Cities in Italy took the lead in the revival of trade.While Venice and other northern Italian cities werebusy trading in the Mediterranean, the towns of Flan-ders (along the coast of present-day Belgium andnorthern France) were doing the same in northernEurope. By the twelfth century, a regular exchange ofgoods had developed between Flanders and Italy.

As trade increased, demand for gold and silvercoins arose at fairs and trading markets of all kinds.Slowly, a money economy—an economic systembased on money—began to emerge. New tradingcompanies and banking firms were set up to managethe exchange and sale of goods. All of these newpractices were part of the rise of commercial capital-ism, an economic system in which people invested intrade and goods in order to make profits. Some his-torians have called this the beginnings of a Commer-cial Revolution.

Analyzing How were increased tradeand the development of a money economy related?

The Growth of CitiesThe revival of trade led to a revival of cities. Towns

had greatly declined in the early Middle Ages,

Reading Check

131CHAPTER 4 Toward a New World

Robin Hood In 1261, a resident of Yorkshire, England,William De Fevre, was named an outlaw bythe Sheriff of Nottingham. De Fevre laterescaped to Sherwood Forest, where he joineda band of outlawed citizens and gained fameby robbing from rich figures of authority andgiving to the poor. Robin Hood, as he becameknown, was noted for treating the poor withgreat kindness and courtesy, in contrast to thecruelty that was often part of medieval life.

especially in Europe north of the Alps. Old Romancities had continued to exist but had dwindled in sizeand population.

With the revival of trade, merchants began to set-tle in the old Roman cities. They were followed bycraftspeople or artisans—people who had developedskills and saw a chance to make goods that could besold by the merchants. In the course of the eleventhand twelfth centuries, the old Roman cities camealive with new populations and growth.

Many new cities or towns were also founded,especially in northern Europe. Usually, a group ofmerchants built a settlement near a castle because itwas located along a trade route and because the lordof the castle would offer protection. If the settlementprospered and expanded, new walls were built to

protect it. The merchants and artisans of these citieslater came to be called burghers or bourgeoisie, fromthe German word burg, “a walled enclosure.”

Medieval cities were small in comparison witheither ancient or modern cities. A large trading citywould number about five thousand inhabitants. Ital-ian cities tended to be larger. Venice, Florence, andMilan each had more than 80,000 inhabitants. Eventhe largest European city, however, seemed smallalongside the Byzantine capital of Constantinople orthe Arab city of Baghdad.

Life in the Medieval City Medieval towns weresurrounded by stone walls. Because the walls wereexpensive to build, the space within was preciousand tightly filled. Thus, medieval cities had narrow,winding streets. Houses were crowded against oneanother, and the second and third stories were builtout over the streets.

The danger of fire was great. Dwellings were builtmostly of wood before the fourteenth century, andcandles and wood fires were used for light and heat.Medieval cities burned rapidly once a fire started.

The physical environment of medieval cities wasnot pleasant. The cities were often dirty and smelledfrom animal and human waste. Air pollution wasalso a fact of life from the ever present wood fires.

Industry and Guilds The revival of trade enabledcities and towns to become important centers formanufacturing a wide range of goods, such as cloth,metalwork, shoes, and leather goods. A host of craftactivities were carried on in houses located in thenarrow streets of the medieval cities.

From the eleventh century on, craftspeople beganto organize themselves into guilds, or business asso-ciations. Guilds came to play a leading role in theeconomic life of the cities. By the thirteenth century,there were guilds for tanners, carpenters, bakers, andartisans of almost every other craft. There were alsoseparate guilds for specialized groups of merchants,such as dealers in silk or money (banking).

Identifying List three physicalcharacteristics of medieval cities.

The Papal MonarchySince the fifth century, the popes of the Catholic

Church had claimed supremacy over the affairs ofthe Church. They had also gained control of territo-ries in central Italy that came to be known as thePapal States. This control kept the popes involved in

Reading Check


This illustration is from the famous manuscript, TrèsRiches Heures, an example of a medieval Book ofHours. Books of Hours were personal prayer booksthat often contained calendars noting importantdates of the year. What kinds of tools are themen and women in this illustration using to do their work? Which season is represented?

History

political matters, often at the expense of their spiri-tual duties.

During part of the 800s and 900s, the authority ofthe popes declined as the feudal lords became morepowerful. Bishops and abbots, for example, began toobtain their offices as grants from nobles, not thepope. As vassals, these church officials carried outthe usual feudal services, including military duties.

By the eleventh century, church leaders realizedthe need to be free from the interference of lords inthe appointment of church officials. Pope GregoryVII decided to fight this interference. Elected pope in1073, he was convinced that he had been chosen byGod to reform the Church. To pursue this aim, Gre-gory claimed that the pope’s authority extended overall the Christian world, including its rulers. He alsoasserted the right of the Church to appoint clergy andrun its own affairs. If rulers did not accept this, thepope would remove them.

Gregory VII soon found himself in conflict withHenry IV, the king of Germany, over these claims.For many years, German kings had appointed high-ranking clerics, especially bishops, as their vassals inorder to use them as administrators. Without them,the king could not hope to maintain his own powerin the face of the powerful German nobles.

In 1075, Pope Gregory issued a decree forbiddinghigh-ranking clerics from receiving their offices fromlay (secular) leaders. Although Henry IV opposedthe pope’s actions, the new papal policy ultimatelywon out.

The popes of the twelfth century did not give upthe reform ideals of Pope Gregory VII, and they wereeven more inclined to strengthen papal power andbuild a strong administrative system. During thepapacy of Pope Innocent III in the thirteenth century,the Catholic Church reached the height of its politicalpower. Innocent III’s actions were those of a manwho believed that he, the pope, was the supremejudge of European affairs. For example, he forced theking of France, Philip Augustus, to take back his wifeand queen after Philip had tried to have his marriageannulled.

Summarizing Briefly describe theconflict between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV.

