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THE STUDY OF SM520B WELDING PLATE BY SMAW FOR
THE CONSTRUCTION OF I AND TUB STEEL GIRDER
APPLIED FOR JAKARTA CIKAMPEK ELEVATED
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
A Final Project reports
presented to
the faculty of Engineering
By
Revi Rinaldi
003201700002
In partial fulfilment
of the requirements of the degree
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
ii
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
I declare that this final project report, entitled “THE STUDY OF SM520B WELDING
PLATE BY SMAW FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF I AND TUB STEEL GIRDER
APPLIED FOR JAKARTA CIKAMPEK ELEVATED HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION”
is my own original piece of work and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, has not been
submitted, either in whole or in part, to another university to obtain a degree. All sources that
are quoted or referred to are truly declared.
Cikarang, Indonesia, 4 October 2019
Revi Rinaldi
iii
THE STUDY OF SM520B WELDING PLATE BY SMAW FOR
THE CONSTRUCTION OF I AND TUB STEEL GIRDER
APPLIED FOR JAKARTA CIKAMPEK ELEVATED
HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
By
Revi Rinaldi
003201700002
Approved by
Dr. Eng, Lydia Anggraini Dr.-Ing. Erwin Parasian Sitompul Final Project Supervisor & Head of Dean of Faculty of
Engineering Program Mechanical Engineering
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First, I want to thank to Allah SWT because his blessing and his kindness my final thesis can
be complete. I would like to express my deep gratitude and my special thanks to people around
me to encourage and always supporting in completing my thesis:
1. My Family, my parents, my brother and my sister. Thank you for always supporting
me no matter how the situation. Thank you for always be there when I need you the
most. And the last Thank you for all of your prayers
2. Dr. Eng, Lydia Anggraini, S. T., M. Eng. as my thesis advisor and Head of Mechanical
Engineering Study Program for the continuous support of my final project report, for
her patience, for her motivation, for her embracement, for her enthusiasm, and for her
immense knowledge. Her guidance leads me to develop myself and he open my mind
about seeing things carefully, she helped me all the times without a slight of hesitation
in writing this final project report.
3. All lecturers of Mechanical Engineering Study Program. Thank you for every
knowledge that you gave to me so I can complete my thesis.
4. Employee of PT. Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) especially Ir. Farid Rahman
Rahim as head of the Tanjung Priok branch. Thank you for the experience, warmth and
also help for the completing of the Thesis.
5. My Classmate in Mechanical Engineering. Thank you for your support inside and
outside the class.
6. Last but not least, to all my friends, who’s always supporting me in life.
v
APPROVAL FOR SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATION
I hereby, for the purpose of development of science and technology, certify and approve to give
President University a non-exclusive royalty-free right upon my final project report with the
title:
THE STUDY OF SM520B WELDING PLATE BY SMAW FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION OF I AND TUB STEEL GIRDER APPLIED FOR JAKARTA
CIKAMPEK ELEVATED HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
Along with the related software or hardware prototype (if needed). With this non-exclusive
royalty-free right, President University is entitled to conserve, to convert, to manage in a
database, to maintain, and to publish my final project report. These are to be done with the
obligation from President University to mention my name as the copyright owner of my final
project report.
Cikarang, Indonesia, 4 October 2019
Revi Rinaldi
003201700002
vi
ABSTRACT
There are two objectives which will be discussed in this project. The first one is to study
the mechanical and chemical characteristic of the SM520B welding plate used in the Jakarta-
Cikampek Elevated Highway construction and the second objective is to determine whether
the SM520B can be used as the material for the girder construction. Both steel I girder and tub
girder will be used as the comparison. SM520B metal plate is used as the material in girder
box due to high strength and toughness and also good weldability. There are several tests
conducted in the lab of PT. Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero), these includes the spark OES
test, tensile test, bending test, Charpy impact test, macro hardness test and macro etch test.
From the test result, it can be concluded that the SM520B has an average yield strength of
503,45 N/mm² and the average tensile strength of 608,87 N/mm², therefore of SM520B steel
plate made by BUKAKA-KSO has met the requirement according to ASTM DS67B standard.
Higher Hardness Vickers value occur in the HAZ area of SM520B during Vickers hardness,
i.e. 235,8 J (Line 1) and 241,3 J (Line 2). Using the AASHTO LRFD bridge, 2012 standard
guideline, it can be determined to shows which girders performs better in terms of the flexure
resistance using the material SM520B. Using the Midas Civil software, it is concluded that
although the I girder can resist the flexure moment from the load combination available in the
girders with 15630,206 kN.m, the tub girder has the highest flexure resistance of 41335,3
kN.m. Therefore, the SM520B is suitable for use in the construction of steel tub girder.
Keywords: SM520B Welding Plate, Jakarta-Cikampek Elevated Highway, Spark OES test,
Tensile Test, Bending Test, Charpy Impact Test, Macro Hardness Test, Macro Etch Test,
ASTM DS67B Standard, Flexure Moment, Flexure Resistance, Steel I Girder, Steel Tub
Girder, Midas Civil, AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012 standard.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY ............................................................................................. ii
FINAL PROJECT REPORT APPROVAL ..................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................ iv
APPROVAL FOR SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATION ......................................................................... v
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................. x
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... xi
NOMENCLATURE ........................................................................................................................ xiii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Problem Scope and Limitation........................................................................................ 2
1.5 Outline of Thesis ............................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 4
2.1 Welding and Welding Process Types ............................................................................. 4
2.1.1 Definition of Welding ............................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Types of Welded Joint .............................................................................................. 4
2.1.3 Butt Joint ................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.4 Shielded Metal Arc Welding ..................................................................................... 6
2.1.5 AC and DC Polarity .................................................................................................. 8
2.1.6 Covered Electrodes ................................................................................................... 9
2.1.7 Heat Input ................................................................................................................ 11
2.2 Steel ............................................................................................................................... 12
viii
2.2.1 Heat Treatment....................................................................................................... 14
2.2.2 Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagram ............................................. 17
2.3 Composite Girder Structure ......................................................................................... 19
2.4 AAHSTO LRFD Bridge, 2012 Standard ..................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................ 26
3.1 Flowchart Diagram ...................................................................................................... 26
3.2 SM520B Specimen ...................................................................................................... 27
3.3 Electrode ...................................................................................................................... 29
3.4 SM520B Destructive Testing and Non-Destructive Testing ....................................... 31
3.4.1 Tensile Test ............................................................................................................ 31
3.4.2 Bending Test .......................................................................................................... 35
3.4.3 Vickers Macro-hardness Test ................................................................................ 37
3.4.4 Charpy Impact Test ................................................................................................ 40
3.4.5 Macro Etching ........................................................................................................ 44
3.4.6 Chemical Composition Test ................................................................................... 45
3.5 Design of The Girders .................................................................................................. 47
3.5.1 Steel Tub Girder Design ........................................................................................ 47
3.5.2 Steel I girder Design .............................................................................................. 48
3.6 Load Combinations ...................................................................................................... 49
3.6.1 Component Dead Load DC .................................................................................... 49
3.6.2 Wearing surface load DW ...................................................................................... 49
3.6.3 Live Load LL ......................................................................................................... 49
3.6.3.1 Truck Load HL-93 ........................................................................................ 49
3.6.3.2 Lane Load ..................................................................................................... 50
3.7 Flexural Strength Calculation ...................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................... 58
4.1 Chemical Composition Test ......................................................................................... 58
ix
4.2 Mechanical Test Results .............................................................................................. 61
4.2.1 Tensile Test result ................................................................................................... 61
4.2.1.1 Tensile Test SM520B Welding Plate ............................................................. 61
4.2.1.2 Tensile Test SM520B Base Metal ................................................................. 63
4.2.1.3 Tensile Test All Weld Metal Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 .............................. 68
4.2.2 Bending Test .......................................................................................................... 72
4.2.3 Charpy Impact Test ................................................................................................ 73
4.2.3.1 Charpy Impact Test SM520B Welding Plate................................................. 73
4.2.3.2 Charpy Impact Test SM520B Base Metal ..................................................... 75
4.2.4 Vickers Macro hardness Test ................................................................................. 78
4.2.5 Macro Etch Test ..................................................................................................... 80
4.3 Flexural Strength Analysis of the Girders ................................................................... 84
4.3.1 Steel I Girder .......................................................................................................... 84
4.3.2 Steel Tub Girder ..................................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 87
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 89
APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………..93
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 Load combination [27]............................................................................................ 23
Table 2. 2 Load factor for load combination [28] .................................................................... 25
Table 3. 1 Steel specified by international standards [29] ....................................................... 27
Table 3. 2 The chemical composition of SM520B Steel [30] .................................................. 28
Table 3. 3 The mechanical properties of SM520B Steel [31] .................................................. 28
Table 3. 4 Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 specification [33]......................................................... 30
Table 3. 5 Girder specification................................................................................................. 47
Table 3. 6 Steel I girder specification ...................................................................................... 48
Table 3. 7 Plastic Moment ....................................................................................................... 55
Table 4. 1 Chemical composition of SM520B Steel Plate Thickness 22 mm ......................... 60
Table 4. 2 Tensile test result SM520B SMAW welding plate ................................................. 61
Table 4. 3 Tensile test result SM520B plate ............................................................................ 63
Table 4. 4 Tensile test result All Weld Metal .......................................................................... 69
Table 4. 5 Bending test result SM520B SMAW Thickness 22 mm ........................................ 73
Table 4. 6 Charpy impact test of SM520B Welding plate temperature -20°C ........................ 74
Table 4. 7 Charpy impact test of SM520B plate transverse and longitudinal position ........... 77
Table 4. 8 Vickers hardness test result..................................................................................... 79
Table 4. 9 Test result of SM520B Welding Plate .................................................................... 81
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1 Various Types of Butt Joint [6] ............................................................................... 5
Figure 2. 2 Schematic of Shielded Metal Arc Welding [9] ....................................................... 8
Figure 2. 3 Electrode Classification Standards [11] ................................................................ 10
Figure 2. 4 Welding Area [12] ................................................................................................. 11
