The Success of the Mormon Church: A Sociological Analysis

Llowell Williams (Dec 2009)

The history of the Church of Latter Day Saints movement is one filled with controversy

and severe persecution for many years following its foundation. Today it is one of the fastest

growing religious movements in not only the United States but many areas of the world, and has

gained legitimacy and voice within the worldwide religious community. The Church of Jesus

Christ of Latter Day Saints has undergone several key transformations and changes; both to find

legitimacy within society, and to appeal to a greater number of potential converts within the

religious marketplace. For the purpose of this paper, a very brief overview of Mormon history

and belief will be given, in addition to the way these factors have cumulated into modern

Mormon life in the US.

The Mormon movement began with a man named Joseph Smith, Jr. While living in

Palmyra, a small village in western New York, Smith claimed to be visited by an angel named

Moroni who told him the location of a secret book of golden plates and other items buried in a

hill near his home. (Arrington:18-20) After retrieving the buried items in 1827, Smith was visited

again by an angel and told to not allow anyone else to view the plates. It was his duty to

translate, publish, and share the messages inscribed on the plates. He did this with the assistance

of his friend, Martin Harris. Smith used artifacts he found with the plates called “seer stones” to

help him translate the golden plates from a language he called Reformed Egyptian. With help,

Smith dictated and published the translations as the Book of Mormon three years later.

Facing increasing persecution in the eastern United States, Smith and his followers

moved west, first setting up church headquarters in Kirtland, Ohio along with a secondary church

center in Independence, Missouri. After being violently driven out of Independence by non-

Mormons, settlers founded a Mormon town nearby of the name Far West. It was here that Joseph

Smith and followers fled after several power struggles and severe drops in membership numbers.

Here Smith established the new Mormon headquarters, officially giving it the name, “Church of

Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.” With this sudden growth of Mormon settlers collecting in

Missouri, non-Mormon residents began to feel even more threatened. Mormons began settling

outside of the county of Caldwell and Far West, leading to ever increasing feelings of enmity

between them and the intolerant locals. To many Missourians, this was simply unacceptable and

tensions came to a breaking point in what is referred to as the 1838 Mormon War or Missouri-

Mormon War (Arrington:50-66). After being forced out of Missouri at gunpoint, Smith lead his

followers to Illinois to establish a new Mormon settlement by the name of Nauvoo. Much to

Smith's disappointment, anti-Mormon sentiments had not been left behind in Missouri. Suspicion

and distrust for the Mormons continued to grow in neighboring Illinois communities until an

order urged by the public for Smith's arrest was finally issued, officially charging him with

“treason.” He and his brother turned themselves into the police of nearby Carthage where they

were placed in jail. Several days later, an angry mob began rioting outside the jail and managed

to break in, making their way to the cell holding the Smiths whereupon they shot and killed them

both (Arrington:78).

Following the loss of its two highest ranking leaders, the Latter Day Saints faced a crisis:

Who was to take Joseph Smith's place and lead the way? Several people stepped forward, and in

doing so created a great deal of argument and schism within the Church. Brigham Young

suggested that the Quorum of Twelve, a council of twelve men formed originally by Joseph

Smith to mirror Jesus's apostles and participate in church governance, should take the leadership

role. However, Brigham Young eventually stepped forward as Smith's successor, managing to

lead the persecuted Mormons out of Illinois, further west to the Great Salt Lake Basin. Many

miles away from their persecutors, after months of traveling on what is now referred to as the

“Mormon Trail,” Young and his fellow Mormons began settling Salt Lake City as their new

religious headquarters. In 1848, the United States was given the surrounding territory by Mexico,

and the federal government appointed Brigham Young as territorial governor of Utah three years

later (Arrington: 90-102).