New Religious OrdersIn the second half of the eleventh century and the

first half of the twelfth century, a wave of religiousenthusiasm seized Europe. This movement led to arise in the number of monasteries and the emergence

Reading Check


Hildegard of Bingen1098–1179 — Medieval abbess

Hildegard entered a religioushouse for females at the age ofeight, took her vows at fourteen, andtwenty-four years later becameabbess. After becoming abbess, shebegan to write an account of the mysticalvisions she had had for years. “A great flash oflight from heaven pierced my brain and . . . in thatinstant my mind was imbued with the meaning of thesacred books,” she wrote. Eventually she produced threebooks based on her visions. Hildegard gained fame as amystic and prophetess. Popes, emperors, kings, dukes,bishops, abbots, and abbesses eagerly sought heradvice. She wrote to them all as an equal and did nothesitate to be critical.

of new monastic orders. Both men and women joinedreligious orders in increasing numbers.

A New Activism In the eleventh century, one of the most important new orders to arise was the Cistercian (sis•TUHR•shuhn) order. It was foundedin 1098 by a group of monks who were unhappy withthe lack of discipline at their own Benedictinemonastery. Cistercian monastacism spread rapidlyfrom southern France into the rest of Europe.

The Cistercians played a major role in developinga new, activistic spiritual model for twelfth-centuryEurope. While Benedictine monks spent hours insidethe monastery in personal prayer, the Cistercianstook their religion to the people outside themonastery. More than any other person, SaintBernard of Clairvaux embodied the new spiritualideal of Cistercian monasticism: “Arise, soldier ofChrist, arise! Get up off the ground and return to thebattle from which you have fled! Fight more boldlyafter your flight, and triumph in glory!”

Women were also actively involved in the spiritualmovements of the age. The number of women joiningreligious houses grew dramatically. In the High Mid-dle Ages, most nuns were from the ranks of thelanded aristocracy. Female intellectuals found con-vents a haven for their activities. Most of the learnedwomen of the Middle Ages, especially in Germany,were nuns. This was true of Hildegard of Bingen,

who became abbess of a religious house for femalesin western Germany.

The Franciscans and Dominicans In the thirteenthcentury, two new religious orders emerged that had astrong impact on the lives of ordinary people. Theywere the Franciscans and the Dominicans.

The Franciscans were founded by Saint Francis ofAssisi. Francis was born to a wealthy Italian mer-chant family in Assisi. After having been capturedand imprisoned during a local war, he had a series ofdramatic spiritual experiences. These experiences ledhim to abandon all worldly goods and material pur-suits and to live and preach in poverty, working andbegging for his food. His love for others soonattracted a band of followers.

The Franciscans became very popular. They livedamong the people, preaching repentance and aidingthe poor. They undertook missionary work, firstthroughout Italy and then in all parts of Europe andeven in the Muslim world.

The Dominican order was founded by a Spanishpriest, Dominic de Guzmán. Dominic wanted todefend Church teachings from heresy—the denial ofbasic Church doctrines. Heretical movements becameespecially widespread in southern France. Dominicbelieved that a new religious order of men who livedlives of poverty and were capable of preaching effec-tively would best be able to attack heresy.

The Church’s desire to have a method of discover-ing and dealing with heretics led to the creation of acourt called the Inquisition, or Holy Office. The jobof this court was to find and try heretics, and it devel-oped a regular procedure to deal with them. TheDominicans became especially well known for theirroles as examiners of people suspected of heresy.

Analyzing What impact did the Fran-ciscans and Dominicans have on the lives of people in the thir-teenth century?

Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages

We have witnessed the actions of popes, bishops,monks, and friars. But what of ordinary people?What were their religious hopes and fears? Whatwere their religious beliefs?

The sacraments (Christian rites) of the CatholicChurch were central in importance to ordinary peo-ple. These rites, such as baptism, marriage, and theEucharist (Communion), made the Church a crucialpart of people’s lives from birth to death. The sacra-ments were seen as means for receiving God’s graceand were necessary for salvation. Only the clergycould administer the sacraments, so everyone whohoped to gain salvation depended on the clergy tohelp them achieve this goal.

Other church practices were also important to ordi-nary people. One practice involved veneration ofsaints. Saints were men and women who were consid-ered especially holy and who had achieved a specialposition in Heaven. Saints were able to ask for favorsbefore the throne of God for people who prayed tothem. Their ability to help and protect people in thisway made saints very popular with all Christians.

Jesus Christ’s apostles, of course, were recognizedthroughout Europe as saints. There were also numer-ous local saints who were of special significance to asingle area. The Italians, for example, had SaintNicholas, the patron saint of children, who is knowntoday as Santa Claus. New saints emerged rapidly,especially in the intensely religious atmosphere ofthe eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Medieval Christians also believed that a pilgrimageto a holy shrine produced a spiritual benefit. Thegreatest shrine, but the most difficult to reach, was theHoly City of Jerusalem. On the continent, two pilgrimcenters were especially popular in the High MiddleAges: Rome, which contained the relics of Saints Peterand Paul, and the town of Santiago de Compostela,supposedly the site of the tomb of the apostle James.

Reading Check


Saint Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order,rejected wealth for a life of simplicity and poverty.

Local attractions, such as shrines dedicated to theBlessed Virgin Mary, also became pilgrimage centers.

Examining Why were saints impor-tant to Christians in the High Middle Ages?

The Rise of UniversitiesThe university as we know it today, with faculty,

students, and degrees, was a product of the HighMiddle Ages. The word university comes from theLatin word universitas, meaning “corporation” or“guild.” Medieval universities were educationalguilds, or corporations, that produced educated andtrained individuals.

The First Universities The first European univer-sity appeared in Bologna (buh•LOH•nyuh), Italy. Agreat teacher named Irnerius, who taught Roman law,attracted students to Bologna from all over Europe.Most were men who were administrators for kingsand princes. (Women did not attend universities.)These men were eager to learn more about the law inorder to apply it in their own jobs.

Reading Check

The first university in northern Europe was theUniversity of Paris. In the second half of the twelfthcentury, a number of students and masters (teachers)left Paris and started their own university at Oxford,England. Kings, popes, and princes thought it honor-able to found new universities. By 1500, Europe had80 universities.

University Curricula Students began their studiesat a medieval university with the traditional liberalarts curriculum, or course of study. This curriculumconsisted of grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic,geometry, music, and astronomy.

Teaching at a medieval university was done by alecture method. The word lecture is derived fromLatin and means “to read.” Before the developmentof the printing press in the fifteenth century, bookswere expensive. Few students could afford them, soteachers read from a basic text and then added theirexplanations.