Figure 2. 5 Steel making process [14] ..................................................................................... 13
Figure 2. 6 Hot Rolling of SM520B [17] ................................................................................. 15
Figure 2. 7 Iron Carbon Phase Diagram [20] ........................................................................... 17
Figure 2. 8 Time-Temperature Diagram for eutectoid steel [21]............................................. 18
Figure 2. 9 Structure of tub girder [25] .................................................................................... 20
Figure 2. 10 Tub girder dimension .......................................................................................... 20
Figure 2. 11 Structure of I profile girder.................................................................................. 21
Figure 2. 12 I profile girder dimension .................................................................................... 21
Figure 3. 1 WPS Qualification or Pre-test [32]........................................................................ 29
Figure 3. 2 Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 [34] ............................................................................. 31
Figure 3. 3 Stress-Strain Diagram [35] .................................................................................... 32
Figure 3. 4 Section for tensile test on welding plate [36] ........................................................ 33
Figure 3. 5 Schenck Trebel 100 Ton tensile test machine ....................................................... 33
Figure 3. 6 United SHFM – 600 KN........................................................................................ 34
Figure 3. 7 AWS Standard for specimen dimension for weld and base metal ........................ 34
Figure 3. 8 AWS Standard for specimen dimension of All weld metal .................................. 35
Figure 3. 9 Transversal bending [38] ....................................................................................... 36
Figure 3. 10 AWS Standard for specimen dimension of bending test ..................................... 36
Figure 3. 11 Testing equipment using Schenck Trebel 25 Ton ............................................... 37
Figure 3. 12 Vickers hardness test ........................................................................................... 38
Figure 3. 13 Specimen dimension of Vickers macro-hardness test ......................................... 38
Figure 3. 14 ZWICK ROELL ZHU Machine .......................................................................... 39
Figure 3. 15 Testing of the specimen ....................................................................................... 39
Figure 3. 16 Charpy test mechanism [42] ................................................................................ 41
Figure 3. 17 Procedure of Charpy impact test [43] .................................................................. 41
Figure 3. 18 TINIUS OLSEN impact test machine ................................................................. 42
Figure 3. 19 Example of Impact test specimen [44] ................................................................ 42
xii
Figure 3. 20 Specimen dimension of impact test ..................................................................... 43
Figure 3. 21 Specimen orientation according to rolling direction ........................................... 43
Figure 3. 22 HIROX KH – 1300 macro etch ........................................................................... 44
Figure 3. 23 Specimen dimension of impact test ..................................................................... 45
Figure 3. 24 SPECTROLAB testing machine ......................................................................... 46
Figure 3. 25 Specimen dimension for Spark OES test............................................................. 46
Figure 3. 26 Truck load ............................................................................................................ 50
Figure 3. 27 Combination of lane load and truck load ............................................................ 50
Figure 3. 28 Plastic force in composite section ....................................................................... 53
Figure 4. 1 OES Spark test specimen....................................................................................... 58
Figure 4. 2 Specimens after test ............................................................................................... 62
Figure 4. 3 Ductile and brittle fracture..................................................................................... 62
Figure 4. 4 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of SM520B T-1 ....................................................... 65
Figure 4. 5 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of SM520B T-2 ....................................................... 66
Figure 4. 6 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of SM520B T-2, T-1 and Standard ......................... 67
Figure 4. 7 All weld specimen after test .................................................................................. 68
Figure 4. 8 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 W – 1 ...................... 70
Figure 4. 9 Stress – strain curve comparison of SM520B and S 2.5 Ni – E80 ........................ 71
Figure 4. 10 Bending specimen after the test ........................................................................... 72
Figure 4. 11 Preparation of the specimen ................................................................................ 73
Figure 4. 12 After test result of specimen ................................................................................ 75
Figure 4. 13 After test result of specimen ................................................................................ 76
Figure 4. 14 Vickers hardness test specimen ........................................................................... 78
Figure 4. 15 Graphic of Vickers Hardness Test in base, HAZ, and weld ................................ 79
Figure 4. 16 Macro Etch specimen .......................................................................................... 80
Figure 4. 17 Welding penetration ............................................................................................ 81
Figure 4. 18 Porosity in the welding metal .............................................................................. 82
Figure 4. 19 Undercut in the welding metal specimen ............................................................ 83
Figure 4. 20 Slag inclusion in the welding metal specimen .................................................... 84
Figure 4. 21 Flexure moment of SM520B I girder .................................................................. 85
Figure 4. 22 Flexure moment of SM520B tub girder ………………………………………..86
Figure 5. 1 Comparison of flexure moment and resistance of I girder and tub girder using
SM520B welding plate ............................................................................................................ 88
xiii
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Description SI Units
𝜎 Axial stress kg/mm²
F Axial Force N
A Cross sectional area mm²
ε Axial Strain -
ΔL Extension mm
L Original length mm
E Modulus young kg/ mm²
σ Bending stress kg/ mm²
F Axial Force N
L The length of the support span mm
t Thickness of specimen mm
b Width mm
r Mandrel radius mm
F Load kgf
d Average diagonal length mm
HV Vickers Hardness -
µ Total energy J
m Mass of pendulum kg
g Gravitation m/s²
h0 Initial height of the pendulum m
hf final height of the pendulum m
n Material constant -
𝜺𝒖𝒔 Uniform strain/ plastic strain at end of
uniform elongation
-
𝐹𝑡𝑢 Ultimate strength N/mm²
MPa
xiv
𝐹𝑡𝑦 Yield strength N/mm²
MPa
ɳ𝑖 the response modifier factor -
𝛾𝑖 the load factors -
Qi the force or load acting on the bridge
𝐹𝑡𝑢 Ultimate strength MPa
𝐹𝑡𝑦 Yield strength MPa
v Poisson’s Ratio -
E Modulus of Elasticity kN/m2
f’c Concrete Strength MPa
𝛾 Weight Density kN/m3
Mu Ultimate flexure moment kNm
Фf Flexure strength reduction factor -
Mn Nominal flexural moment kNm
Vu Ultimate shear strength kN
Фv Shear strength reduction factor -
Vn Nominal shear strength kN
tw Web thickness mm
D Web height mm
bf Flange width mm
tf Flange thickness mm
Iyc moment of inertia of the compression
flange of the steel section about the
vertical axis in the plane of the web
Kg m2
Iyt moment of inertia of the tension
flange of the steel section about the
vertical axis in the plane of the web.
Kg m2
Dcp depth of the web in compression at
the plastic moment
mm
Rh Hybrid Factor -
Prt Top reinforcement strength kN
Prb Bottom reinforcement strength kN
xv
Fyr Yield strength of the top
reinforcement
MPa
Art Cross section area top mm2
Fyr Yield strength of the bottom
reinforcement
MPa
Pt Bottom flange strength kN
bft Bottom flange width mm
tft Bottom flange thickness Mm
Fyt Yield strength of bottom flange MPa
Pw Web strength kN
D Web width mm
tw Web thickness mm
Fyw Yield strength of web MPa
Pc Top flange strength kN
bfc Top flange width mm
tfc Top flange thickness Mm
Fyc Yield strength of top flange MPa
Ps Concrete slab strength kN
fck Specified strength of concrete MPa
Bs Slab width mm
ts Slab thickness mm
MD1 Moment of permanent load before the
composite section
kNm
MD2 Moment of permanent load for long-
term composite section
kNm
MAD Additional moment in short-term
composite section
kNm
Snc Non-composite section modulus mm3
SLT Long-term composite section
modulus
mm3
SST Short-term composite section
modulus
mm3
My Plastic moment kNm
xvi
fl Flange stress -
Mz1 Moment of permanent load before the
composite section
kNm
Mz2 Moment of permanent load for long-
term composite section
kNm
Mz3 Additional moment in short-term
composite section
kNm
Fyf Flange Yield strength MPa
Mn Nominal moment kNm
Dp Distance from the top of the concrete
slab to the neutral line
mm
Dt Height of the composite part mm
Sxt Elastic section modulus about the
major axis of the section to the
tension flange taken as (Myt/Fyt)
mm3
k Shear buckling coefficient -
d0 Transverse stiffener distance mm
Vp Plastic shear force kN
Vn Nominal resistance kN
C Ratio of buckling shear resistance
and shear strength
-
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Jakarta-Cikampek Toll Road has long been one of the busiest highways in Indonesia. It was
operated since 1988 by PT. Jasa Marga (Persero) Tbk. as the link between the north coast line
of Java and Jakarta. Jakarta-Cikampek nowadays has gone through many construction changes.
Most of the Jakarta-Cikampek Toll Road sections currently have 4 x 2 lanes. This marked the
heavy traffic passing through this toll road. In addition, there are 10 interchanges, 27 vehicle
crossings, 16 pedestrian bridges, and 18 toll gates. This toll road is connected and integrated
with Jakarta Inner Ring Road, Jakarta Outer Ring Road (JORR) and Purwakarta-Bandung-
Cileunyi Toll Road (Purbaleunyi) [1].
To prevent Jakarta-cikampek toll road being burdened by the ever-increasing volume of
vehicles each year, in 2017 PT. Jasa Marga (Persero) Tbk. has constructed the new highway
called Jakarta-Cikampek Elevated Toll Road 2. The Elevated Toll distances from west to east
of the Jakarta-Cikampek Toll Road along 38 kilometres, starting from KM9+500 Cikunir
interchanges to KM47+500 West Karawang. The drill pole type foundation will support the
Elevated Toll that consists of four lanes with two lanes and each lane is 3.5x2 square meters.
In addition to the foundation, the technology used for the construction of the overpass is
Sosrobahu system. The technology created by the Indonesian engineer is claimed to be able to
reduce traffic to a minimum due to the work of making road foundation poles [2].
One of the materials used by Jakarta-Cikampek Elevated Toll 2 is SM520B Welding Plate.
This Material is the part of the construction using steel tub and I girder applications to make
the construction time more efficient. The steel material that being used has 12 times higher
weight and strength ratio compared to concrete, is more flexible and can be recycled [3].
Therefore, the objective in this thesis is to characterize the SM520B Welding Plate by using
Tension Test, Bending Test, Impact Test, Hardness Test, Macro Etch, and Chemical
Composition Test. The second objective is to determine the flexural strength of both steel tub
and I girder using the SM520B material with the load combinations of AASHTO LRFD Bridge,
2012 standard.
2
1.2 Problem Statement
This thesis will focus on some aspects of SM520B Welding Plate, including:
1. The mechanical properties and chemical composition of SM520B.
2. Construction of tube girder and I girder using Midas Civil
3. The flexure resistance of SM520B tube girder and I girder using AASHTO LRFD
Bridge, 2012 standard.
1.3 Research Objectives
The research objectives on this thesis focus on:
1. To analyze the construction of SM520B welding plate, that includes the Welding
Process using SMAW and the chemical composition of the steel material.
2. To determine the flexural strength of SM520B welding plate using the Midas Civil
Software according to AASHTO LRFD standard
There are benefits that can be obtained from this thesis, this includes:
1. For author:
• To understand the characterization of SM520B and possibly to determine any
problem with this material in the future.
2. For manufacturer:
• To demonstrate that the product has met the requirement according to national
and international standard, therefore the product is reliable and can be used in
every construction project in Indonesia.
1.4 Problem Scope and Limitation
The thesis will be conducted under the following scopes:
1. The material used in this work is SM520B steel plate with the thickness of 22 mm
2. The Test includes chemical composition test, tensile test, bending test, Charpy impact
test, Vickers hardness test, macro etch test and will be conducted in laboratories of PT
Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) using specimen that have been provided by KSO
BUKAKA – KS.
3
3. Midas Civil Software will be used to construct the steel-tube girder and I girder, and
analyze the flexural strength of the steel material.
There are limitations in discussion of this thesis including:
1. The calculation analysis consists only the flexural strength of the structure.
2. The discussion in this thesis is limited to SM520B and its characterization despite of
other steel material available in the construction of the girder.
1.5 Outline of Thesis
This thesis consists of five chapters as arranged below with an outline:
Chapter 1: introduction. This chapter consists of problem background of the research,
problem statement, the research objectives, research problem scope and limitations, research
methodology, and the research outline.
Chapter 2: literature review. This chapter describes about the definition of Welding,
SMAW Welding process, Steel manufacture, chemical construction and mechanical properties
of Steel, the type of the girder available in the construction of elevated highway, and the load
combinations according to AASHTO LRFD bridge, 2012 standard.
Chapter 3: methodology. This chapter is contained the explanation, description, step by
step from the problem background and problem identification until data analysis. It includes
the procedure of mechanical test, chemical test and construction of the girder using software.
