THE TOMATO CROP A scientific basis for improvement

SERIES EDITOR

E. H. Roberts Professor of Crop Production, Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, University of Reading

'IRE TOMATO CROP A scientific basis for improvement

Edited by

J.G. Atherton Department of Agriculture and Horticulture University of Nottingham School of Agriculture

and the late

J. Rudich The Levi Eshkol School of Agriculture The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

London New York

CHAPMAN AND HALL

First published in 1986 by Chapman and Hall Ltd

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P4EE Published in the USA by

Chapman and Hall 29 West 35th Street, New York NY 10001

© 1986 Chapman and Hall Ltd Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1986

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted, or reproduced or utilized in any form

or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including

photocopying and recording, or in any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in

writing from the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

The Tomato crop: a scientific basis for improvement. 1. Tomatoes I. Atherton, J. G. (Jeffrey Gordon) II. Rudich, J. 635' .642 SB349

ISBN-13:978-94-010-7910-5 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-3137-4 DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-3137-4

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

The tomato crop. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Tomatoes.

II. Rudich, J. SB349.T66 1986

I. Atherton, J. G., 1948-

635'.642 86-9758

Contents

Preface xi Contributors xiii

1 Biosystematics of the tomato 1 l. B. Taylor 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Taxonomic status of the tomato within the family Solanaceae 1 1.3 Composition of the genus Lycopersicon 2 1.4 The problem of Solanum (or Lycopersicon) pennellii 21 1.5 Other closely related Solanum species 22

References 30

2 Genetics and Breeding 35 M. Allen Stevens and C. M. Rick 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Mutants 35 2.3 Cytogenetics 52 2.4 Linkage 53 2.5 Mutation 56 2.6 Biochemical and molecular genetics 57 2.7 Developmental and physiological genetics 58 2.8 Interspecific and intergeneric hybridization 59 2.9 History of tomato breeding 63 2.10 Resistance to disease 65 2.11 Resistance to nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) 73 2.12 Resistance to insects 74 2.13 Tolerance of stress 75 2.14 Nutrient use efficiency 78 2.15 Parthenocarpy 79 2.16 Male sterility 80 2.17 Fruit quality 84 2.18 Cultivars for machine harvest 96

VI Contents

2.19 Cultivars for greenhouse production 97 2.20 Seed production 98 2.21 Seed crop husbandry 98

References 100

3 Germination and vegetative development 111 A. J. F. Picken, K. StewartandD. Klapwijk 3.1 Introduction 111 3.2 Germination 112 3.3 Vegetative development 119 3.4 Conclusions 155 3.5 Acknowledgements 155 3.6 Abbreviations 155 3.6 Symbols used in text 156

References 157

4 Flowering 167 J. G. Atherton and G. P. Harris 4.1 Introduction 167 4.2 Significance of flowering in tomato production 167 4.3 Floral morphology 168 4.4 Growth and flowering of determinate and indeterminate

cultivars 171 4.5 Shoot environment and flowering 173 4.6 Root environment and flowering 181 4.7 Plant growth regulators and flowering 184 4.8 Growth correlations and flowering 189 4.9 Concluding remarks 194 4.10 Acknowledgements 194

References 194

5 Fruit development 201 L. C. HoandJ. D. Hewitt 5.1 Significance of fruit development in tomato production 201 5.2 Processes of pollination and fertilization 202 5.3 Morphology and anatomy of fruits 206 5.4 Factors affecting the rate offruit development 209 5.5 Assimilate distribution in fruiting plants 215 5.6 Growth regulators and parthenocarpic fruit formation 224

References 231

6 Fruit ripening and qualit)' 241 D. GriersonandA. A. Kader 6.1 Introduction 241

Contents Vll

6.2 Physiology and biochemistry of ripening 241 6.3 Quality components and evaluation procedures 259 6.4 Pre-harvest factors influencing quality 265 6.5 Post-harvest factors influencing quality 272

References 275

7 Mineral nutrition 281 P.Adams 7.1 Introduction 281 7.2 Growth and crop responses to nutrients 281 7.3 Factors affecting responses to nutrients 289 7.4 Nutrient uptake and distribution 305 7.5 Nutritional disorders 312 7.6 Estimating nutrient requirements 317 7.7 Future developments 323