No exams were given after a series of lectures.When a student applied for a degree, however, hewas given an oral examination by a committee of


From Saint Nicholas to Santa ClausSaint Nicholas was a bishop in Asia Minor (present-

day Turkey) who lived during the 300s. He was knownas a generous man who was fond of children. During theMiddle Ages in Europe, Saint Nicholas became known asthe patron saint of children. He brought them simplegifts of fruit, nuts, and candies on his feast day, whichwas December 6. Saint Nicholas was portrayed as beingdressed in a red-and-white bishop’s robe and sporting aflowing white beard.

The Dutch brought the tradition of Saint Nicholaswith them to their colonies in the Americas. In America,however, changes occurred in the practices associatedwith Saint Nicholas. For example, in Holland childrenplaced wooden shoes next to the fireplace to be filledwith gifts from Saint Nicholas. In America, stockingswere hung by the chimney.

The Dutch words for Saint Nicholas were Sint Nikolass. In America, they became Sinte Klaas. After the

English took control of theDutch colonies, Sinte Klaasbecame Santa Claus. Laterin the nineteenth century,the physical appearance ofSanta Claus also changed.Saint Nicholas had beenportrayed as a tall, thinman. By the 1880s, SantaClaus had become the jollyfat man that we still knowtoday.

Think about a special holiday or event that you cele-brate every year. Has your celebration of that holidaychanged over the years? If so, how? Can you predictany future changes that might take place?

Saint Nicholas !

A new style, called Gothic, appeared in the twelfthcentury and was brought to perfection in the thir-teenth. The Gothic cathedral remains one of thegreatest artistic triumphs of the High Middle Ages.Two basic innovations of the twelfth century madeGothic cathedrals possible.

One innovation was the replacement of the roundbarrel vault of Romanesque churches with a combi-nation of ribbed vaults and pointed arches. Thischange enabled builders to make Gothic churcheshigher than Romanesque churches, as if they werereaching to God.

Another technical innovation was the flying but-tress—a heavy, arched support of stone, built ontothe outside of the walls. Flying buttresses made itpossible to distribute the weight of a church’svaulted ceilings outward and down. This eliminatedthe heavy walls that were needed in Romanesquechurches. Gothic cathedrals were built, then, with rel-atively thin walls, which could be filled with magnif-icent stained glass windows.

Explaining What were the benefitsof flying buttresses?

The Late Middle AgesIn this section, you will learn how

fourteenth-century Europe was devastated by the terri-ble plague known as the Black Death. This plaguegreatly decreased the population of Europe andbrought about significant economic and social changesin the late Middle Ages.The Middle Ages in Europe had reached a high

point in the thirteenth century. European society inthe fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries (the Late

Middle Ages), however, was challenged by anoverwhelming number of disastrous forces.Especially catastrophic was the BlackDeath.

The Black Death The Black Death wasthe most devastating natural disaster inEuropean history. One observer wrote that“father abandoned child, wife [abandoned]husband, one brother [abandoned] another,for the plague seemed to strike throughbreath and sight. And so they died.” Peoplewere horrified by the plague, an evil forcethey could not understand.

Reading Check


A university classroom in fourteenth-century Germany

teachers. These examinations were taken after a four-or six-year period of study. The first degree a studentcould earn was a bachelor of arts. Later, he mightreceive a master of arts.

After completing the liberal arts curriculum, a stu-dent could go on to study law, medicine, or theology.Theology—the study of religion and God—was themost highly regarded subject of the medieval univer-sity. A student who passed his final oral examinationsin one of these areas was granted a doctor’s degree.

Explaining Why were most earlyuniversity courses taught as lecture classes?

ArchitectureThe eleventh and twelfth centuries witnessed an

explosion of building in medieval Europe, especiallythe building of churches. The cathedrals of theeleventh and twelfth centuries were built in theRomanesque style. Romanesque churches were nor-mally built in the basilica shape used in the construc-tion of churches in the late Roman Empire. (Basilicaswere rectangular buildings with flat wooden roofs.)

Romanesque builders replaced the flat roofs withlong, round, stone-arched structures called barrelvaults. Because stone roofs were heavy, Romanesquechurches required massive pillars and walls to holdthem up. This left little space for windows, soRomanesque churches were dark inside.

Reading Check


History through Architecture

The evolution of architecture during the Middle Ages provided individuals with different ways to express their Christianfaith. The use of flying buttresses, shown in the exterior above,allowed medieval architects to create a feeling of upward move-ment in Gothic cathedrals, as seen in the interior on the right. What other features associated with Gothic cathedrals can you identify from these photographs?

Bubonic plague was the most common form of theBlack Death. It was spread by black rats infested withfleas carrying a deadly bacterium. Italian merchantsbrought the plague with them from Caffa, on theBlack Sea, to the island of Sicily in October 1347. Theplague had spread to parts of southern Italy andsouthern France by the end of 1347.

Usually, the path of the Black Death followedtrade routes. In 1348 and 1349, the plague spreadthrough France, Spain, the Low Countries (modernBelgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands), andGermany. It ravaged England in 1349 and expandedto northern Europe and Scandinavia. Eastern Europeand Russia were affected by 1351.

Out of a total European population of 75 million,possibly as many as 38 million people died of theplague between 1347 and 1351. Especially hard hitwere Italy’s crowded cities, where 50 to 60 percent ofthe people died. In England and Germany, entire vil-lages disappeared.

The death of so many people in the fourteenth cen-tury had severe economic consequences. Tradedeclined, and a shortage of workers caused a dra-matic rise in the price of labor. At the same time, thedecline in the number of people lowered the demandfor food, resulting in falling prices.

The Decline of Church Power The popes of theRoman Catholic Church reached the height of theirpower in the thirteenth century. Then, in the four-teenth century, a series of problems led to a decline inthe Church’s political and spiritual position.

The European kings had grown unwilling to acceptpapal claims of supremacy by the end of the thirteenthcentury. This is evi-dent in the strugglebetween Pope Boni-face VIII and KingPhilip IV of France.This struggle led aFrench pope in 1305to take up residencein Avignon (a•veen•YOHN), in southern France.

From 1305 to 1377, the popes lived in Avignon.Sentiments against the papacy grew during this time.The pope was the bishop of Rome, and it seemedimproper that he should reside in Avignon instead ofRome. When the pope did return in 1377, anotherdisaster soon struck. After his death, a group of Ital-ian cardinals elected an Italian pope, while a group ofFrench cardinals elected a French pope.