Chapter 4: result and discussion. This chapter consists of the result of calculation, and the
results of data analysis that related to the specimen.
Chapter 5: conclusion and recommendation. This chapter has contained the result of the
research and also this chapter is an answer to the problem statement and the objective of the
research which in the first chapter.
4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Welding and Welding Process Types
2.1.1 Definition of Welding
Welding is a process to join the two metals by heating the two ends of the metal until it melts
to each other end. There are two configurations to join both of the metal, it can be added or
without added filler rod. In order to heat the metal that will be welded, there are two basics
welding processes as follows:
• Gas-welding (oxy-acetylene welding).
• Metal-arc welding (electric) [4].
2.1.2 Types of Welded Joint
In order to get a perfect welded joint, it is necessary to prepare for each welded side with certain
shapes. The pattern of the weld side can be carried out by grinding, filing, chiseling, or formed
by cutting in order the shape of the connection has achieved to the desired welding standard.
From the shape/construction of the part to be welded, the welded joint consists of [5]:
• Butt Joint
• Corner Joint
• Lap Joint
• Tee Joint
• Edge Joint
The types of welded joint that will be focused in this final project is butt joint.
2.1.3 Butt Joint
Butt joint is connecting two metal ends on both edges in the similar plane with a welding
process. The types of butt joint can be seen in the figure 2.1 below:
5
Figure 2. 1 Various Types of Butt Joint [6]
The square butt joint is the most common type for metals that are 3-8 mm in thickness. The
strength of the joint is reasonably good, although it is not recommended if the metals are subject
to fatigue or impact loads. The construction of the joint is not difficult, because it only welds
the edges of each plate together; nonetheless, it should be fitted together correctly and precisely
for the entire length of the joint.
Grooved butt joint is often used for metals more than 3-8 mm in thickness due to the required
strength is stronger than the square butt joint. The most important thing is that the groove angle
is acceptable to allow the electrode to fit into the joint, in order to avoid the crack due to the
lack of penetration. Nevertheless, the bevel should not exceed the angle which has been
determined by AWS in that it does not waste both material and weld time. According to the
thickness of the base metal, it consists of two type of the joint, single-grooved or double-
grooved, with both single-V and double-V grooved joints has been commonly used in welded
joint.
6
For the plate thickness of 4-26 mm, single-V grooved is widely used in welded joint. Each
plate should be beveled to the of 60 degrees for plate and 75 degrees for pipe. It is more
expensive than a square butt joint due to the requirement of a special beveling machine or
cutting torch and more filler. Nevertheless, it is stronger than the square butt joint. Both single-
V and square butt joint are not recommended when subjected to bending at the center line of
the weld.
If the metal will be used for all load conditions, the double-V butt joint can be chosen as the
alternative than both single-V and square. It is normally found on metals with the thickness of
12-60 mm but can also be used on thinner plate where strength is a vital point. The preparation
time is longer than the single-V joint, but the use of filler metal is lesser due to the narrower
included angle of 55 to 70 degree. It can only be welded each side one at the time as a result of
the heat produced by welding and thus it can produce a symmetrical weld and minimizes
deformation on the metal [7].
2.1.4 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is a process of joining two or more pieces of metal, into
a fixed joint, using an electric heat source and fillers in the form of electrode coating. In the
coated electrode welding process, the electric arc that occurs between the tip of the electrode
and base metal will produce heat. The electrode metal transfer process happens when the tip of
the electrode melts and forms grains carried by electric arc currents. In case that large electric
current is used, the molten metal particles carried become smooth and on the contrary if the
current is small the granules become large.
The weldability of metals is highly altered by Liquid metal transfer pattern. Metals have high
weldability when the transfer uses fine and smooth grains. The pattern of fluid transfer is
determined by the size of the current and composition of the flux material used. The flux
material is used to coat the electrodes during melts and forms a slag that covers the liquid metal
which is flocked at the joint and acts as an oxidation barrier [8].
SMAW stands of several pieces of equipment that are arranged to form as a unit of equipment
for welding. SMAW welding unit consists of:
• Power source
Power source for welding machine consist of two types, alternating current welding
machines (AC welding machines) and direct current welding machines (DC welding
7
machines). In AC welding machines there are transformers that increase or decrease the
voltage and most of the transformers used in welding equipment are step-down
transformers type, i.e. transformers that function is to reduce voltage. Whereas in DC
welding machines there are receivers or current rectifiers which function is to convert
alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
• Welding cables
The function of welding wires is to conduct electrical current from the power source to
the electrodes and mass. Large electrical currents should be able to flow through the
cable without experiencing many problems, so it is important to choose a cable that is
in accordance with the current flowed.
• Electrodes
There are two types of electrodes based on the protective membrane, the plain electrode
and the webbed electrode. Webbed electrodes consist of a core part as a metal filler and
a protective substance or flux which functions is:
1. Protect welding fluid, electric arcs, and welded metals from outside air. The
oxygen from air can cause oxidation, which also affect the mechanical
properties of the welded metal.
2. Allows for different welding positions to be carried out.
3. Can alter the properties to the welding results by adding certain substances to
the electrode membrane.
• Electrode holder
The non-webbed clamp holder, and also works to carry electric current from the cable
to the electrode.
• Spring-loaded or screw clamp
Clamp is used to fasten the cable lead to the workpiece. a spring-loaded clamp is
suitable for simple low currents. Contrarily, a screw clamp may be used for high
currents to provide a good connection and to avoid overheating the clamp. The clamp
should attach smooth and tightly to the workpiece.
• Other equipment
Other assistive equipment is not necessary. Its function is to make welding safety and
comfortable for the welder. Commonly used tools include: slag hammer, pliers for
holding hot workpieces, wire brushes, welding masks, and so on.
8
Figure 2. 2 Schematic of Shielded Metal Arc Welding [9]
2.1.5 AC and DC Polarity
The polarity based on the current released at the tip of the electrode is divided into 3 types, AC
(alternating current), DCEP (direct-current electrode positive), and DCEN (direct-current
electrode negative):
• DCEP
The definition of DCEP is that the welding material is connected to the negative pole (-)
and the electrode is connected to the positive (+) pole of the welding machine. The electrons
leave the surface of the welded metal and travel to the electrode across the arc. This results
in about two-thirds of the electrode's welding heat and one-third of the welded metal.
• DCEN
By Direct Current Negative Electrode, the welding material is connected to a positive
pole (+) and the electrode is connected to a negative pole (-) on a welding machine.
9
This results in about one-third of the electrode's welding heat and two-thirds of the
welded metal. This type of welding current generates a high melting rate of the
electrodes
• AC
Alternating current is frequently used as the alternative to DC due its cheaper equipment
and maintenance. The characterization of AC is that it changes polarity between
electrode and work, from anode to cathode, 120 times per second with a 60-hertz
current. The advantage of AC is that the result is not as smooth as DC welding due to
the continuous change in directional flow and more spatter occur in the welding area
[10].
2.1.6 Covered Electrodes
Electric arc welding requires a welding wire (electrode) which consists of a core made of metal
coated with a layer of chemical mixture. The electrode has a function as a generator and as an
added material.
The electrodes consist of two parts, the flux and non-webbed parts which become the base for
pinning the welding pliers. Flux protects the liquid metal from the air environment, produce
protective gas, and stabilize the arc. Flux coating on the core wire can be done with destruction,
spray or dip. The standard size of the diameter of the core wire can be varied from 1.5 mm to
7 mm with a length between 350 to 450 mm. Types of flux membranes on electrodes are
cellulose, calcium carbonate (CaC03), titanium dioxide (rutile), kaolin, potassium oxide
manganese, iron oxide, iron powder, silicon iron, manganese iron and others. The flux has the
function to protect the liquid metal from the air environment, produce protective gas, and
stabilize the arc.
The thickness of the electrode membrane extends from 70% to 50% of the electrode diameter
depending on the type of membrane. At the time of welding, this electrode membrane will also
melt and produce CO2 against the outside air, which will be able to influence the mechanical
properties of the weld metal. The membrane fluid called slag will flow and freeze the surface.
10
Figure 2. 3 Electrode Classification Standards [11]
There are several things that need to be considered in using the electrode, this include:
• Type of metal to be welded.
• Thickness of the material to be welded.
• The mechanical strength expected from the welding results.
• Welding position.
• Types of joint.
11
2.1.7 Heat Input
For melting the base and filler metal requires sufficient energy. The energy produced in
welding is provided from various sources depending on the process. In electric arc welding,
the energy output comes from electricity which is converted into heat energy. This thermal
energy is actually the result of combination from the welding current, voltage and speed.
Furthermore, the welding speed also affects the welding energy due to the heating process is
moving with a certain speed. In the welding process there are three areas as shown in the figure
2.4.
Figure 2. 4 Welding Area [12]
• Base metal is the part where the heat and temperature from the welding does not cause
structural changes and properties.
• Weld metal is part of the metal that solidifies due to the melting of filler metal.
• The heat affected zone (HAZ), is the base metal next to the welding metal in which
during the welding process sustains a rapid cycle of heating and cooling. The amount
of heat input, peak temperature reached, distance from fusion zone, time at elevated
temperature, cooling rate, and the thermal properties of metal has affected the amount
of metallurgical damage in the heat affected zone (HAZ).
• Fusion Line (LF), or fusion area, is the boundary line between the melting metal and
the HAZ area.
12
The quality of welding is determined by significant heat energy. The correlation between these
three parameters (welding current, voltage and speed) that produce welding energy is often
called heat input.
2.2 Steel
The types of materials used to build girder box in Jakarta-Cikampek Elevated Toll is steel.
Steel is made from a mixture of iron carbon and other additional elements. The carbon content
allowable for steelmaking should not exceed more than 2%. In case of carbon and alloy steel,
additional element is added to strengthen the material. Manganese is added about 1.8% to
improve its mechanical properties. The amount of silicon is varied from 0.5% to 3.5% to
increase the strength and hardness. Nickel is added from 3 to 3.75% to produces a finer grained
material with increased strength and erosion resistance [13].
There are various types of carbon steel in the market today, where the chemical composition,
mechanical properties, size, shape and others are specified for the use according to the Japanese
Industrial Standard (JIS) and ASTM Standards. In the steel plate there are stages of the process
to achieve good plate quality. This process includes:
• Open heart process, which is smelting the iron ore.
• Electric Furnaces, namely the process of refining molten iron ore.
• Oxygen Process is the process of repairing metal fluids.
Figure 2.5 shows the manufacturing process of steel plate:
13
Figure 2. 5 Steel making process [14]
Based on the amount of carbon content in AISI classification, Carbon steel can be classified
into four groups. This four group consist of:
• Low-Carbon Steel
It consists between 0.05% and 0.3% carbon and available in rods, steel plates and strip
steels. It has low tensile strength and is suitable for used in annealed or normalized
conditions for construction and structural purposes, such as bridges, buildings, motor
vehicles, and ships.
• Medium-Carbon Steel
The amount of carbon content is between 0.3% and 0.6%. It has balanced ductility and
strength and also has good wear resistance. This type of steel is normally used for large
parts, forging and automotive components.
• High-Carbon Steel
The carbon content from this steel can varied from 0.6 to 1.0% and by using heat
treatment the material can be extremely hard and brittle. It can be found in manufacture
for springs, swords and high-strength wires [15].