Several years following the foundation of Salt Lake City, there was a two year period

which is commonly referred to as the Mormon Reformation. Despite becoming a successful

settlement, devastating drought hit the areas in and around the Great Salt Lake Basin and much

of the Utah Territory, wreaking havoc on crops and leading to much starvation. What few crops

remained were virtually destroyed by a fierce insect infestation. Following the destruction of the

crops, many Mormons began to express concern about their faith: Were they being punished by

God? Had they failed to worship and honor Him appropriately? It was easy to draw parallels

between this crisis and stories of Biblical plagues in the Old Testament. Many religious leaders

stepped forward, including Young, suggesting that they and their peers had lost commitment to

their faith and needed to seek repentance for going astray. This lead to a number of ceremonies

across Utah in which thousands of Mormons were publicly “re-baptized,” symbolic of their

renewed religious commitment (Arrington:119-135) to the Mormon faith and God.

This renewed religious zeal in the Utah territory alarmed the federal government, who

were beginning to question their power over Young and the territory. In response, President

Buchanan dispatched 2,500 troops to Utah with the goal of restoring federal authority. No direct

conflict ever occurred between the federal troops and the local Mormon militias, and eventually

Brigham Young ceded his governorship, to be replaced by a federally appointed non-Mormon,

Alfred Cumming. However, before this, despite no federal/militia conflict, there was a

confrontation, referred to as the Mountain Meadows massacre, between a Mormon militia and an

emigrant wagon train from Arkansas, in which nearly all of the 120 unarmed emigrants in the

train were executed. This conflict and the skirmishes with the federal troops are now usually

referred to as the Utah War.

Following Young's loss of governorship, he continued to actively preach Mormon

theology in Utah, one part of which was the controversial practice of polygyny (the precedent

having been set by Joseph Smith Jr., who practiced the act in secret), which he declared was

God's law. Polygynous marriage became very common among church leaders and many Mormon

citizens. These acts further alienated the Latter Day Saints from the rest of Protestant American

society; so much so that the federal government saw it necessary to take action again, but this

time in a different form. In 1862 President Lincoln signed into law the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act,

which explicitly outlawed the act of multiple marriage in the territories, to be punishable by

several hundred dollars in fines or up to five years in prison. However, because many

polygynous marriages occurred in secret and were kept hidden, this was a difficult law for

Congress to enforce. Besides that the federal government was busy conducting the Civil War at

the time, which put the eradication of bigamy toward the bottom of priorities for the time being.

However, following the end of the war, Congress passed the Poland Act, expanding the authority

to enforce the Morrill Act to non-Mormon federal prosecutors and courts. The Morrill Act was

challenged but upheld in the US Supreme Court several years later, in the case known as

Reynolds v. United States (Arrington:115-24).

In 1882, Congress sought to further deal with what was seen as the bigamist issue, by

passing the Edmunds Act. The Act went beyond the Morrill Act's criminalization of formal

bigamy, to include bigamous cohabitation, which could be charged without any proof of a formal

marriage ceremony. Following this was the Edmunds-Tucker Act which authorized the federal

disincorporation and dismantling of the Latter Day Saints Church, and created laws which forced

wives to testify against their husbands in court. As a result, many of the church's leaders were

forced underground and Mormon followers were forced to confine their religious practice to

secretive and private meetings (Arrington:144-186).

In a response to increasing state oppression, a Manifesto was drafted in 1890 and signed

by then church president, Wilford Woodruff. The Manifesto stated that polygynous marriage was

to cease, in accordance with the “laws of the land.” This helped Mormon leaders gain statehood

for Utah, and subsequent representation in the federal government. Despite this, however, many

questioned whether the Latter Day Saints had actually given up practicing polygynous marriage;

many members and church leaders where still reportedly engaging in the act despite the 1890

Manifesto's decree. In response to this, the Church president Joseph F. Smith published the

Second Manifesto which stated that the Church did not sanction any post-Manifesto polygynous

marriages, and that to enter into such marriages in the future would mean excommunication.

Although it is suggested that bigamy continued for a while after this, it eventually faded from

mainstream Mormonism and is now typically confined to fundamentalist sects.