The existence of two popes caused the GreatSchism, which lasted from 1378 to 1417. It divided

FRANCE

ITALYRome

Avignon

Mediterranean Sea

Europe. France and its allies supported the Frenchpope, who had returned to Avignon. England andEngland’s allies supported the pope in Rome.

The pope was widely believed to be the trueleader of Christendom. When each line of popesdenounced the other as the Antichrist (one whoopposes Christ), people’s faith in both the papacyand the Church were undermined. Although theschism was finally ended in 1417, the Church hadlost much of its political and spiritual authority.


Checking for Understanding1. Define manor, serf, money economy,

commercial capitalism, guild, heresy,Inquisition, sacrament, theology, newmonarchies.

2. Identify Commercial Revolution, Pope Gregory VII, Henry IV, Cistercians,Hildegard of Bingen, Saint Francis ofAssisi, Black Death, Great Schism.

3. Locate Venice, Papal States, Rome,Avignon.

4. Describe the new religious orders cre-ated during the Middle Ages.

5. List the factors that led to increasedfood production.

Critical Thinking6. Explain How did the ambitions of

political rulers and the Catholic Churchcome into conflict during the MiddleAges?

7. Compare and Contrast Use a tablelike the one below to note the differ-ences between the Romanesque andGothic styles of church architecture.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the image of the medieval

university classroom on page 136. Inwhat ways was the educational processdifferent in medieval universities than it is now? What elements of the tradi-tional course of study in universities ofthe Middle Ages still exist in Americanhigh schools and colleges today?

Political Crisis and Recovery War and politicalinstability were also problems of the Late MiddleAges. The Hundred Years’ War between England andFrance, which lasted from 1337 to 1453, was the mostviolent struggle during this period. It took the effortsof a simple peasant girl, Joan of Arc, to help theFrench armies and finally bring an end to the war.

In the fourteenth century, France, England, andother European states faced serious problems. In thefifteenth century, recovery set in as rulers attemptedto reestablish the centralized power of monarchies.Some historians have spoken of these reestablishedstates as the new monarchies. This term appliesespecially to the monarchies of France, England, andSpain at the end of the fifteenth century.

Unlike France, England, and Spain, the HolyRoman Empire did not develop a strong monarchicalauthority. The failures of German emperors in thethirteenth century had made Germany a land of hun-dreds of independent states.

In eastern Europe, rulers also found it difficult tocentralize their states. Religious differences troubledthe area as Roman Catholics, Eastern OrthodoxChristians, and other groups confronted one another.Since the thirteenth century, Russia had been underthe domination of the Mongols. Gradually, theprinces of Moscow rose to prominence. Under thegreat prince Ivan III, a new Russian state was born.

Explaining How did European rulersbegin to recover politically after the Hundred Years’ War?Reading Check

Romanesque Gothic

The Battle of Crécy was the first major battle of the HundredYears’ War.

9. Persuasive Writing Take the posi-tion of either Pope Gregory VII orKing Henry IV of Germany. Arguewhether popes or kings should havethe authority to appoint clergy tohigh-ranking positions.

Analyzing Primary and Secondary SourcesWhy Learn This Skill?

Suppose for a moment that a devastating tor-nado has struck a nearby town. On television thatnight, you watch an interview with an eyewitness.The eyewitness begins to cry as she describes thedestruction of her own home and neighborhood. The next day, you read a newspaper account thatdescribes the tornado’s path. Is one of theseaccounts of the same event more accurate than the other?

Learning the SkillTo determine the accuracy of an account, you

must analyze its source. There are two main types ofsources—primary and secondary.

Primary sources are produced by eyewitnesses toevents. Diaries, letters, autobiographies, interviews,artifacts, and paintings are primary sources. Becauseprimary sources convey personal experiences, theyoften include the emotions and opinions of partici-pants in an event.

Secondary sources use information gathered fromothers. Newspapers, textbooks, and biographies aresecondary sources. Secondary sources, written later,help us to understand events in a larger context ortime frame.

To determine reliability of a source, consider thetype of source you are using. For a primary source,determine who the author is and when the materialwas written. An account written during or immedi-ately after an event is often more reliable than onewritten years later. For a secondary source, look forgood documentation. Researchers should cite theirsources in footnotes and bibliographies.

For both types of sources you also need to evalu-ate the author. Is this author biased? What back-ground and authority does he or she have? Finally,compare two accounts of the same event. If theydisagree, you should question the reliability of thematerial and conduct further research to determinewhich can be corroborated with other reliablesources.

Practicing the SkillRead the following excerpts and answer the

questions:

“Finally the two groups met. . . . When all wasready Montezuma placed his feet, shod in gold-soled,gem-studded sandals, on the carpeted pavementand . . . advanced to an encounter that would shapeboth his own destiny and that of his nation. . . . Montezuma had servants bring forward two neck-laces of red shells hung with life-size shrimps madeof gold. These he placed around Cortés’s neck.”

—from Cortés by William Weber Johnson, 1975

“When we had arrived at a place not far from thetown, the monarch raised himself in his sedan. . . .Montezuma himself was sumptuously attired, had on a species of half boot, richly set with jewels, and whose soles were made of solid gold. . . . Montezuma came up to Cortés, and hung about his neck a chaste necklace of gold, most curiouslyworked with figures all representing crabs.”

—from an account by Conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo, 1519

1 What is the general topic of the two sources?

2 Identify the primary source.

3 Is one account more reliable than the other? If so, why? How do you know?

139

Applying the Skill

Find two accounts of a recent event or a historicalevent. Analyze the reliability of each. Be sure to docu-ment how you reached your conclusions about the reli-ability of the sources.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

The Americas

Preview of Events

One Sioux sacred woman said:

“All of this creation is sacred, and so do not forget. Every dawn as it comes is aholy event, and every day is holy, for the light comes from your Father Wakan-Tanka,and also you must always remember that the two-leggeds and all the other peopleswho stand upon this earth are sacred and should be treated as such.” A Native Amer-ican song says, “The whole Southwest was a House Made of Dawn. It was made ofpollen and of rain. The land was old and everlasting. There were many colors on thehills and on the plain, and there was a dark wilderness on the mountains beyond. The land was tilled and strong and it was beautiful all around.”