14
2.2.1 Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is the processes to alter the metal structure by heating the specimen at a
recrystallization temperature for a certain period of time and then cooling it to a medium such
as air, water, salt water, oil and diesel, each of which has a different cooling density.
Mechanical properties of metal are strongly influenced by its micro structure in addition to its
chemical composition, for example a metal or alloy will have different mechanical properties
that vary from altered microstructure. By heating or cooling at a certain speed, the structure of
metal and alloy materials can change differently. Heat treatment is a combination process of
heating or cooling a metal or alloy in a solid state to achieve a certain property. To be able to
do this, the cooling speed and temperature limit are very decisive. Below is the common
description of heat treatment:
• Normalizing
Is a process of heating the metal to a temperature of 850-950°C until it reaches the
austenite phase, and cooled with air. This cooling phase resulted in the form of pearlite
and ferrite but much smoother than annealing. The principle of the normalizing process
is to soften the metal, nevertheless high carbon steel or certain alloy steel might not
achieve the same level of softness than other metal due to the higher carbon content.
• Annealing
the process of heating the steel around the temperature of 850-950° C, followed by
slowly cooling by air while evenly maintaining the outer and inner temperatures until
the desired structure is obtained. This process produces a softer and more ductile
material than normalizing.
• Hardening
Quench hardening is the process of heating steel to the temperature of 850-950°C,
followed by rapidly cooling or quenching in oil or water. It produces the hardest
condition for the particular steel and also increase the tensile strength.
• Tempering
This process starts with quenching of steel and later reheating to the temperature up to
about 680°C. Higher tempering temperature results in great durability, on the other
hand the hardness becomes rather low. After the metal has been tempered, it is rapidly
cooled by quenching [16].
15
Figure 2.6 shows the process of heat treatment using hot rolling of SM520B
Figure 2. 6 Hot Rolling of SM520B [17]
Hot rolling is carried out above the recrystallization temperature. The material is in the form
of ingots or casting metals. it has a rough structure and the grains are not uniform. Because the
structure inside is rough and non-uniform, the pouring material has brittle properties and it is
possible to have small holes (pores). With the hot rolling process, the structure of the material
can be converted into a wrought structure. Wrought structure has finer and neater grains. The
condition of these grains makes the material more ductile. In addition, the hot rolling process
can also close small holes in the material.
Alloy steel uses rolling temperatures around 1250° C. The slabs are then rolled into the
roughing mill to recrystallize the structure from coarse to fine uniform grain. In the finishing
mill, the transfer bars are rolled into sheets. The maximum final goal reduction is about 70
percent below the no-recrystallization temperature, and the actual effective stand temperature
is 850-870° C. The strips were cooled in the laminar cooling with the temperature of 650° C
on the way down to the final product [18].
Hot rolling produces a number of products known as blooms, slabs, and billets. Bloom usually
has a square cross section with sides of at least 150 mm. Slabs usually have a rectangular cross
section. While the billet has a square cross section but smaller in size compared to bloom.
Bloom can be further processed by the process of rolling shapes, so as to produce structural
16
forms such as I-beams and railroads. Slabs can be rolled into plates and sheets of material.
Billets are rolled by the process of rolling them into square and circular rods.
The changes of phase in carbon steel can be explained using the iron carbon phase diagram
shown in Figure 2.5. The diagram is based on the transformation that occurs as a result of
heating and cooling. The size of the decrease in temperature is strongly influenced by the fast
or slow cooling rate. the crystalline forms of iron and iron-carbon alloys consist of ferrite,
cementite, and austenite as described below [19]:
• Ferrite
Ferrite is soft and ductile due to the low contain of carbon in the iron. Ferrite structures
are formed by slow cooling of low carbon steel below the critical temperature. Ferrite
does not harden and brittle even when quenched. It is magnetic and has very slight solid
solubility, less than 0.02%, of carbon. The crystalline forms of ferrite are Face Centered
Cube (FCC).
• Cementite
Cementite is an intermetallic phase formed in metals with a maximum carbon solubility
of 6.67%. The high solubility of carbon gives hardness and brittle to this phase, and
contributes together with ferrite to determine the strength of a metal.
• Austenite
Austenite is a phase with a carbon solubility of 2.08%. Carbon solubility will drop to
0. 08% at eutectoid temperature (723 Celsius). It is soft, non-magnetic, and has better
corrosion resistance than the other phases. Austenite is an unstable phase at room
temperature, thus it needs another alloy composition that will function as a stabilizer of
austenite phase at room temperature, for example manganese (Mn).
17
Figure 2. 7 Iron Carbon Phase Diagram [20]
2.2.2 Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagram
Time-Temperature Diagram describes the transformation of austenite to time and temperature.
through this diagram steel characteristic can be studied at each phase of heat treatment. This
diagram can also be used to estimate the structure and mechanical properties of steel quenched
from its austenite temperature to a temperature below A1 (critical temperature). It is essential
for welders to understand these phenomena because the surrounding metal structure will be
affected during welding process. Therefore, the velocity of a weld and the surrounding metal
temperature will affect the transformation of the grain structure in the heat-affected zone
(HAZ).
18
Figure 2. 8 Time-Temperature Diagram for eutectoid steel [21]
• Martensite
Martensite is formed when austenite is cooled very quickly through a quenching
process in the water medium. Transformation takes place at very fast speeds so that
carbon diffusion is not possible. The grain structure is very hard, brittle, and no
ductility. Martensite phase is a metastable phase that will form a more stable phase if
given heat treatment.
• Bainite
Bainite grain structure is formed at temperatures ranging from 250° to 500 °C. Bainite
is a non-lamellar mixture of ferrite and cementite formed in the austenite decomposition
by eutectoid reaction. The grain structure is hard and strong, but has some ductility.
• Pearlite
Pearlite is a mixture of cementite and ferrite. If eutectoid steel austenite and cooled
rapidly to a temperature below A1 and left at that temperature resulting in isothermal
transformation, the austenite will break down and form pearlite. Together these
structures combine to make a more ductal form of steel [22].
19
2.3 Composite Girder Structure
Composite structure can be defined as structure which combine two different materials with
different properties to work together in carrying the load. The common type of this structure is
the combination of concrete slab and steel girder that carry the bending moment together. Steel
material is a material that is strong against the tensile force and also strong to the compression
force, but the compression force that can be carried by steel is related to the thickness of the
profile. In contrast, concrete is very strong to bear the compressive force and very weak to the
tensile force. Since 1979, composite structure has always been used in buildings, especially on
bridges, where steel and concrete are combined together with the help of a shear connector
[23]. Girder is a supporting horizontal beam that can be constructed from a variety of materials,
mainly steel and concrete. Normally, types of steel beams used in the construction of girder
bridges are either I-beam girders or tub girder.
• Tub Girder
The tub girder is a flexible structural component composed of several plate elements.
The tub girder is basically a block with a large cross section and a long span. The large
cross section is a consequence of the long span of the beam. Tub girder beams formed
from plate elements to achieve a more efficient arrangement of material than those
normally obtained from fabrication profile I girder. The composite tub section usually
consists of two webs, one bottom flanges, two top flanges and a shear connector welded
on a top flange layer with a concrete deck as shown in figure 2.9. Top flanges are
usually considered to be sufficiently associated with hardening the concrete deck to the
strength limit, and are checked based on local buckling before hardening the concrete
deck. Bottom flanges must be wide enough to provide adequate cushioning for the
concrete deck and to allow sufficient space for welding shear connectors on the flange.
[24]. The high flexure and torsion resistance of tube girder is making it more suitable
for horizontally curved bridges, improved aerodynamic stability and reduced
susceptibility to lateral flange buckling. Figure 2.9 and 2.10 shows the typical
dimension of the girder.
20
Figure 2. 9 Structure of tub girder [25]
Figure 2. 10 Tub girder dimension
• I Profile Girder
I profile girder is commonly used in the construction of bridge and other structure.
Building and maintaining a girder bridge using I-beam girders is easier and cheaper.
However, these girders do not always provide sufficient structural strength and stability
if the bridge is very long or the bridge span is curved because they are sensitive to the
twisting forces or the torque that the span is subject to.
There are two failures that can occur in the structure component of profile I. The first
failure profile will experience lateral-torsional buckling due to displacement and
rotation in the middle span, although this does not change shape of the girder. The
second failure, the profile will experience local buckling on the compressed flange and
also on the web, resulting in a change in the shape of the profile, this is caused by a
relatively large slenderness ratio between the height of the web to its thickness. This
21
can be solved by installing stiffeners between the web and flange. Figure 2.11 and 2.12
shows the structure and dimension of I girder.
Figure 2. 11 Structure of I profile girder
Figure 2. 12 I profile girder dimension
2.4 AAHSTO LRFD Bridge, 2012 Standard
AASHTO LRFD 2012 stands for American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials - Load and Resistance Factor Design. It is intended as a guide for bridge construction,
especially in the aspect of loading. In the loading standard for this bridge, the load calculation
will be used in planning the bridge, including pedestrian bridge and secondary buildings
associated with the bridge [26]. The total factor must be calculated using the following
equation:
22
𝑄 = Σɳ𝑖𝛾𝑖𝑄𝑖
Which:
ɳ𝑖 = the response modifier factor
𝛾𝑖 = the load factors
Qi = the force or load acting on the bridge
The components and connections on the bridge must meet Equation above for a combination
of extreme loads as determined in each of the following boundary conditions:
• Strength I : The combination of loading that takes into account the forces that arise
on the bridge under normal circumstances without calculating the wind load. In this
boundary state, all nominal forces that occur are multiplied by the corresponding load
factor.
• Strength II : Combination of loading which is related to the use of bridges to carry
the burden of special vehicles determined by the owner without taking into account the
wind load.
• Strength III : The combination of loading with the bridge is subjected to wind loads
with speeds of 90 km / h to 126 km / h.
• Strength IV : Combination of loading to calculate the possibility of a ratio of dead
load to a large live load.
• Strength V : The combination of loading is related to the normal operation of the
bridge taking into account wind loads with speeds of 90 km / h to 126 km / h.
• Extreme I : A combination of earthquake loading. Life load factor that takes into
consideration the operation of live load during an earthquake must be determined based
on the importance of the bridge.
• Extreme II : Combination of loading which reviews the combination of a reduced
living load with a burden arising from a collision of a ship, a collision of a vehicle, a
flood or other hydraulic load, except for cases of loading due to a vehicle collision (TC).
Cases of loading due to flooding should not be combined with loads due to vehicle
collisions and ship collisions
• Service I : The combination of loading associated with bridge operations with all
loads has a nominal value and takes into account wind loads with speeds of 90 km / h
to 126 km / h. This combination is also used to control deflection of steel culverts,
23
tunnel lining plates, thermoplastic pipes and to control crack width of reinforced
concrete structures; and also, for the analysis of tensile stress on cross sections of
segmental concrete bridges. This combination of loading must also be used to
investigate slope stability.
• Service II : Combination of loading intended to prevent melting of steel structures
and slippage of joints due to vehicle loads.
• Service III : Combination of loading to calculate the tensile stress in the elongated
direction of the prestressed concrete bridge with the aim to control the magnitude of the
crack and the main tensile stress on the body part of the segmental concrete bridge.
• Service IV : Combination of loading to calculate tensile stress in prestressed
concrete columns with the aim of controlling the size of the crack
• Fatigue : Combination of fatigue and fracture related to age of fatigue due to
induction of an indefinite load.