This eventful and tumultuous history has today created a unique legacy for modern-day

Mormons. While there are quite a few sects and divisions within the whole of the Mormon

movement today, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints remains the largest and most

well known Mormon denomination. Following the Church's struggle for public legitimacy and

eventual decision to abandon polygynous practices, Mormons gradually were able to lessen this

alienation with the rest of American society. Consequently, the Mormon stigma became less

serious in American society and perhaps helped contributed to the massive growth in Church

membership. In the fifty years to follow the Second Manifesto, membership grew to almost a

million members, nearly quadruple the number of members at the turn of the century

(Cornwall:78-80).

Many of today's Mormon's place a heavy emphasis on following a particular set of ethics

and moral rules in one's life, the core of which were laid out by Joseph Smith Jr. in his Articles of

Faith and Word of Wisdom. The Articles and Word speak of living a life free of sinful behavior,

such as sexual misconduct (like adultery), gambling, getting tattoos/piercings (except for the

traditional pair in the ears for women), consuming intoxicants like alcohol, and pre-marital sex,

among others. There is much emphasis on one to live lawfully and to respect authority, both

within the family and within one's nation. High value is also placed on behaving honestly and

seeking peaceful resolution to conflict (Stark:69-74).

Worship is also an important aspect of a Mormon's life; as with other Christian based

denominations, Mormons are encouraged to attend group worship on Sunday mornings. The

main portion of this service is what is called the Sacrament Meeting, which all members of a

family attend and during which participate in communion by consuming bread and water. Much

like Catholic faiths, this ritual is intended to emulate Christ's Last Supper. Service is lead by the

bishop of the church, who, along with other speakers, gives talks and leads the attendees in hymn

and prayer. This Meeting is then often followed by Sunday school and meeting groups for adults,

for the discussion of Mormon ethics and doctrine.

Beyond services on Sunday, Mormons place a great deal of importance on time spent

together as a family. Parents are encouraged to read and discuss the Bible and Book of Mormon

with their children. The Church has even gone so far as to institutionalize this, by encouraging all

Mormon families to participate in a “Family Home Evening” at least once a week, preferably on

Monday. Usually this will include family bond building activities like board/card games in

conjunction with a religious lesson (Cornwall:103). Family and childrearing are today considered

institutions most central to Mormon life.

Despite being a relatively young religious movement, the Latter Day Saints have

undergone a great deal of strife, most often the result of religious intolerance within American

society. Despite this, however, Mormons were able to not only retain their faith, but have

managed to make it one of the most important religious movements in the world today. As

touched on already, this was not done without the recreation and disbanding of certain Church

traditions and practices. It is important to understand the historical context of Mormons is, filled

with controversy and religious oppression, to make sense of why the modern Church of Jesus

Christ of Latter Day Saints is the institution it has become today.

The success and persistence of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints is a

phenomenon that should be analyzed and explained in several different ways. As one of the

fastest growing religious movements not only in the United States but in many parts of the

world, the Church has overcome the persecution following it for many years following its

foundation and has managed to become an accepted member of the worldwide religious

community, drawing new converts every day. How did the Latter Day Saints survive religious

oppression in the United States? What has the Church done to assimilate into and suit cultures

around the world? What do the Latter Day Saints offer that differs from other faiths? Answering

such questions as these will shed some light on the Mormon phenomenon and give some insight

into their continued success.

Following Joseph Smith Jr.'s revelation and discovery of the Book of Mormon in New

York, he was able to attract followers everywhere he went. Despite this, however, Smith and his

followers faced many obstacles—between division and dispute from within and intolerance and

persecution from outside--which could have easily ended the movement at several points.

According to Stark, it was the strong sense of community and membership which served the

movement best. He explains that the severe persecution Mormons faced in the eastern United

States in the 1800s forced adherents to isolate themselves within their particular religious

community. As the Latter Day Saints were continually driven from the east, first from New York,

then Ohio, and then Missouri, they had little but each other to look towards for support. This lead

to a seamless ethos of religious and community commitment which served to protect Mormons

from having to internalize the deviant identity non-Mormons associated with them. (Stark:55-6)

The strength of the Mormon ethos only grew as they moved west along the Mormon Trail, into

the Utah and Great Salt Lake Basin regions. There the Mormon community was able, at least for

a time, to establish a removed society and culture of their own, this time without having to face

local hostilities.