—The Native Americans: An Illustrated History, Betty and Ian Ballantine, eds., 1993

As these words illustrate, the first peoples who inhabited North America had greatrespect for the earth and its creatures.

Early AmericansThe Americas make up an enormous land area, stretching about nine thousand

miles (more than fourteen thousand km) from the Arctic Ocean in the north toCape Horn at the tip of South America. Over this vast area are many differentlandscapes: ice-covered lands, dense forests, fertile river valleys ideal for huntingand farming, coastlines for fishing, lush tropical forests, and hot deserts.

Between 100,000 and 10,000 years ago, the last Ice Age produced low sea levelsthat in turn created a land bridge in the Bering Strait between the Asian and NorthAmerican continents. Many scholars believe that small communities of people

Voices from the Past


c. 1200 B.C.Olmec civilizationemerges

A.D. 300Mayan civilizationbegins

A.D. 1440Incan ruler Pachacutibuilds empire

A.D. 1519Cortés landsat Veracruz

Guide to Reading

A.D. 1200Toltec civilizationdeclines

Main Ideas• Because of the variety of climate and

geographic features, many different cul-tures emerged in the Americas.

• The Maya, Aztec, and Inca developedsophisticated civilizations in Mesoamer-ica and South America.

Key TermsMesoamerica, epidemic

People to IdentifyHernán Cortés, Montezuma, Pachacuti,Francisco Pizarro

Places to LocateGulf of Mexico, Yucatán Peninsula, Tikal,Chichén Itzá, Tenochtitlán

Preview Questions1. Who were the first inhabitants of the

Americas?2. What forces ended the Aztec and

Incan civilizations?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Create achart describing the characteristics ofMayan, Aztec, and Incan cultures.

PeopleLocationReligionArchitectureYear/Reason Declined

Sioux warrior shirt withbeads and fringe

!1200 B.C. !A.D. 300 !A.D. 1100 !A.D. 1200 !A.D. 1300 !A.D. 1400 !A.D. 1500

from Asia crossed this land bridge. Most likely, theywere hunters who were pursuing the herds of bisonand caribou that moved in search of grazing landinto North America as the glaciers receded. Thesepeople became the first Americans.

The peoples of North America created a remark-able number of different cultures. Inuits, MoundBuilders, Anasazi, Plains Amerindians, and Iroquoisall developed flourishing societies that responded intheir own unique ways to the environmental condi-tions that they faced.

Summarizing According to scholars,why did hunters cross the land bridge into North America?

The Maya and ToltecSigns of civilization in Mesoamerica—a name we

use for areas of Mexico and Central America thatwere civilized before the Spaniards arrived—appeared around 1200 B.C. with the Olmec. Located inthe hot and swampy lowlands along the coast of theGulf of Mexico south of Veracruz, the Olmec peoplesfarmed along the muddy riverbanks in the area. TheOlmec had large cities that were centers for their reli-gious rituals. Around 400 B.C., the Olmec civilizationdeclined and eventually collapsed.

Reading Check

The Maya Later, on the Yucatán Peninsula, a majorcivilization arose—that of the Maya, which flour-ished between A.D. 300 and 900. It was one of themost sophisticated civilizations in the Americas. TheMaya built splendid temples and pyramids anddeveloped a complicated calendar. Mayan civiliza-tion came to include much of Central America andsouthern Mexico.

Mayan cities were built around a central pyramidtopped by a shrine to the gods. Nearby were othertemples, palaces, and a sacred ball court. Some schol-ars believe that urban centers such as Tikal (inpresent-day Guatemala) may have had a hundredthousand inhabitants.

Mayan civilization was composed of city-states,each governed by a hereditary ruling class. TheseMayan city-states were often at war with each other.Ordinary soldiers who were captured in battlebecame slaves. Captured nobles and war leaderswere used for human sacrifice.

Rulers of the Mayan city-states claimed to bedescended from the gods. The Mayan rulers werehelped by nobles and a class of scribes who may alsohave been priests. Mayan society also includedtownspeople who were skilled artisans, officials,and merchants. Most of the Mayan people were peas-ant farmers.


300 kilometers0Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

300 miles0

N

S

EW

95°W100°W 90°W 85°W

20°N

15°N

YucatánPeninsulaValley

of Mexico

PaCIFICOCEaN

Gulf ofMexico

CaribbeanSea

LakeTexcoco

VeracruzTeotihuacánTlaxcala

Tula

Tenochtitlán

La Venta

Palenque Tikal

Chichén Itzá

Cultures of Mesoamerica, 900 B.C.–A.D. 1500

Mayan civilization,A.D. 900Aztec civilization,A.D. 1500

Olmec heartland,900 B.C.

Toltec heartland,A.D. 900

Mesoamerican civilizationsdeveloped in Mexico andCentral America.

1. Interpreting MapsWhich cultures developedin the same heartland?

2. Applying GeographySkills Identify any pat-tern(s) you see in thelocations of the differentcities, and explain whythe pattern(s) may havedeveloped.

The Maya created a sophisticated writing systembased on hieroglyphs, or pictures. Mayan hiero-glyphs remained a mystery to scholars for centuries.Then, modern investigators discovered that manypassages contained symbols that recorded dates in the Mayan calendar known as the Long Count.This calendar was based on a belief in cycles of cre-ation and destruction. According to the Maya, ourpresent world was created in 3114 B.C. and is sched-

uled to complete itsdownward cycle onDecember 23, 2012.

The Mayan civiliza-tion in the central Yuca-tán Peninsula eventuallybegan to decline. Expla-nations for the declineinclude invasion, internalrevolt, or a natural disas-ter such as a volcaniceruption. A more recenttheory is that overuse ofthe land led to reduced

crop yields. Whatever the case, Mayan cities wereabandoned and covered by dense jungle growth.They were not rediscovered until the nineteenth andtwentieth centuries.

The Toltec The capital of the Toltec Empire was atTula, built on a high ridge northwest of present-dayMexico City. The Toltec were a fierce and warlikepeople who extended their conquests into the Mayanlands of Guatemala and the northern Yucatán. TheToltec were also builders who constructed pyramidsand palaces. They controlled the upper YucatánPeninsula from another capital at Chichén Itzá forseveral centuries, beginning around A.D. 900. Inabout 1200 their civilization, too, declined.