The load combination can be determined in table 2.1 below:
Table 2. 1 Load combination [27]
Source: AASHTO LRFD bridge, 2012 Standard.
24
The following permanent and transient expenses must be taken into account in planning bridge:
• Permanent Expense
DD = down drag
DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process,
including the secondary forces from post tensioning
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
• Transient Loads
BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
CV = vessel collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
IC = ice load
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = live load pedestrian
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = wind load on structure
The load factor for load combination can be seen in table 2.2 below:
25
Table 2. 2 Load factor for load combination [28]
Source: AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012 Standard.
26
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Flowchart Diagram
27
3.2 SM520B Specimen
The specimen used in this study is G 3106 SM520B Thickness 22 mm. the following table
show the grades of steel in JIS, ASTM and others classification:
Table 3. 1 Steel specified by international standards [29]
According to AISI, G 3106 SM520 or A572 Gr. 60 is classified as a high-strength low-alloy
steel (HSLA) and is known for strength, toughness at low temperatures, and ductility. The
amount of carbon in this steel is 0.20%, therefore the metal can be categorized as low carbon
metal. On the other hand, the amount of Manganese (Mn) element has a high number of 1.65%
to improve the hardenability of low-carbon steels. A572 Gr. 60 is suitable for structural
purpose such as construction equipment, oil drilling platforms, and structural steel. For further
information can be shown in the table 3.2 below:
28
Table 3. 2 The chemical composition of SM520B Steel [30]
In addition to the chemical composition, the mechanical properties of SM520B steel can be
determined in the table below:
Table 3. 3 The mechanical properties of SM520B Steel [31]
The specimen should be collected according to AWS D1.5M D1.5-2015 Bridge Welding Code
– Steel for machining preparation. The procedure for collecting specimen can be demonstrated
in the figure 3.1
29
Figure 3. 1 WPS Qualification or Pre-test [32]
3.3 Electrode
An electrode can be simply described as coated metal wire. As explained in chapter 2, It is
formed of materials similar to the metal being welded. There are two types of electrode found
in the industries, consumable and non-consumable electrodes. Shield metal arc welding
(SMAW) used consumable electrode, in which the electrode is consumed and melts with the
material during welding process.
30
Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 is the type of electrode used in this thesis. All the characteristic and
other information can be found in the table 3.4.
Table 3. 4 Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 specification [33]
31
The electrode E8018-C1H4R use DC (+) to produces a good bead profile with a higher level
of penetration. The electrode can be seen in figure 3.2.
Figure 3. 2 Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 [34]
3.4 SM520B Destructive Testing and Non-Destructive Testing
3.4.1 Tensile Test
Tensile test determines the strength level of a material and the characteristics of the material.
The mechanical test values include stress, strain, and modulus young. In principle, the test is
carried out using a machine that can provide a strong tensile force to the material and also gives
a tight grip so that the material is not released when given the tensile force. In this thesis the
materials used as objects for tensile testing are SM520B welding plates Thickness 22 mm. Both
of these materials have different properties from each test. For the weld metal tensile test, test
specimen should be taken entirely out of weld metal. Normally the material will break in the
weakest part of the welding, which is often in the HAZ area [32]. Then the properties of tensile
test can be calculated by the equation:
• Stress can be interpreted as a force divided by the cross-sectional area of the material.
Stress can be formulated as follows:
𝜎 = 𝐹
𝐴𝑜
32
𝜎 = Axial stress (kg/mm²)
F = Axial Force (N)
A = Cross sectional area (mm²)
• Strain can be interpreted as the ratio of extension to original length. Strains can be
formulated as follows:
𝜀 = ∆𝐿
𝐿𝑜=
𝐿−𝐿𝑜
𝐿𝑜
ε = Axial Strain
ΔL = Extension (mm)
L = Original length (mm)
• Modulus young is a comparison between stress and strain which is formulated as
follows:
𝐸 = 𝜎
𝜀
E = Modulus young (kg/ mm²)
σ = Axial stress (kg/ mm²)
ε = Axial strain
The relation of stress, strain, and modulus young can be described in the diagram below:
Figure 3. 3 Stress-Strain Diagram [35]
33
Yield strength is described as the minimum stress when a material loses its elasticity, while
tensile strength is the maximum stress that can be received by a material before the material is
broken, in which it can determine the maximum load received by a surface. According to the
AWS rules in the figure 3.1, the specimen should be collected as follows:
Figure 3. 4 Section for tensile test on welding plate [36]
For tensile test machine, Schenck Trebel 100 Ton and United SHFM – 600kN are used by PT.
Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero).
Figure 3. 5 Schenck Trebel 100 Ton tensile test machine
34
Figure 3. 6 United SHFM – 600 KN
The dimension for all the specimens is described in the figures 3.7 and figure 3.8.
Figure 3. 7 AWS Standard for specimen dimension for weld and base metal
35
Figure 3. 8 AWS Standard for specimen dimension of All weld metal
3.4.2 Bending Test
Bending test is one form of testing to determine the quality of a material visually. In addition,
the bending test is used to measure the ductility of the material in both weld metal and HAZ.
In determining load and the dimensions of the mandrel there are several factors that must be
considered, namely tensile strength, chemical composition and microstructure. Based on the
position of specimens collected, bending test can be divided into transversal and longitudinal
bending [37].
In this thesis, specimens will be collected in using transversal bending. In this transverse
bending, sampling specimens are vertical to the welding direction. Based on the loading
direction and the location of the observation, the transversal bending test is divided into three,
root bend, side bend and face bend. The equation for bending test can be described:
𝜎 = 3𝐹𝐿
2𝑏𝑑²
σ = Bending stress
F = The load/force at the fracture point (N)
L = The length of the support span (mm)
b = Width (mm)
36
t = Thickness of specimen (mm)
The length of support span can be determined using equation:
𝐿 = 2 ∗ 𝑟 + 3 ∗ 𝑡
r = Mandrel radius (mm)
t = Thickness of specimen (mm)
Figure 3. 9 Transversal bending [38]
Figure 3. 10 AWS Standard for specimen dimension of bending test
37
Figure 3. 11 Testing equipment using Schenck Trebel 25 Ton
4 specimens are collected from the test plate according to AWS rules in figure 3.1. All
specimens have similar thickness and width dimension of 10 mm x 22 mm. the mandrel
diameter for each test is 4*t in mm, and the bending angle is 180°.
3.4.3 Vickers Macro-hardness Test
Hardness test of metals is important in manufacturing. The characteristics and quality of metal
can be determined by hardness test to ensure a material has certain specifications needed. In
this thesis, the test is conducted using Vickers hardness test. The Vickers hardness test uses the
diamond pyramid indenter, the angle between the faces of the pyramid facing each other is
136°. There are two different strength ranges, namely micro (10g – 1000g) and macro (1kg –
100kg). The Vickers hardness rate is defined as the load divided by the surface area of the
curve. This area is calculated from microscopic measurements of the diagonal length of the
trace [39]. VHN can be determined from the following equation:
𝐻𝑉 = 2∗𝐹∗sin
136°
2
𝑑²= 1.854 ∗
𝐹
𝑑²
38
HV = Hardness Vickers
F = load (kgf)
d = average diagonal length (mm)
The range of test loads used in Vickers hardness testing ranges from 1 kgf to 120 kgf, and the
commonly used test loads are 5, 10, 30 and 50 kgf. Whereas the standard dwell time is usually
carried out for 10-15 seconds.
Figure 3. 12 Vickers hardness test
Figure 3. 13 Specimen dimension of Vickers macro-hardness test
39
Figure 3. 14 ZWICK ROELL ZHU Machine
Figure 3. 15 Testing of the specimen
40
3.4.4 Charpy Impact Test
Impact test is conducted to determine the strength of the material. Charpy impact test will be
used in this thesis. The basis of this test is the absorption of potential energy from the load that
swings from a certain height and mashing the test material so that deformation occurs. This
instrument is composed of a pendulum and the length dropped from the known height of the
impact notched specimen of the material. The energy transferred to the material can be
concluded by comparing the difference in height of the hammer before and after the fracture
(energy absorbed by the fracture event) [40]. The equation of total energy fracture can be
described as:
𝜇 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ (ℎ0 − ℎ𝑓)
µ = Total energy (J)
m = Mass of pendulum (kg)
g = Gravitation (m/s²)
h0 = initial height of the pendulum (m)
hf = final height of the pendulum (m)
The normal Charpy-V notched specimen in cross section is 55 mm long and 10 mm square,
2mm deep, with 45° angle and 0.25mm radius along the base. Samples of 10 mm by 7.5 or 5
mm are also allowed, with the criteria for effect toughness depending on the size of the
specimen. Sub sized Charpy specimens need to be tested at a reduced temperature than normal
specimen [41].
41
Figure 3. 16 Charpy test mechanism [42]
Figure 3. 17 Procedure of Charpy impact test [43]
There are two types of specimen used in this test, SM520B welding plate and SM520B metal
plate. The dimension of both specimens is 10x10 mm, thickness at base of notch is 8 mm, and
the test temperature will be conducted at -20°C for welding plate and -23°C for metal plate.
The notch area tested for welding plate are fusion line, fusion line + 2 mm, and welding, while
for metal plate the notch area will be conducted in longitudinal and transversal position. Testing
machine is TINIUS OLSEN with ISO 148 – 1: 2006 as test method.
42
Figure 3. 18 TINIUS OLSEN impact test machine
Figure 3. 19 Example of Impact test specimen [44]
43
Figure 3. 20 Specimen dimension of impact test
Figure 3. 21 Specimen orientation according to rolling direction
44
3.4.5 Macro Etching
Etching test is the process of testing materials using digital microscope with the aim of being
able to examine cracks and holes in the surface of materials. The validity rate of macro testing
ranges from 0.5 to 50 times. Testing of this method is usually used for materials which have a
relatively large or rough crystal structure. Etching test can provide images of the metal structure
being tested so that the structures and the properties of the metal can be observed and
determined.
In etching test, the specimens must be grinded and polished. Grinding is done by rubbing the
specimens on a hand grinding machine that is given a rubbing paper with the grit size 40-grit
and move to 60-, 120-, 220-, 320-, 400-, and 600-grit sequentially. While polishing itself is
done by rubbing the specimen on a polishing machine equipped with wool cloth that is given
alumina powder with a fineness of 1-0.05 microns. The addition of alumina powder aims to
further smooth the surface of the specimen so that it will be easier to do the test [45].
The final polishing results in a layer that covers the surface of the metal structure. In order for
a micro structure to be clearly visible under a microscope, the layer must be dissolved by
etching. The solution used for macro etching is Nital, a composition of 20% nitric acid in water
[46]. The testing machine used in this test is HIROX KH – 1300 and the test is conducted in
PT. Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) according to EN 1321 for the test method. Specimen
is collected from Welding Plate Thickness 22 mm SM520B.
Figure 3. 22 HIROX KH – 1300 macro etch
45
Figure 3. 23 Specimen dimension of impact test
3.4.6 Chemical Composition Test
To determine the chemical composition in steel from a specimen, it is necessary to do a
chemical composition test. The instrument used to test chemical composition is commonly
Spark Optical Emission Spectroscopy (Spark OES). Analysis of the specimen at OES is based
on the energy breakdown in the form of wave lengths and involves the transition of electrons
in an atom.