So was it persecution alone that lead to the Church's survival and growth? According to

Leone, it was primarily the message of Mormonism which was able to so successfully draw

individuals in during the 19th Century. Joseph Smith Jr. offered people something not offered by

other religions at the time: an American utopia founded in practicality. In its beginnings,

Mormonism advocated simplicity, dedication, and social classlessness. While some of these

beliefs were likely what drew criticism from non-Mormons, contrary as they were to American

ideals, it was also this that attracted adherents. Leone refers to the Church as being a “religion for

unstable conditions:” it offered a sacred canopy which regulated daily life in most respects and

gave people a sense of connection between the material and the divine no other Christian-based

faith could offer at the time. This complete belief system allowed the Mormons settling the West,

outside of the US government's authority, to establish a theocratic state, with a political system

justified by the divine and economics founded in equality and aiding those who befell hardship.

Life in the West was tough and often unforgiving, so it was the emphasis on community

networks and cooperation that allowed Mormons and the Mormon state to cope and maintain

their faith.

This was, however, to change drastically at the end of the 19th century. As the federal

government forced the Utah Territory to rejoin the Union, the Church underwent drastic

reshaping and restructuring. No longer in control of their own lives, politically, socially, or

economically, Mormons were obligated to rethink their basic values and lifestyles. The Church

transformed from a theocratic/political institution, to primarily a religious one. It was this change

from a small independent theocratic state to one reabsorbed into a powerful modernized nation of

religious and cultural diversity that lead to the most fundamental alterations in Mormonism.

Economic integration with the United States meant the Church had to give up its practice of

aiding its members via the material redistribution. This shift has been referred to as the

transformation of Mormonism into a “colonial religion” from a theocracy, in which

submissiveness and deference to authority surpassed old notions of political self-sufficiency and

isolation. (Leone:7) While some in Utah resisted the dismantling of their theocracy, most turned

to their faith to explain and make sense of these uncontrollable changes in their lives. As Smith

spoke of before his death, individuals within the Mormon church should be encouraged to

develop personal understandings of their world and of his teachings; with change and uncertainty

being a fundamental part of life for Mormons, their faith had to be able to be reinterpreted and

reexamined to accommodate unpredictability. With this, Smith also emphasized the need to see

events in one's life as always being part of God's plan, and not the result of random coincidence

—there was always a purpose. (Leone:15) These directives enabled Mormons to cope with these

difficult changes within the context of their faith while maintaining a sense of purpose and

identity.

This new direction for the Mormon church meant other changes too. The most significant

of these was the official rejection of polygyny by the Church in 1890, with the first Manifesto.

Having originally been preached by both Smith and Young as an injunction from God, banning

polygyny was a difficult decision. However, it was a necessary move. It was the issue of multiple

marriage which most offended non-Mormon Americans, to the point that it had been outlawed by

the federal government. With the passing of the Edmunds-Tucker Act, which not only

criminalized bigamy but also disincorporated the Mormon church, the official barring of

polygynous marriage by the Church president was the only logical strategy for reemerging as a

legitimate religious organization. (Arrington:98; Cornwall:70)

Banning bigamy hasn't been the only major change within the Church. Following a long

process of assimilation back into American society over the last 100 years, leaders of the

Mormon church have been able to skillfully discern which areas of practice and belief require

modification to be able to accommodate this. One of these actions was the reversal of doctrine

almost 40 years ago which explained that darkened skin was a punishment from God, indicating

sinfulness of one's ancestors; redemption and good favor from God would be indicated by the

lightening of one's skin. (Leone:87) As African-Americans and other groups gained their civil

rights in the 1960s and 1970s in the United States, the Latter Day Saints were compelled to

update their theology to keep up with modern social views.

Another major shift in Church stance has taken place very recently: Sexuality is no longer

permitted to be a basis for discrimination. As an organization which poured numerous resources

into combating gay rights laws like Prop 8, this would seem to be almost an act of schizophrenia.