Describing How was Mayan civiliza-tion organized and governed?

The AztecThe origins of the Aztec are uncertain. Sometime

during the twelfth century A.D., however, they begana long migration that brought them to the Valley of

Reading Check


The Deadly Games of Central America

Mayan cities contained ball courts.Usually, a court consisted of a

rectangular space surroundedby walls with highlydecorated stonerings. The wallswere covered withimages of war andsacrificial victims. The contestantstried to drive a solid rubber ballthrough these rings. Ball players,usually two or three on a team,used their hips to propel theball (they were not allowed touse hands or feet). Players

donned helmets, gloves, andknee and hip protectorsmade of hide to protectthemselves against thehard rubber balls.

Because the stone ringswere placed 27 feet

(more than 8 m)above the ground, ittook considerableskill to score a goal.Some scholarsbelieve that makinga goal was so rare

This Mayan athlete is shownwearing protective padding.

HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 4–Student Web Activityto learn more aboutearly civilizations in theAmericas.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

Mexico. They eventually established their capital,beginning in 1325, at Tenochtitlán (tay•NAWCH•teet•LAHN), on an island in the middle of Lake Tex-coco, now the location of Mexico City.

For the next hundred years, the Aztec built theircity. They constructed temples, other public build-ings, and houses. They built roadways of stone acrossLake Texcoco to the north, south, and west, linkingthe many islands to the mainland. While they werebuilding their capital city, the Aztec consolidatedtheir rule over much of what is modern Mexico.

By 1500, as many as four million Aztec lived in theValley of Mexico and the surrounding valleys of cen-tral Mexico. Power in the Aztec state was vested inthe hands of the monarch, who claimed that he wasdescended from the gods.

At the center of the capital city of Tenochtitlán wasa massive pyramid dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, godof the sun. A platform at the top held an altar for per-forming human sacrifices.

In 1519, a Spanish force under the command ofHernán Cortés landed at Veracruz, on the Gulf ofMexico. Cortés marched to Tenochtitlán at the head

of a small body of troops (550 soldiers and 16 horses).The Aztec monarch Montezuma (also spelled Mocte-zuma) offered gifts of gold to the foreigners whenthey arrived.

Eventually, tensions arose between the Spaniardsand the Aztec. Within a year, the forces of Cortés hadhad destroyed the Aztec pyramids, temples, andpalaces. Tenochtitlán was no more.

Identifying What was the capital of the Aztec civilization? What is the name of the modern-daycity located there?

The IncaIn the fifteenth century, another remarkable civi-

lization—that of the Inca—flourished in SouthAmerica. In the 1440s, under the leadership of thepowerful ruler Pachacuti, the Inca launched a cam-paign of conquest that eventually brought the entireregion under their control.

Pachacuti and his immediate successors, Topa Incaand Huayna Inca (the word Inca means “ruler”),extended the boundaries of the Incan Empire as far as

Reading Check


that players were rewarded withclothing and jewelry from the watching crowds.

The exact rules of the game areunknown, but we do know that itwas more than a sport. The ballgame had a religious meaning. Theball court was a symbol of the world,and the ball represented the sun and the moon. Apparently, it wasbelieved that playing the game oftenwould produce better harvests. Theresults of the game were deadly. Thedefeated players were sacrificed inceremonies held after the end of the game. Similar courts have beenfound at sites throughout CentralAmerica, as well as present-day Arizona and New Mexico.

CONNECTING TO THE PAST

1. Summarizing Why was great skill required of theathletes who played the Mayan ball game?

2. Describing Explain the symbolism of the Mayanball game.

3. Writing about History Research the gladiatorialcontests of ancient Rome. How were those contestssimilar to the Mayan ball games?

A present-day soccermatch featuring

Brazil and Canada

Ecuador, central Chile, and the edge of the Amazonbasin. The empire included perhaps twelve millionpeople. At the top of the system was the emperor,who was believed to be descended from Inti, the sun god.

The Incan state was built on war, so all young menwere required to serve in the Incan army. With sometwo hundred thousand members, the army was thelargest and best armed in the region.

The Inca also built roads. A system of some 24,800miles (around 40,000 km) of roads extended from theborder of modern-day Colombia to a point south ofmodern-day Santiago, Chile. Two major roadways

extended in a north-southdirection, one through theAndes and the other along thecoast, with connecting routesbetween them.

The Incan Empire was stillflourishing when the firstSpanish expeditions arrived inthe central Andes. In 1531,Francisco Pizarro and a smallband of about 180 men landedon the Pacific coast of SouthAmerica. Pizarro brought steelweapons, gunpowder, andhorses. The Inca had none ofthese.

The Incan Empire experi-enced an epidemic (an out-break of disease that spreadsrapidly) of smallpox. Like the

Aztec, the Inca had no immunities to European dis-eases. All too soon, smallpox was devastating entirevillages. Even the Incan emperor was a victim.Armed only with stones, arrows, and light spears,the Incan soldiers were little challenge to theSpaniard’s charging horses, guns, and cannons.

Pizarro and his soldiers, aided by Incan allies,marched on Cuzco and captured the Incan capital. By1535, Pizarro had established a new capital at Limafor a new colony of the Spanish Empire.

Describing What were the accom-plishments of Pachacuti and his immediate successors?Reading Check


The 50-foot-tall stone walls of Cuzco were built without mortar by the Inca.

Checking for Understanding1. Define Mesoamerica, epidemic.

2. Identify Maya, Toltec, Aztec, HernánCortés, Montezuma, Inca, Pachacuti,Francisco Pizarro.

3. Locate Gulf of Mexico,Yucatán Penin-sula, Tikal, Chichén Itzá, Tenochtitlán.

4. Explain how Mayan hieroglyphics have helped us to understand Mayanculture.

5. List the accomplishments of the Aztecpeoples.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze Why would the Inca have

found it important to build an extensiveroad system?

7. Summarizing Information Create atable like the one below listing themajor civilizations and principle citiesthat developed in Mesoamerica.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the sculpture of a Mayan ath-

lete on page 142. What inferences canyou draw about the status of athletes inMayan culture from examining thissculpture?