In emission spectroscopy, the energy obtained from atoms emitting electromagnetic radiation
is collected and analysed by a spectrometer. Emissions formed at certain frequencies can be
used to identify the types of elements in the test specimen. Based on quantum theory, electrons
occupy the lowest energy level under normal conditions (ground state). However, when atoms
are given potential energy from outside, electrons can be excited out of the skin occupying
higher energy levels. These conditions are called excited conditions. The outgoing electrons
are captured by the detector and the computer system will recognize it through the energy
configuration of the electron. Thus, the elements contained in the specimen can be known both
qualitatively and quantitatively [47].
The Spark OES test in PT. Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) is conducted using
SPECTROLAB testing machine according to ASTM E 415 standard. The specimen is SM520B
Plate Thickness 22 mm.
46
Figure 3. 24 SPECTROLAB testing machine
Figure 3. 25 Specimen dimension for Spark OES test
47
3.5 Design of The Girders
3.5.1 Steel Tub Girder Design
The steel-tube design is modelled according to the data retrieved from the Jakarta-Cikampek
elevated highway project; the length of the girder used in this thesis is 40 m. The girder
specification and dimension can be listed in the table 3.5 below:
Table 3. 5 Girder specification
Type of girder Composite steel-tub girder
Span 40 m
Height 1.7 m
Girder space 3.5 m
Flange width (top) 450 mm
Flange thickness (top) 22 mm
Web height 1.658 m
Web Thickness 20 mm
Flange width (bottom) 2 m
Flange thickness (bottom) 20 mm
Number of girders 2 girders
Line 2 line
Type of vehicle HL-93 Truck
Source: PT Bukaka Teknik Utama-KSO
48
3.5.2 Steel I girder Design
The data of steel I girder is based on the assumption from the tub girder dimension. Using the
same length of the girder is 40 m span, the difference can be found in the thickness of the web,
flange and the spacing of each girder. The information of the girder can be seen in the table 3.6
below:
Table 3. 6 Steel I girder specification
Type of girder Composite steel I girder
Span 40 m
Height 1.708 m
Girder space 1.75 m
Flange width (top) 450 mm
Flange thickness (top) 25 mm
Web height 1.658 m
Web Thickness 22 mm
Flange width (bottom) 450 mm
Flange thickness (bottom) 25 mm
Number of girders 4 girders
Line 2 line
Type of vehicle HL-93 Truck
49
3.6 Load Combinations
Before calculate an analysis of the bridge structure, the workloads should be adjusted to the
applicable regulations. In this thesis, AASHTO LRFD 2012 regulation is used as the standard
for load combination. There are 2 types of load used in this thesis, dead load and transient load.
3.6.1 Component Dead Load DC
Self-weight is the weight of the material and the part of the bridge, which is a structural element
and the non-structural elements. The weight of the structural elements themselves consist of
girders, cross beams and concrete slab. The weight of the concrete can be calculated simply by
multiply the height and width of slab and the specified strength f’c of the concrete. Together
this load combination can be described as DL(BC) or dead load before the composite. Other
self-weight that does not include in the structural elements is the sidewalk, parapet, and other
structure placed after the erection of the bridge. These load combinations are called DL(AC)
or dead load after the composite.
3.6.2 Wearing surface load DW
All bridges must be planned to be able to carry the additional burden in the form of 50 mm
thick asphalt concrete for resurfacing in the future unless otherwise specified by the competent
authority. This layer must be added to the surface layer listed in the plan drawing.
3.6.3 Live Load LL
According to AASHTO LRFD 2012, live load is the load that comes from heavy vehicles
moving traffic and /or pedestrians who are considered to move on the bridge. There are 2 loads
used for the analysis calculation in this thesis, truck load and lane load.
3.6.3.1 Truck Load HL-93
The design truck has three axles in the longitudinal direction. The first axle is loaded with 35
kN, the second and third axles are loaded with 145 kN each. The spacing between the first and
second axles is 4.3 m, but the spacing between the second and third axles is between 4.3 and 9
m. Figure 3.26 shows the configuration of truck load according to AASHTO standard:
50
Figure 3. 26 Truck load
Source: AASHTO LRFD bridge, 2012 standard
3.6.3.2 Lane Load
For the lane load, it consists of 9.3 kN/m load and uniformly distributed in the longitudinal
direction. In transverse direction, the design lane load is assumed to be uniformly distributed
over a 3 m width. Figure 3.27 shows the combination of lane load and HL-93 truck load.
Figure 3. 27 Combination of lane load and truck load
51
3.7 Flexural Strength Calculation
The flexural strength of a material can be described as the maximum bending stress that can be
applied to that material before it is yield. To determine the flexural strength of the girder
material in thesis, the analysis should be calculated using strength-based limit states according
to the AASHTO LRFD standard. Strength-based limit states are potential structural failure
modes which can occurs either in deformation or fracture. Limit strength can also refer to loss
of structural balance and loss of structural stability. The Flexure in strength limit state can be
described as:
Mu ≤ Фf · Mn
Mu = Ultimate flexure strength (kN.m)
Фf = Flexure strength reduction factor
Mn = Nominal flexural strength (kN.m)
According to AASHTO LRFD 2012, the flexural resistance should be calculated within the
steps below:
1. Cross-Section Proportion
It is stated in the section 6.10.2.1.1 and 6.11.2.1.1 that webs can be tilted or vertical. The
inclination of the web plates to the plane normal to the bottom flange shall not exceed 1 to 4.
For inclined webs, the distance along the web is used to check all design requirements. At the
mid-width of the flanges, the webs attached to the top flanges of the tube sections shall be
attached.
• According to section 6.11.2.1.2 and 6.10.2.1.2 webs without longitudinal stiffener
proportion should be as:
𝐷
tw≤ 150
tw = Web thickness (mm)
D = Web height (mm)
• According to section 6.11.2.2 flange proportions should be compatible to the following
rules:
𝑏𝑓
2𝑡𝑓≤ 12
52
𝑏𝑓 ≥𝐷
6
and
𝑡𝑓 ≥ 1.1 𝑡𝑤
bf = Flange width (mm)
tf = Flange thickness (mm)
For I girder, the flange C6.10.2.2 proportion should also meet the following rules:
0.1 ≤𝐼𝑦𝑐
𝐼𝑌𝑡≤ 10
Iyc = moment of inertia of the compression flange of the steel section about the vertical
axis in the plane of the web (mm4)
Iyt = moment of inertia of the tension flange of the steel section about the vertical axis in
the plane of the web (mm4)
2. Flexural strength limit state in positive flexure
Section 6.11.6.2.2 determines straight bridges that meet the following criteria shall qualify as
a compact section:
• min (Fyc, Fyt, Fyw) ≤ 485 MPa
• the web has satisfied the requirement of Article 6.11.2.1.2
For I girder, the section satisfies the web slenderness limit:
2 𝐷𝑐𝑝
𝑡𝑤≤ 3.76 √
𝐸
𝐹𝑦𝑐
Dcp = depth of the web in compression at the plastic moment (mm)
3. Hybrid Factor
Rh = 1.0 for rolled shapes, homogeneous built-up sections and built-up sections with a higher-
strength steel in the web than for both flanges.
53
4. Plastic Moment (Mp)
• Plastic Forces (P)
Figure 3. 28 Plastic force in composite section
Source: AASHTO LRFD bridge, 2012 standard
a. Reinforcement strength
Prt = Fyr Art
Prb = Fyr Arb
Prt = Top reinforcement strength (kN)
Prb = Bottom reinforcement strength (kN)
Fyr = Yield strength of the top reinforcement (MPa)
Art = Cross section area top (mm2)
Fyr = Yield strength of the bottom reinforcement (MPa)
Arb = Cross section area top (mm2)
b. Bottom flange strength
Pt = bft · tft · Fyt
Pt = Bottom flange strength (kN)
bft = Bottom flange width (mm)
tft = Bottom flange thickness (mm)
Fyt = Yield strength of bottom flange (MPa)
c. Web strength
Pw = 2 · D · tw · Fyw
54
Pw = Web strength (kN)
D = Web width (mm)
tw = Web thickness (mm)
Fyw = Yield strength of web (MPa)
d. Top flange strength
Pc = 2 · bfc · tfc · Fyc
Pc = Top flange strength (kN)
bfc = Top flange width (mm)
tfc = Top flange thickness (mm)
Fyc = Yield strength of top flange (MPa)
e. Concrete slab strength
Ps = 0.85 fck · Bs · ts
Ps = Concrete slab strength (kN)
fck = Specified strength of concrete (MPa)
Bs = Slab width (mm)
ts = Slab thickness (mm)
• Plastic moment (Mp)
It is stated in Section D 6.1 the rules to determine the plastic moment of a composite
section in positive flexure:
1. Calculating the strength of the component to find whether the neutral axis of the
plastic is in the web, the upper flange or the concrete deck;
2. Calculation of plastic moment (Mp). The Equations for the different potential
positions of the positive plastic axis can be seen in the table 3.7 below:
55
Table 3. 7 Plastic Moment
Source: AASHTO LRFD bridge, 2012 standard
5. Yield moment (My)
According to D 6.2.2 the yield moment of a composite section in positive flexure should be
calculated as follows:
𝐹𝑦 =𝑀𝐷1
𝑆𝑛𝑐+
𝑀𝐷2
𝑆𝐿𝑇+
𝑀𝐴𝐷
𝑆𝑆𝑇
Fy = Tensile strength (MPa)
MD1 = Moment of permanent load before the composite section (kN.m)
MD2 = Moment of permanent load for long-term composite section (kN.m)
MAD = Additional moment in short-term composite section (kN.m)
56
Snc = Non-composite section modulus (MPa)
SLT = Long-term composite section modulus (MPa)
SST = Short-term composite section modulus (MPa)
The plastic moment (My) can be determined as follows:
𝑀𝑦 = 𝑀𝐷1 + 𝑀𝐷2 + 𝑀𝐴𝐷
6. Flange stresses and member bending moments
Calculation of flange stresses AASHTO LRFD Bridge 2012 article 6.10.1.6
𝑓𝑙 =𝑀𝑧1
𝑆𝑛𝑐+
𝑀𝑧2
𝑆𝐿𝑇+
𝑀𝑧3
𝑆𝑆𝑇
fl = Flange stress (MPa)
Mz1 = Moment of permanent load before the composite section (kN.m)
Mz2 = Moment of permanent load for long-term composite section (kN.m)
Mz3 = Additional moment in short-term composite section (kN.m)
All discretely braced flanges shall satisfy:
𝑓𝑙 ≥ 0,6 𝐹𝑦𝑓
Fyf = flange Yield strength (MPa)
7. Nominal moment (Mn)
Calculating Nominal Moments (Mn) Based on AASHTO LRFD Bridge 2012 article 6.10.7.1.2
the nominal moment chosen is the smallest of the two following formulas:
Mn = 1.3 Rh My
Mn = Nominal moment (kN.m)
Rh = Hybrid factor
My = yield moment (kN.m)
57
If Dp < 0.1 Dt then:
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑀𝑝 ( 1.07 − 0.7 𝐷𝑝
𝐷𝑡)
Mp = Plastic moment (kN.m)
Dp = Distance from the top of the concrete slab to the neutral line (mm)
Dt = Height of the composite part (mm)
Control of minimal moment in tub girder with ultimate moment:
Mu ≤ Фf · Mn
For I girder, the Mu should satisfy the section 6.10.7.1:
𝑀𝑢 +1
3𝑓𝑙𝑆𝑥𝑡 ≤ Ф𝑓Mn
Sxt = Elastic section modulus about the major axis of the section to the tension flange taken
as (Myt/Fyt)
58
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS
4.1 Chemical Composition Test
The purpose of the test is to determine the composition and the percentage of elements in
SM520B Steel Plate thickness 22 mm. The test is conducted in PT. Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia
(Persero) using test method ASTM E 415 with the test temperature of 23,6° C. The result can
be referred in the table 4.1
Figure 4. 1 OES Spark test specimen
Table 4.1 determines that there are 10 types of elements detected in the specimen. These
elements include: Fe, C, Si, Mn, P, S, Cr, Mo, Ni and Al. Each element has a different
percentage as well as special characteristics of steel metals. The average carbon composition
of 0,165 %. The specimen also has high percentage of manganese composition, namely 1,50
%. In carbon steels, the manganese element is often added in order to increase the depth of
hardening and improve strength and toughness. The small amount of Nickel and Phosphorus,
59
0,0122 % and 0,0102 % can increase the resistance against corrosion and solid – solution
hardening.