References 324

8 Water economy 335 1. Rudich and U. Luchinsky 8.1 Introduction 335 8.2 Water potential 335 8.3 Cell and plant growth 339 8.4 Development of the root system 341 8.5 Turgor maintenance by osmotic adjustment 343 8.6 The importance of osmotic adjustment 344 8.7 Stomatal behaviour 345 8.8 The role of abscisic acid and other hormones in water stress 347 8.9 Carbon metabolism and translocation of assimilates 348 8.10 Nitrogen metabolism and protein synthesis 350 8.11 Adaptation to water stress 350 8.12 Effects of salinity 351 8.13 Responses to waterlogging 353 8.14 Interspecific differences in drought resistance 353 8.15 Quantitative indices of water stress and irrigation planning 354 8.16 Effects of water tension on the crop 358 8.17 Water economy and fruit quality 360

References 361

9 Disorders 369 P. Grimbly 9.1 Introduction 369 9.2 Rogues 369 9.3 Silvering 373 9.4 Leaf distortion 378

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9.5 Silvering and leaf distortion on seedlings 9.6 Other chimerical disorders 9.7 Cytoplasmic inheritance in the tomato 9.8 Triploids 9.9 Non-genetic disorders 9.10 Damage from aerial pollutants 9.11 Other chemically induced disorders 9.12 Disorders related to flooding and water stress

References

Contents

378 379 380 380 381 381 384 385 386

10 Pests 391 M. 1. Berlinger 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Pest damage 10.3 Geographical distribution of pests 10.4 The biology and control of some important pests 10.5 Pest management

References

391 394 402 404 427 432

11 Diseases 443 1. C. Watterson 11.1 Introduction 443 11.2 Disease development in protected and field crops 444 11.3 Major tomato diseases of Europe , USA and the Middle East 447 11.4 Disease control strategy 473

References 480

12 Weed control 485 A. H. Lange, B. B. FischerandF. M. Ashton 12.1 Introduction 485 12.2 Weed biology 487 12.3 Field management for weed control 490 12.4 Herbicides 493 12.5 General conclusions 501

References 509

13 Field crop management 511 C. Geisenberg and K. Stewart 13.1 Introduction 511 13.2 Timing of operations 511 13.3 Timingofiruitproduction 514 13.4 Land preparation 515 13.5 Pre-planting water, fertilizer and chimerical treatments 515

Contents ix

13.6 Seedbed conditions 516 13.7 Crop spacing and arrangement 517 13.8 Transplant production 520 13.9 Fluid drilling 520 13.10 Pre-sowing salt treatments and osmoconditioning 523 13.11 Plug mix planting 525 13.12 Fertilizers 527 13.13 Soil mulching 530 13 .14 Irrigation 533 13.15 Training and trimming field tomatoes 539 13 .16 Field production under partial protection with

plastic tunnels 540 13.17 Fruit set 544 13.18 Enhancement offruit ripening 546j 13 .19 Harvest and handling 547

References 551

14 The future of the field crop 559 M. Allen Stevens 14.1 Recent trends in production and consumption in the USA 559 14.2 Cultivars for the future 567 14.3 Cultural practices 575 14.4 Harvesting 576 14.5 Conclusions 578

References 578

15 Glasshouse crop production 581 J. vandeVooren, G. W. H. Welles and G. Hayman 15.1 Introduction 581 15.2 Economics 581 15.3 Glasshouse structure and equipment 584 15.4 Planting and cropping schedules 585 15.5 Substrates 586 15.6 Nutrition and irrigation 587 15.7 Varieties 593 15.8 Crop spacing and arrangement 594 15.9 Transplant production 599 15.10 Training and management systems 601 15.11 Environmental factors 607 15.12 Harvest of tomato fruits 614 15.13 Integrated pest management in glasshouse tomatoes 617

References 620

x Contents

16 An economic consideration of the future for glasshouse tomatoes 625 J. A. H. Nicholson 16.1 Introduction 625 16.2 Current profitability of heated tomato crops 625 16.3 Short-term options for glasshouse tomato growers 638 16.4 Some future scenarios 640 16.5 Conclusions 642 16.6 Towards the year 2000 643

References 644

Index 647

Magnifications given for the electron micrographs refer to the original frame magnification.

Preface

The tomato is commercially important throughout the world both for the fresh fruit market and the processed food industries. It is grown in a wide range of climates in the field, under protection in plastic greenhouses and in heated glasshouses. Genetic, physiological and pathological investigations frequently adopt the tomato plant as a convenient subject. Hitherto, much of the information on tomatoes has been fragmented: tomatoes grown in the field and under protection have been considered separately and the more fundamental findings from research have often failed to reach those involved directly or indirectly in commercial crop production. Similarly, the research scientist is often unaware of the problems of commercial crop production and the possible relevance of his work to the crop. This book is an attempt to rectify that situation.

