The use of the learners’ own language in class:

why, when and how…?

ELT Academia Webinar, February 2020

Graham Hall

Northumbria University, UK

g.hall@northumbria.ac.ukELTacademia.com

Starting point….A ‘monolingual assumption’ in mainstream ELT

theory and practice since the late 19th Century

BUT

‘The literature’ does not necessarily reflect what actually happens in classrooms

Changing contexts … and a developing literature reassessing own-language use

Outline Key ideas and background

A word about terminology

(Your) first thoughts

The current situation

How did this come about?

Why revised interest in own-language use NOW?

Reasons for (and against) own-language use

Classroom practices

What the learners’ own-language(s) might be used for in the classroom:

• By teachers… (or when teaching)

• By learners

In the multilingual classroom: own-language practices & activities

A word about terminology First language / L1, ‘mother tongue’ and ‘native language’ ??

Second language/L2, ‘foreign language’ or ‘target language’ ??

So:

Own-language: ‘the language which the students already know and through which (if allowed), they can approach the new language’ (G. Cook 2010: xxii).

New language: ‘the language being learned’ (ibid.).

Your first thoughts: Own-language use in yourclasses/context

Should the learners’ own language be used in class?

Always…often…sometimes…rarely…never? When, what, by whom, and how?

How do you deal with these issues in your teaching, andwhy?

Are there any alternatives to your current practices? Andare these alternatives desirable or practicable in yourcontext?

What are the arguments for/against using the learners’own-language?

Current state of affairs (i) …Using both languages when possible is natural and

spontaneous…..

…and builds new knowledge on to existing knowledge,

…. and is inevitable.

…Current state of affairs (ii)BUT

In mainstream ELT linguistics and pedagogic theory and practice, e.g. CLT, TBLT, CLIL (See Hall, G. and G. Cook: 2012)…

…. own language use has been outlawed, ignored, ridiculed, and rejected, sometimes in extreme language…

“All my TESL students know that if they ever utter a word of [their own language] in the classroom I will burst into their classroom and strangle them in front of their students.” (Interview data, Marcia Fisk-Ong 2003)

While in the classroom “learners in their own minds keep the two [languages] in contact … teachers try to keep the two languages separate.” (Widdowson 2003:150)

How did this come about?Late 19th Century rejection of Grammar-

translation…

Two big moustaches….

The

academic

Reform

Movement

(Sweet

and others)

The commercial:

pioneered by

Berlitz

Reasons Shortcomings of Grammar Translation

Changing student needs

Change in perceived goals of language teaching

Expediency, commerce, politics

immigration / travel/ business

multilingual classes

monolingual teachers: NESTs (Native English Speaker Teachers, see Medgyes 1992)

single print runs of monolingual books

Apparent (research) support

‘scientific SLA’ / pedagogic (more popular with students)

BUT

“To our knowledge, no research has examined the value of contrastive FFI [Form Focused Instruction] of vocabulary, such as interlingual comparisons with learner’s L1, or translation.” (Laufer and Girsai 2008)

“I haven't heard of any data-based L2 motivation studies that used L1 use in the classroom as a motivational variable.” (Zoltan Dornyei, personal communication)

Absence of research contrasting own language use with ‘English only’ approaches…

Questionable premises … and new contexts: why revived interest in own-language use NOW?

Changing theoretical context: increasing recognition of complexity, difference, diversity and uncertainty.

Contemporary patterns of migration, globalization, and importance of bilingualism and multilingualism for individual and societal language use.

“SLA researchers seem to have neglected the fact that the goal of SLA is bilingualism” (Sridhar and Sridhar 1986:5)

Language learners as multiple language users (Belz 2002).

Own-language use: the case against

Zero tolerance? Input, interaction, output, practice

Immersion, and picking up L2 like an L1 – maximum exposure

If we allow L1 in class, then learners may become resistant to using English generally

Mixed L1 classes (multilingual classes and monolingual teachers)

(and claims of student support, and research support, for English-only teaching… though these claims are unsubstantiated)

…BUT…

Arguments for own-language use

Builds on prior knowledge (Brooks-Lewis 2009)

Learners keep L1 and L2 in contact in their minds anyway (Widdowson 2003; Cummins 2007; Cook 2008)

L1 is a resource for L2 development e.g. enhances ‘noticing’ (Schmidt 1990) and attention to form (Long 1990)

L1 use is a learning strategy for many learners (Oxford 1996)

Learner identities (Norton 2000)

For instructions; to reduce anxiety; to save time

Classroom as a multilingual speech community (Blyth 1995; Edstrom 2006).

Or in other words (theoretical perspectives)

From socio-cultural theory: scaffolding new learning onto existing knowledge

From more cognitive approaches: Multicompetence model: Knowledge of more than one

language in the same mind (V. Cook 2008). Common underlying proficiency: ‘the transfer of

cognitive/academic or literacy-related proficiency from one language to another (Cummins, 2007).