60
Table 4. 1 Chemical composition of SM520B Steel Plate Thickness 22 mm
Source: BUKAKA-KSO
Description
Chemical Composition (%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al Fe
Spark 1 0,166 0,334 1,51 0,0091 0,0057 0,0231 0,0046 0,0125 0,0480 97,9
Spark 2 0,163 0,330 1,50 0,0113 0,0063 0,0226 0,0047 0,0119 0,0471 97,9
Average 0,165 0,332 1,50 0,0102 0,0060 0,0229 0,0047 0,0122 0,0475 97,9
61
4.2 Mechanical Test Results
4.2.1 Tensile Test result
4.2.1.1 Tensile Test SM520B Welding Plate
The test was conducted at PT Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) using 2 specimens of
SM520B SMAW welding plate. The test method complies with ISO 4136: 2001, AWS D1.5:
2015 Standard. The specimens T1 and T2 are tested using the Tensile Test machine Trebel 100
Ton. The result can be seen in table 4.2:
Table 4. 2 Tensile test result SM520B SMAW welding plate
Sample Code
SM520B SMAW Welding plate thickness 22 mm
T 1 T 2
Dimension
w x t
25,25 x 21,57 mm 25,18 x 21,87 mm
Area Section 544,64 mm² 550,69 mm²
Yield Point - N - N
Yield Strength - N/mm² - N/mm²
Maximum Load 32352 Kgf 32352 Kgf
Tensile Strength 582,72 N/mm² 576,32 N/mm²
Elongation - % - %
Reduction of Area - % - %
Location of Fracture Welding Welding
Source: BUKAKA - KSO
Noted that in tensile test of welding plate, the yield strength, elongation and reduction area
cannot be determined due to at least three different areas with dissimilar mechanical properties
(base metal, weld metal, and HAZ) and can makes such measurements inaccurate and
unreliable [37].
62
Figure 4. 2 Specimens after test
Figure 4.2 show the location of fracture in welding plate. It can be determined from the
specimens that the type of fracture is ductile fracture. Ductile fracture is a form of fracture that
is characterized by comprehensive plastic deformation or "necking", before the real fracture
happens. The word "ductile rupture" relates to extremely ductile material failure. In such
instances, instead of cracking, materials fall apart.
Compared to brittle materials, ductile materials display huge quantities of plastic buckling or
deformation. The crack develops slowly in ductile fracture and is followed by a lot of plastic
deformation. Ductile fracture usually occurs in bainite structure material which is a steel with
a low carbon content.
Figure 4. 3 Ductile and brittle fracture
63
4.2.1.2 Tensile Test SM520B Base Metal
The test was conducted at PT Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) using 2 specimens of
SM520B Base metal plate. The test method complies with EN 10002-1: 2001 and JIS Z 2201
Standard. The specimens T1 and T2 are tested using the Tensile Test machine Trebel 100 Ton.
The result can be seen in table 4.3:
Table 4. 3 Tensile test result SM520B plate
Sample Code
SM520B plate thickness 22 mm
T 1 T 2
Dimension
w x t
25,00 x 22,67 mm 25,05 x 22,67 mm
Area Section 566,75 mm² 567,13 mm²
Yield Point 28571 N 29621 N
Yield Strength 494,54 N/mm² 512,37 N/mm²
Maximum Load 34873 Kgf 35504 Kgf
Tensile Strength 603,62 N/mm² 614,13 N/mm²
Elongation 43,38 % 41,80 %
Reduction of Area - % - %
Location of Fracture Base Metal Base Metal
Source: BUKAKA - KSO
The results of the tensile test obtain a different strength parameter value of each specimen. The
strength parameter is used to determine the shear strength of the material. It consists of 3
parameters, namely yield strength, tensile strength and elongation. The stress strain curve
diagram can be determined by using yield and tensile strength from both specimens. The
modulus young for ASTM A572 steel is 190.000 N/mm² according to ASTM standard. The
Ramberg – Osgood coefficient for metals that harden with plastic deformation:
64
𝜀𝑢𝑠 = 100 ( 𝜀𝑟 −𝐹𝑡𝑢
𝐸 ) (1)
𝜺𝒖𝒔 = Uniform strain/ plastic strain at end of uniform elongation
𝜺𝒓 = Strain at rupture
𝐹𝑡𝑢 = Ultimate strength
E = Young’s modulus
From the equation (1) the material constant can be determined using the equation:
𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 (
𝜺𝒖𝒔𝟎.𝟐
)
𝐿𝑛 (𝐹𝑡𝑢𝐹𝑡𝑦
) (2)
n = Material constant
𝜺𝒖𝒔 = Uniform strain/ plastic strain at end of uniform elongation
𝐹𝑡𝑢 = Ultimate strength
𝐹𝑡𝑦 = Yield strength
The Ramberg – Osgood law of material behaviour can be determined using equation (2):
𝜀 = 𝜎
𝐸+ 0.002 ∙ (
𝜎
𝐹𝑡𝑦)𝑛
𝜀 = Strain
σ = Ultimate strength
E = Young’s modulus
𝐹𝑡𝑦 = Yield strength
n = Material constant
The stress-strain curve diagram can be determined using the equation above. The result is
shown in the diagram below:
65
Figure 4. 4 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of SM520B T-1
material =
E = 190000 N/mm2 (Young Modulus)
Ftu= 603,62 N/mm2 (Ultimate strength)
Fty= 494,54 N/mm2 (Yield strength)
e max = 43,38 % (strain at rupture)
n = 26,95 (material constant)
SM520B T-1
s (MPa) e0,0 0,00000
98,9 0,00052
197,8 0,00104
296,7 0,00156
395,6 0,00209
420,4 0,00224
445,1 0,00246
469,8 0,00297
494,5 0,00460
505,4 0,00626
516,4 0,00912
527,3 0,01402
538,2 0,02236
549,1 0,03643
560,0 0,05994
570,9 0,09887
581,8 0,16273
592,7 0,26653
603,6 0,43380
66
Figure 4. 5 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of SM520B T-2
material =
E = 190000 N/mm2 (Young Modulus)
Ftu= 614,13 N/mm2 (Ultimate strength)
Fty= 512,37 N/mm2 (Yield strength)
e max = 41,8 % (strain at rupture)
n = 29,45 (material constant)
SM520B T-2
s (MPa) e0,0 0,00000
102,5 0,00054
204,9 0,00108
307,4 0,00162
409,9 0,00216
435,5 0,00231
461,1 0,00252
486,8 0,00300
512,4 0,00470
522,5 0,00632
532,7 0,00910
542,9 0,01385
553,1 0,02191
563,3 0,03546
573,4 0,05807
583,6 0,09549
593,8 0,15688
604,0 0,25676
614,1 0,41800
67
Figure 4. 6 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of SM520B T-2, T-1 and Standard
68
The result in figure 4.6 show the stress strain curve from the testing of specimen and the ASTM
standard. The value from specimen indicates no significant different with standard
4.2.1.3 Tensile Test All Weld Metal Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80
The test was conducted at PT Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) using 1 specimens of all
welding plate. The test method complies with ISO 4136: 2001, AWS D1.5: 2015 Standard. The
specimen W1 are tested using the Tensile Test machine United SHFM – 600 KN. The
Specimen after test can be seen in figure 4.7:
Figure 4. 7 All weld specimen after test
Source: Lab PT BKI (Persero)
The specimen indicates a ductile fracture caused by the shear stress. The fracture angle forms
an angle of 45° to the normal axis of the specimen. Such fractures are caused by maximum
shear stress, where tensile loads have an impact in causing this stress.
If the amount of stress applied to the specimen reaches the Ultimate point, the specimen begins
to experience local reduction in the middle (red circle). This local reduction is known as the
necking. This phenomenon occurs because the plastic deformation that occurs in the material
is no longer homogeneous.
Other characteristic of this specimen, namely yield strength, tensile strength and elongation
can be observed in the table 4.4
69
Table 4. 4 Tensile test result All Weld Metal
Sample Code
All Weld Metal Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80
W 1
Dimension ∅ 12,44 mm
Area Section 121,54 mm²
Yield Point 58462 N
Yield Strength 481,01 N/mm²
Maximum Load 6852,49
67200
Kgf
N
Tensile Strength 552,90 N/mm²
Elongation 31,22 %
Reduction of Area 73,19 %
Location of Fracture -
Source: BUKAKA - KSO
Based on the AWS Specification A5.5/A5.5M, the tensile strength value of E 8018 – C1H4R
is 530-680 N/mm² with the yield strength value of 490 N/mm² and elongation of 30 % min.
Using Young’s modulus of nickel alloy of 220.000 N/mm² and stress-strain curve equation it
can be determined if the electrode has the similar mechanical properties with the base metal.
Test data are then presented in graphical curve as a comparison:
70
Figure 4. 8 Stress Strain Curve Diagram of Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 W – 1
material =
E = 220000 N/mm2 (Young Modulus)
Ftu= 552,9 N/mm2 (Ultimate strength)
Fty= 481,01 N/mm2 (Yield strength)
e max = 31,22 % (strain at rupture)
n = 36,20 (material constant)
Bohler Fox S 2.5
s (MPa) e0,0 0,00000
96,2 0,00044
192,4 0,00087
288,6 0,00131
384,8 0,00175
408,9 0,00186
432,9 0,00201
457,0 0,00239
481,0 0,00419
488,2 0,00564
495,4 0,00806
502,6 0,01207
509,8 0,01868
517,0 0,02952
524,1 0,04717
531,3 0,07576
538,5 0,12176
545,7 0,19530
552,9 0,31220
71
Figure 4. 9 Stress – strain curve comparison of SM520B and S 2.5 Ni – E80
72
Figure 4.9 indicates that electrode S 2.5 Ni – E80 has the quite similar mechanical properties
with SM520B, which is in the range of 400 – 600 MPa. Therefore, the electrode can be used
as the filler metal for the SM520B.