By giving a thorough scientific review of all factors influencing tomato production systems, it is hoped that this book will prove useful to students, researchers and commercial producers alike. It gives the basis for the develop­ment of improved cultivars, the formulation of strategies for managing pest, disease and disorder problems and the production of high yields of good quality fruit as well as suggesting important areas for scientific initiatives. The extensive bibliographies provide a comprehensive database for tomato researchers.

Such a vast subject could not be covered with authority by anyone author. In order to realize the aims of the book, leading specialists were invited from different parts of the world to contribute up-to-date, critical reviews of their own particular subject area. The illustrations and examples used are often from the contributor's own country or area, but the principles and processes con­sidered have widespread relevance. Whilst the individual chapters reflect the views of the contributors, the editors are responsible for the overall balance and contents, and for any shortcomings.

The international nature of this book, with its attendant language and geographical difficulties, has inevitably made preparation for publication a lengthy affair. We wish to thank the contributors sincerely for their patience as well as their expertise, time and trouble. We are indebted to Alan Crowden and

xii Preface

staff of Chapman and Hall for their support, help and encouragement throughout. Secretarial assistance from Marion Wilton, Mavis Seeker and Jeanne Rodwell is also gratefully acknowledged.

Jeff Atherton Jehoshua Rudich

Contributors

P. Adams Glasshouse Crops Research Institute Worthing Road Littlehampton, West Sussex UK

F. M. Ashton Department of Botany University of California Davis, California USA

J. G. Atherton Department of Agriculture and Horticulture University of Nottingham School of Agriculture Sutton Bonington, Loughborough UK

M. J. Berlinger Entomology Laboratory Agricultural Research Organization Gilat Regional Experiment Station Mobile Post Negev, Israel

B. B. Fischer County of Fresno Farm and Home Advisors Office 1720 South Maple Fresno, California USA

C. Geisenberg 211B Hanassi Harishon Rehovot 76302, Israel

D. Grierson Department of Physiology and Environmental Science University of Nottingham School of Agriculture Sutton Bonington, Loughborough UK

XIV

P. Grimbly Glasshouse Crops Research Institute Worthing Road Littlehampton, West Sussex UK

G. P. Harris Department of Agriculture and Horticulture University of Reading Earley Gate, Reading UK

G. Hayman MAFF-ADAS Martlett House St Johns Street Chichester, West Sussex UK

J. D. Hewitt Department of Vegetable Crops University of California Davis, California USA

L. C. Ho Glasshouse Crops Research Institute Worthing Road Littlehampton, West Sussex UK

A. A. Kader Department of Pomology University of California Davis, California USA

D. Klapwijk Proefstation voor Tuinbouw onder Glas Zuidweg 38, Postbus 8 2670 AA Naaldwijk, The Netherlands

A. H. Lange San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Research Center 9240 S. Riverbend A venue Parlier, California USA

U. Luchinsky The Levi Eshkol School of Agriculture The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Rehovot 76-100 PO Box 12, Israel

J. A. H. Nicholson School of Rural Economics Wye College, University of London Wye, Ashford, Kent UK

Contributors

Contributors

A. J. F. Picken Glasshouse Crops Research Institute Worthing Road Littlehampton, West Sussex UK

C. M. Rick Department of Vegetable Crops University of California Davis, California USA

J. Rudich The Levi Eshkol School of Agriculture The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Rehovot 76-100, PO Box 12, Israel

M. Allen Stevens Campbell Institute for Research and Technology Route 1, Box 1314 Davis, California USA

K. Stewart Department of Plant Science McDonald Campus of McGill University 21111 Lakeshore Drive St Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada

I. B. Taylor Department of Physiology and Environmental Science University of Nottingham School of Agriculture Sutton Bonington, Loughborough UK

J. van de Vooren Proefstation voor de Bloemisterij Linnaeuslaan 2a 1431 JV Aalsmeer, The Netherlands

J. C. Watterson Peto Seed Company Route 4, Box 1255 Woodland, California USA

G. W. H. Welles Proefstation voor Tuinbouw onder Glas Zuidweg 38, Postbus 8 2670 AA Naaldwijk, The Netherlands

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