From ‘traditional’ SLA: Noticing, focus on form and forms, language learning strategies, vocabulary learning studies etc.

Pedagogic functions of own-language use‘Medium-oriented goals’: e.g., explaining

vocabulary, teaching grammar.

‘Framework goals’: e.g., giving instructions, setting homework.

‘Social goals’: e.g., expressing concern, showing interest, teacher-learner rapport and equitable intra-class relationships… a ‘moral obligation’?

(Polio and Duff 1994; V. Cook 2001; Edstrom 2006; Ianziti and Varshney 2008; Kim and

Elder 2008)

Reflections on (and sharing of) practice Here is a list of ways in which teachers might use the learners'

own language in class. To what extent do you use the learners'own language to:• Explain vocabulary• Give instructions• Explain grammar• Develop rapport and a good classroom atmosphere• Correct spoken errors• Explain when meanings in English are unclear• Give feedback on written work• Test and assess learners• Maintain discipline• Other? [ Always / often / sometimes/ rarely / never ]

Any further thoughts – advantages and disadvantages, possibilities and impossibilities (e.g. multilingual classes!!)

Hall and Cook’s (2012) surveyQuestionnaire survey of teachers’ perceptions of

own-language use, from a global sample of ELT practitioners. Mainly closed (Likert-scale items); some open questions.

2,785 teachers from 111 countries

Research Question: what types of own-language use activities do teachers report that they and learners engage in?

Teachers’ own-language use in class

Reported frequency and functions of teachers’ own-language use in class

Teachers’ own-language use in class(further responses from survey (Hall and Cook, 2012))

Language awareness activities, e.g., contrast own and new language grammar

Discussion of learning strategies and study skills

Start with higher levels of own-language use, but reduce this over time

Reflections on (and sharing of) practice Here is a list of ways in which learners might use their own language

in class. In the class you teach most often/are most familiar with,how frequently do your learners:

• Use bilingual dictionaries or word lists• Compare English grammar to the grammar of their own language• Watch English language TV/video with own-language subtitles• Do spoken translation activities• Do written translation activities• Prepare for tasks and activities in their own language before

switching to English• Other? [Always / often / sometimes/ rarely / never]

Further thoughts – advantages and disadvantages, possibilities and impossibilities

More survey data: Learners’ own-language use

Reported frequency and functions of learners’ own-language use in class

Learners’ own-language use in class (further responses from a survey (Hall and Cook, 2012)) To check their own understandings and manage

their participation in class

To develop and maintain friendships

[As an aside… do teachers underestimate the amount of own-language use by learners?]

How much own-language use?

Search for ‘judicious’, ‘appropriate’ or ‘optimal’ own-language use in class.

Are teachers ‘making up’ arbitrary rules…?

…Yet aren’t teachers actually best placed to decide for their own classrooms (Macmillan and Rivers 2011).

In the multilingual classroom (i)Where the teacher cannot use any language other than English and the learners don’t share any languages…

students probably use translation tools

can think about the differences between English and their own language(s)

can reflect on the way their own language background might affect their (use of) English

(Kerr, 2014)

In the multilingual classroom (ii)Where the teacher cannot use any language other than English and the learners share other (community) languages …

students probably use translation tools

can think about the differences between English and their own language(s)

can reflect on the way their own language background might affect their (use of) English

pair and group work possible, scaffolded by own-language use and some translation (e.g. ‘meta’ discussions of task, instructions, or language required)

(Kerr, 2014)

In the multilingual classroom (iii)

Where the teacher and learners share a community language… then many possibilities emerge…

Some classroom techniques and practices

Sandwiching (inserting brief own-language translation into the discourse, followed by English language translation)

Own-language moments – task preparation, individual (and peer) help etc. – before, during and/or after : speaking activities

working with texts

language focus

talking about learning

developing intercultural awareness

Wall displays – useful classroom language; false friends; cognates; essential (subject) language; own-language annotations of English language posters…

Some classroom activities Bilingual dictionary use, and use of online translation

tools; e.g., examine online translations for ‘flaws’ or difficulties

Development of language-focused glossaries and bilingual vocabulary notebook (using the learners’ own-language)

Writing subtitles; bilingual role plays (translating for others, e.g. a menu)

[Short] text translation … as a product… but also as a process, to encourage noticing); e.g., via whispers, paper-folding, gap fills

Some unanswered questions Search for ‘judicious’, ‘appropriate’ or ‘optimal’ own-

language use in class continues (Macaro 1997; 2006)

Learner preferences

Relation to learners’ age and stage

ReferencesBelz, J. (2002). The myth of the deficient communicator. Language Teaching Research 6.1, 59—82.

Blyth, C. (1995). Redefining the boundaries of language use: the foreign language classroom as a multilingual speech community. In C. Kramsch (ed.), Redefining the boundaries of language study. Boston, MA.: Heinle, 145-83.

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Widdowson, H.G. (2003). Defining Issues in English Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP.

It’s your turn

Further questions or comments?

Thank you for listening / participating

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