9. Expository Writing Using the Inter-net or library sources, research thepolitical system of the Incan rulers.Write an essay in which you explainthe advantages and disadvantages ofthe Incan political system.

Mesoamerica Civilizations Cities

145

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. What did the quipu record? Whatwas it unable to record?

2. In what other ways and from what other sources was the history of the Inca preserved?

THE INCA DID NOT POSSESS A WRITTENlanguage. To record events and other aspects oftheir lives that they wished to remember, theyused a system of knotted strings, called the quipu.This is a sixteenth-century description of theprocess.

“These men recorded on their knots all thetribute brought annually to the Inca, specifyingeverything by kind, species, and quality. Theyrecorded the number of men who went to the wars,how many died in them, and how many were bornand died every year, month by month. In short theymay be said to have recorded on their knots every-thing that could be counted, even mentioning bat-tles and fights, all the [ambassadors who] had cometo visit the Inca, and all the speeches and argumentsthe king had uttered. But the purpose of the [diplo-matic visits] or the contents of the speeches, or anyother descriptive matter could not be recorded onthe knots, consisting as it did of continuous spokenor written prose, which cannot be expressed bymeans of knots, since these can only give numbersand not words. To supply this want they used signsthat indicated historical events or facts or the exis-tence of any [diplomatic visit], speech, or discussionin time of peace or war. Such speeches were com-mitted to memory and taught by tradition to theirsuccessors and descendants from father to son. . . .Another method too was used for keeping alive inthe memory of the people their deeds and the[ambassadors] they sent to the Inca and the replies[the king] gave them. The philosophers and sagestook the trouble to turn them into stories, no longerthan fables, suitable for telling to children, youngpeople, and the rustics of the countryside: they werethus passed from hand to hand and age to age, andpreserved in the memories of all. . . . Similarly theirpoets composed short, compressed poems, embrac-ing a history, or [a diplomatic visit], or the king’s

reply. In short, everything that could not be recordedon the knots was included in these poems, whichwere sung at their triumphs. Thus they remembered their history.”

—Garcilaso de la Vega, Royal Commentariesof the Incas: And General History of Peru

The Quipu

The quipu was made fromwoven strands of different-colored yarn.

CHAPTER 10 Europe in the Middle Ages

Using Key Terms1. To discover and deal with heretics, the Church created a

court called the .2. The Incan Empire experienced an of smallpox follow-

ing the arrival of the Europeans.3. The Dominicans attacked through effective

preaching.4. A was an agricultural estate owned by a lord and

worked by peasants.5. were peasants, legally bound to the land.6. In a barter is replaced by coins, or money.7. is the name for the regions of Mexico and Central

America that were settled before the arrival of the Spanish.8. An economic system where people invest in goods and

trade in order to make a profit is called .9. Specialized business associations for crafts and banking

were called .10. The were seen as necessary for salvation.11. The study of religion and God, or , was the most

highly regarded subject of medieval universities.

Reviewing Key Facts12. Culture Describe the life of a peasant in the Middle Ages.13. Government What were the “new monarchies”? In what

countries were they established?14. Culture Describe living conditions in a medieval city.

15. History How did the Church come to be involved in politi-cal matters and the feudal system?

16. Culture Why were most nuns from the ranks of landedaristocracy?

17. Religion What were some of the religious practices ofordinary people?

18. Economics What were the economic consequences of theBlack Death?

19. Culture What factors led to the decline of Church power?20. Geography Describe the region known as the Americas.21. Culture What type of building was common to several of

the Mesoamerican civilizations?22. Science and Technology What technology did the Spanish

bring to the Americas that contributed to the destruction ofearly civilizations?

23. History What are two of the reasons historians give for thedecline of Mayan civilization?

Critical Thinking24. Drawing Conclusions Tikal was a Mayan city that may

have had up to a hundred thousand inhabitants. What typeof organization, buildings, and services would be requiredfor such a large city?

25. Evaluating Why was the Catholic Church such a powerfulinfluence on the lives of people in the Middle Ages?

26. Making Comparisons Compare the design and function of Mesoamerican pyramids to Gothic cathedrals.

146

Cultural diffusion, innovation, and conflict marked the Middle Ages and the history of the Americas.

• Asian peoples cross a landbridge into North America.

• An exchange of goodsdevelops betweenFlanders and Italy.

• Aztec peoples migrate tothe Valley of Mexico inthe 1100s.

• Spanish forces sail to theAmericas.

• Increase in trade leads to thegrowth of European cities.

• The Catholic Church gainspolitical power in Europe.

• Four million Aztec live in oraround the Valley of Mexicoby 1500.

• Incan ruler Pachacutiexpands the Incan Empire.

• Universities are foundedin Europe.

• European churches arebuilt in the Gothic style.

• The Maya develop ahieroglyphic writing system.

• An extensive road system isconstructed in the IncanEmpire.

• The Great Schismundermines Churchauthority.

• England and France fightthe Hundred Years’ War.

• Spanish forces destroy Aztecand Incan civilizations.

• The Black Death andsmallpox kill millions inEurope and South America.

Movement Innovation ConflictGrowth

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Website at and click on Chapter 4–Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

What effect did the Black Death have on Europe?F The plague resulted in an increase in the number of

universities.G The plague led to an acute labor shortage that resulted

in higher wages.H The plague inspired new ideas about faith that led to the

formation of the Cistercian, Franciscan, and Dominicanorders.

J The plague sparked the Hundred Years’ War betweenFrance and England.

Test-Taking Tip: Although these questions mostly ask youabout what you’ve learned in class, using common sensecan help you arrive at the correct answers too. For exam-ple, to answer this question, think about what you knowabout the Black Death first and then read the answerchoices.

StandardizedTest Practice

CHAPTER 4 Toward a New World 147

Writing About History27. Expository Writing There are several explanations given in

the chapter for the decline of the Maya. Write an essay com-paring how overuse of the land may have led to the declineof the Maya with how the three-field system enhancedmedieval food production.

Analyzing SourcesRead the following letter from a medieval father to his son awayat a university.

“I have recently discovered that you live dissolutelyand slothfully, preferring license to restraint and play towork and strumming a guitar while the others are attheir studies, whence it happens that you have read butone volume of law while your more industrious com-panions have read several. Wherefore I have decided toexhort you to repent utterly of your dissolute and care-less ways, that you may no longer be called a wasterand your shame may be turned to good repute.”