However, this is not the case of course, and is another example of the Church's ability to adapt

with social change. Homosexuals, although still struggling for legal and social equality in the

United States, have been gradually gaining them; this decision to shift towards a stance of

neutrality on the issue is, like the reversal of racist doctrine, a continuation of a strategy of

avoiding alienation. (Stark:88)

In addition to these revisions, the Mormon theology offers messages of repentance and

redemption which has successfully appealed to people around the world in a wide variety of

social, political, and economic situations. Unlike other Christian faiths, Mormonism does not

believe in any sort of eternal hell or damnation; instead, if one fails to achieve a proper Mormon

lifestyle, he or she spends a finite amount of time in a hell-like “spirit prison,” after which the

individual accepts the “true faith” and is accepted into a more pleasant after-life. There are also

many opportunities to redeem oneself before death. As such, Leone (101) speculates that it is this

aspect of forgiveness and second chances which so appeals to many new converts.

The Church's emphasis on family and community is likely also a major factor in

attracting new adherents (Stark:115; Leone:102). The stress on building and maintaining these

spheres of one's life is the way in which Mormonism deals with the unpredictability of the world;

this message is especially potent in areas of the world where inequality and the struggle for

subsistence are an everyday reality.

Sharing the word of the prophet Smith is seen as the duty of all Mormons, with

missionary work becoming a keystone of Mormon life. Over the last century it has evolved into a

sort of rite of passage, with young adult Mormons encouraged to spend at least a year or two

either overseas or within the US educating people on the teachings of Joseph Smith Jr.

(Stark:118) In these missionary projects we can see remnants of some of the original values

espoused by Smith in the days of the early Church, like that of social egalitarianism and

economic assistance for those in need. Missionary work proved to be extremely effective in

spreading the Mormon faith, especially in regions dealing with post-colonial poverty and

destitution—areas with profoundly frustrating circumstances beyond individuals' control.

Subscribing to the Mormon ideology enabled these people, much like early Mormons in the US,

to find shelter under a sacred canopy which makes sense of their world and provides a “proper”

life path to follow, which will eventually lead to divine rewards and liberation from hardship in

this world.

Mormonism's ability to provide answers to the uncertainties of life doesn't only appeal to

struggling Third World people; it's found a very strong following among white collar, middle to

upper class individuals in modernized nations like the United States and the United Kingdom.

With the emergence of globalization, life has only become more complex and dynamic; now

more than ever, people's lives are affected and influenced by what happens on the other side of

the country, and even the other side of the globe. At the same time, modern society has allowed

individuals more choices than ever before in virtually all aspects of their lives. In this context,

Mormonism provides the tools to be able to comprehend this increasingly confusing world while

providing an outline for how to live and behave. (Leone:15; Stark:129)

As this analysis reveals, the Latter Day Saints have been able to successfully survive their

persecution and death of their founder, Joseph Smith Jr., skillfully reading the writing on the wall

and accordingly altering their faith to suit. Having founded itself on the understanding that life is

unpredictable, yet part of a divine plan, the ability to be flexible to suit a dynamic modern world

was practically innate. This characteristic is what has allowed Mormonism to spread all over the

world, to many diverse cultures and peoples. Being a faith that encourages personal investigation

and individualized understandings of doctrine and beliefs, Mormonism's been able to adapt and

co-exist with modernism throughout the world. Originally a following of only dozens, the Latter

Day Saints now claims millions of followers around the world; as issues within the US have

shown, like the defeat of Prop 8, Mormons have become a powerful religious minority, and for

these reasons it's important for their history and culture to be examined and understood.

Sources cited:

Arrington, Leonard J. 1979. The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Cornwall, Marie, Tim Heaton, and Lawrence Young. 1994. Contemporary Mormonism: Social Science Perspectives. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Dobner, Jennifer. 2009. Salt Lake Oks gay rights laws with Mormon backing. Associated Press, November 11.

Leone, Mark P. 1979. Roots of Modern Mormonism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Stark, Rodney. 2005. The Rise of Mormonism. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.