28. What are the concerns of the father? What method does heuse to motivate his son?

29. Write a reply from the son to his father.

Applying Technology Skills30. Using the Internet Access the Internet to locate a Web site

that has information about a Mesoamerican civilization. Usea search engine to focus your search using key words orphrases from this chapter. Create a bulletin board using theinformation gathered from the Web site. Be sure to incorpo-rate photos, illustrations, and captions.

Analyzing Maps and Charts31. Select an event or invention from each category on the chart

at the top of the page. What was the effect of that event orinvention?

32. Which factor leading to increased farm productivity was notthe result of human intervention?

33. How did farming practices affect population?34. How would peaceful conditions contribute to an increase

in population?

• Climatic change favorable to growing conditions• Clearing of trees and draining of swamps by peasants• Use of iron to make labor-saving devices, including

scythes, axes, hoes, and wheeled plows• Harnessing of wind and water power• Shift from a two-field to a three-field system of crop rotation

• Gradual revival of trade, including the initiation of trade fairs• Slow emergence of an economy based on money (rather

than barter)• Movement of merchants and artisans to cities; organization

of craftspeople into guilds• Granting of basic liberties to townspeople by local lords• Rise of city self-government

• Peaceful conditions following the invasions of the earlyMiddle Ages

• Dramatic expansion in food production

Better Farming

Growth of Cities

Population Increase

Economic Changes in the Middle Ages

0126-0149 C04 SE-860705 11/4/03 7:38 PM Page 147

148

Five Poemsby Li Bo

Li Bo was born in A.D. 701 in western China.People began praising his beautiful poemseven before he reached adulthood.Throughout his life he traveled extensively inChina, amazing people with his ability tocompose insightful, touching poems. Hewrote about the world around him, the peo-ple he met, and the emotions he felt. By thetime of his death in A.D. 762, he wasregarded as one of China’s greatest poets, adistinction he still holds today.

In the following poems, Li Bo interpretsparting from a friend, life as a journey, andhis experience with his homeland.

Read to DiscoverAs you read, note the ways in which Li Bodraws the reader into his descriptions. Whatemotions do his poems evoke in you?

Reader’s Dictionarybrooklet: a small brook or creek

sparse: few and scattered

thrush: a type of small to medium sizedbird that is an excellent singer

Taking Leave of a FriendBlue mountains to the north of the walls,White river winding about them;Here we must make separationAnd go out through a thousand miles

of dead grass.

Mind like a floating wide cloud,Sunset like the parting of old acquaintancesWho bow over their clasped hands at a distance.Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.

Clearing at DawnThe fields are chill, the sparse

rain has stopped;The colours of Spring teem

on every side.With leaping fish the blue pond

is full;With singing thrushes the green

boughs droop.The flowers of the field have

dabbled their powdered cheeks;The mountain grasses are bent

level at the waist.By the bamboo stream the last

fragment of cloudBlown by the wind slowly

scatters away.

" This painting is titled SpringDawn over Elixir Terrace.

Li Bo was born in A.D. 701 in western China. People beganpraising his beautiful poems even before he reached adulthood.Throughout his life he traveled extensively in China, amazingpeople with his ability to compose insightful, touching poems.He wrote about the world around him, the people he met, andthe emotions he felt. By the time of his death in A.D. 762, he wasregarded as one of China’s greatest poets, a distinction he stillholds today.

In the following poems, Li Bo interprets parting from afriend, life as a journey, and his experience with his homeland.

Read to DiscoverAs you read, note the ways in which Li Bo draws the reader intohis descriptions. What emotions do his poems evoke in you?

Reader’s Dictionarybrooklet: a small brook or creek

sparse: few and scattered

thrush: a type of small to medium sized bird that is an excel-lent singer

Taking Leave of a FriendBlue mountains to the north of the walls,White river winding about them;Here we must make separationAnd go out through a thousand miles

of dead grass.

Mind like a floating wide cloud,Sunset like the parting of old acquaintancesWho bow over their clasped hands at a distance.Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing.

Clearing at DawnThe fields are chill, the sparse

rain has stopped;The colours of Spring teem

on every side.With leaping fish the blue pond

is full;

With singing thrushes the green boughs droop.

The flowers of the field have dabbled their powdered cheeks;

The mountain grasses are bent level at the waist.

By the bamboo stream the last fragment of cloud

Blown by the wind slowly scatters away.

Hard Is the JourneyGold vessels of fine wines,

thousands a gallon,Jade dishes of rare meats,

costing more thousands,I lay my chopsticks down,

no more can banquet,

Landscape of the Four Seasons by Shen shih-Ch’ung !

Hard Is the JourneyGold vessels of fine wines,

thousands a gallon,Jade dishes of rare meats,

costing more thousands,I lay my chopsticks down,

no more can banquet,And draw my sword and stare

wildly about me:

Ice bars my way to crossthe Yellow River,

Snows from dark skies to climbthe T’ai-hang Mountains!

At peace I drop a hookinto a brooklet,

At once I’m in a boatbut sailing sunward . . .

(Hard is the Journey,Hard is the Journey,So many turnings,And now where am I?)

So when a breeze breaks waves,bringing fair weather,

I set a cloud for sails,cross the blue oceans!

Listening to a Flute in Yellow Crane PavilionI came here a wandererthinking of homeremembering my far away Ch’ang-an.And then, from deep in Yellow Crane Pavilion,I heard a beautiful bamboo fluteplay “Falling Plum Blossoms.”It was late spring in a city by the river.

In the Mountains on a Summer DayGently I stir a white feather fan,With open shirt sitting in a green wood.I take off my cap and hang it on a jutting stone;A wind from the pine-tree trickles on my bare

head.

1. What detail in Taking Leave of a Friend reveals a custom specific to Li Bo’s times?

2. What happens between the beginning of the firststanza and the end of the second stanza of Hard Isthe Journey?

3. What is the significance of the last line of Listeningto a Flute in Yellow Crane Pavilion?

4. CRITICAL THINKING Li Bo describes beauty andpeace and luxury in Hard Is the Journey. Why doyou think he calls the journey “hard”?

Applications Activity Write a poem describing your hometown. Make sure to include a description of something unique to that area.

Landscape of the Four Seasons by Shen shih-Ch’ung !

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