4.2.2 Bending Test
Bending test is conducted at PT Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) using 4 samples. The
samples used in this test is SM520B SMAW welding plate Thickness 22 mm. The test method
complies with ISO 4136: 2001 and AWS D1.5: 2015 Standard. Welding plate sample is tested
using the Bending Test machine 4 time to produce the result as shown in picture below:
Figure 4. 10 Bending specimen after the test
Source: Lab PT. BKI Persero
The purpose of the test is to determine the capability of steel to bend up to angle of 180° without
any cracks appearing (red circle). The test result indicates no defect found in the specimen;
therefore, it passed the requirement and complies with the ASW standard. For further
information can be shown in the table 4.5:
73
Table 4. 5 Bending test result SM520B SMAW Thickness 22 mm
Sample Code
Bending test result SM520B SMAW Thickness 22 mm
Side Bend 1 Side Bend 2 Side Bend 3 Side Bend 4
Dimension
w x t (mm)
10 x 22 10 x 22 10 x 22 10 x 22
Mandrel Diameter
(mm)
4 x T 4 x T 4 x T 4 x T
Bending Angle 180° 180° 180° 180°
Weld Defect No
Discontinuity
No
Discontinuity
No
Discontinuity
No
Discontinuity
Test Result No Defect No Defect No Defect No Defect
Source: BUKAKA - KSO
4.2.3 Charpy Impact Test
4.2.3.1 Charpy Impact Test SM520B Welding Plate
specimens are tested using TINIUS OLSEN impact test machine in PT. Biro Klasifikasi
Indonesia (Persero). 7 specimens are collected in the SM520B SMAW Welding plate according
to AWS D1.5 Standard, these specimens are divided into fusion line, f + 2 mm, and weld metal.
The test method complies with ISO 148 – 1: 2006 and All test is conducted in the temperature
of – 20° C. Below is the preparation of the specimen:
Figure 4. 11 Preparation of the specimen
74
Table 4. 6 Charpy impact test of SM520B Welding plate temperature -20°C
Source: BUKAKA - KSO
Sample Code
Charpy impact test result of SM520B SMAW Welding plate
Fusion
line
Fusion line
+ 2 mm
Welding Welding Welding Welding Welding
Dimension (w x t) mm 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10
Thickness at base Notch mm 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00
V Notch/ U Notch V V V V V V V
Impact Energy Joule 186,08 202,89 135,29 147,62 214,24 203,54 143,19
Average Joule 194,49 168,78
75
Figure 4. 12 After test result of specimen
Source: Lab PT. BKI (Persero)
The result indicates that the highest impact energy of 214,24 J occurs in the centre line of weld
metal due to the use of Ni-based electrode. Nickel improves the mechanical properties of weld
metal by increasing the strength and crack resistance. the specimen closes to fusion line has the
tendency of low impact energy due to the microstructure grain growth from fine to coarse. The
impact energy in Fusion is 186,08 J due to the change of microstructure into coarse grain. The
coarse grained HAZ occurs by the excessive heat input during the welding process and the
grain structure minimizes the toughness of the weld metal. The specimen F + 2 located in the
fine grained HAZ has the better impact energy of 202,89 J than fusion.
4.2.3.2 Charpy Impact Test SM520B Base Metal
For the base metal, 3 specimens are collected from each 2 position, transverse and longitudinal.
The test method is conducted according to ISO 9016: 2001 and JIS Z2202 standard with the
test temperature of -23° C. Figure 4.13 is the example of the specimens:
76
Figure 4. 13 After test result of specimen
Source: Lab PT. BKI (Persero)
The Microstructure of SM520B base steel consist of mostly fine ferrite grain in Body Centred
Cubic (BCC) crystal structure. It has greater fatigue resistance, toughness and shock resistance
[38]. In the longitudinal position the impact force extends through the grain of the test
specimen. The fracture of the specimen is harder and therefore more energy is needed to
fracture the steel through the grain. Table 4.7 determines that the impact energy of longitudinal
position is 183,83 Joule
The impact force runs parallel to the grain of the specimen is called a transverse test direction.
Therefore, the transverse impact energy needed to break the steel through the notch will be less
than the longitudinal. The average of impact energy from this test is 89,94 Joule. It can be
concluded from the result that the longitudinal impact force has a higher number than
transverse due to the higher notch toughness. It is obviously more difficult to create
longitudinal impact toughness because the steel's grain direction provides natural fracture
resistance.
77
Table 4. 7 Charpy impact test of SM520B plate transverse and longitudinal position
Source: BUKAKA - KSO
Sample Code
Charpy impact test of SM520B plate transverse
position
Charpy impact test of SM520B plate longitudinal
position
T 1 T 2 T 3 L 1 L 2 L 3
Dimension mm 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10 10 x 10
V Notch/ U Notch V V V V V V
Impact Energy Joule 91,220 91,310 87,275 182,09 170,56 198,83
Average Joule 89,94 183,83
78
4.2.4 Vickers Macro hardness Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the hardness of the SM520B SMAW Welding Plate.
The test is conducted in PT. Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia (Persero) using ISO 6507 – 1: 2000
standard test method. The specimen as shown in figure 4.14:
Figure 4. 14 Vickers hardness test specimen
Source: Lab PT. BKI (Persero)
79
Figure 4. 15 Graphic of Vickers Hardness Test in base, HAZ, and weld
The HV result of the specimen is shown in the table 4.8:
Table 4. 8 Vickers hardness test result
Vickers – 10 kg
No. Line 1 Hardness Vickers (HV) Line 2 Hardness Vickers (HV)
1 Base Metal 212,5 Base Metal 228,7
2 HAZ 1 240,6 HAZ 1 245,2
3 HAZ 2 235,0 HAZ 2 241,3
4 HAZ 3 235,8 HAZ 3 232,5
5 Weld 193,4 Weld 208,1
6 Weld 191,1 Weld 206,1
7 Weld 191,7 Weld 208,8
Source: BUKAKA - KSO
80
From the test result, the HAZ area in line 1 and 2 has a higher hardness number than base metal
and weld. The hardness of HAZ 1, 2, 3 in line 1 are 240,6 HV, 235 HV and 235,8 HV. In the
line 2 the hardness of HAZ 1, 2, 3 are 245,2 HV, 241,3 HV and 232,5 HV. The HAZ area is
the most critical area compared to the weld area and the base metal area, because it is prone to
form phases that are very hard and easily cracked. This results in decreased mechanical
properties, for example low toughness and increased hardness in the upper HAZ area and the
lower HAZ area, this results in increasingly brittle material. Hard phases formed in the HAZ
area are also very sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement. Corrosion occur easily in the HAZ area
due to the inhomogeneity of the crystal structure grains.
4.2.5 Macro Etch Test
The purpose of this test is to examine cracks and holes in the surface of SM520B SMAW
Welding Plate thickness with the test method according to EN 1321 and the test temperature
of 23° C. The result as shown in table:
Figure 4. 16 Macro Etch specimen
Source: Lab PT. BKI (Persero)
81
Table 4. 9 Test result of SM520B Welding Plate
Sample Code M 1
Weld Type Butt Joint
Fusion Good
Penetration Good
Crack None
Porosity None
Under Cut None
Slag Inclusion None
Source: BUKAKA – KSO
The macro test result indicates there is no significant defect in the welding area.
Figure 4. 17 Welding penetration
Source: Lab PT. BKI (Persero)
Good penetration in figure 4.17 means that the heat input is properly used during welding,
where the weld metal doesn’t melt past the thickness of base metal. The fusion between filler
82
and base metal is also good, means that the heat input is suitable, the workpiece is clean, and
the welding technique is right. Crack is also not found in the welding area.
Figure 4. 18 Porosity in the welding metal
Source: Lab PT. BKI (Persero)
Porosity is one type of welding defects caused by contamination of welding metals in the form
of trapped gas so that there are cavities inside the weld metal (figure 4.18). The cause for
porosity can be determined by many factors, such as the electrodes used are still moist or
exposed to water, welding arc is too long, welding current is too low, welding speed is too
high, the presence of impurities in the workpiece (rust, oil, water, etc.), and hydrogen gas
created by heat welding. In this case the none of the porosity found in the welding metal.
Undercut (figure 4.19) is a welding defect that develops on the surface or root, the shape of this
defect is like an overdraft that occurs on the base metal or parent metal. Undercut can be caused
by the welding current used is too large, welding speed is too high, the length of the welding
arc is too high, the electrode position is not quite right and the hand swing is not evenly
distributed/ the swing time at the side is too fast. The test results indicate no undercut found in
the specimen.
83
Figure 4. 19 Undercut in the welding metal specimen
Source: Lab PT. BKI (Persero)
Slag inclusion (figure 4.20) is an oxide and other non-metal objects that are trapped in the
welding metal. Slag inclusion can be caused by contamination from outside air or unclean slag
when welding with multiple layers (multi pass). The prevention can be done by cleaning the
attached slag before welding the layer above it.
84
Figure 4. 20 Slag inclusion in the welding metal specimen
4.3 Flexural Strength Analysis of the Girders
Based on the SM520B data retrieved from the PT. BKI (Persero) lab, the material is constructed
into steel-tub girder and steel I girder using the Midas Civil software. Using the load
combinations from chapter 3, the flexure moment and resistance can be determined and
therefore it can be analyzed whether SM520B material can be used as the material for the
girders.
4.3.1 Steel I Girder
In steel I girder, there are 3 girders to be constructed, 2 girders as the exterior with the slab
width of 2 m and 1 as interior girder with the slab width of 3 m. The dimension of the girders
is provided in the chapter 3 section 3.5.1. The girders use the same material of SM520B with
the yield strength of 355 MPa. The weight of the girders is automatically calculated by the
software. The concrete slab weight is determined as 15 kN/m on both sides of the exterior
girders and 22,5 kN/m for interior girders, and distributed uniformly across the slab. Both
weights are included to the load before the composite action or DL(BC). The parapet load of
10 kN/m is distributed on the both sides of the exterior girders and is described as the dead load
after the composite action or DL(AC). The dead load of wearing surface or DL(AC)-DW is
85
determined as asphalt layer with the load of 2,2 kN/m for exterior and 3,4 kN/m for interior
and also distributed uniformly.
For the moving load, it used the HL-93 truck according to the AASHTO LRFD standard with
the dynamic allowance of 33%. The number of lane load consist of 2 lanes with the load of 9,3
kN/m and the scale factor of 1. After all the data is inputted in the software, the flexure moment
is determined to be 15239,2 kN.m in the element 16 as shown in figure 4.21.
Figure 4. 21 Flexure moment of SM520B I girder
Using the formula from the chapter 3 section 3.7, the flexure resistance can be determined as
15630,206 kN.m. From the result above, depending on the dimension and type of the girder
used in the construction, the SM520B steel can be used as the material for steel I girder although
the flexural moment value is almost as same as its flexural resistance.
4.3.2 Steel Tub Girder
Steel Tub girder design only consist of 2 steel tub girders with the concrete slab width of 3,5
m each. The load combination differs from the steel I girder due to the homogenous slab width
in these girders. It is determined that the dead load before composite DL(BC) of concrete slab
is 26,3 kN/m and the dead load after composite of parapet component DL(AC)-DC is 10 kN/m.
The dead load of wearing surface or DL(AC)-DW used in this girder is 3,9 kN/m. With the
86
same live load MVL used in the steel I girder, the flexure moment of steel tub girder can be
determined as shown as figure 4.22.
Figure 4. 22 Flexure moment of SM520B tub girder
Based from the software calculation, the flexure moment value of steel tub girder is 22639,4
kN.m. Using the same calculation based on chapter 3 section 3.7, the flexure resistance value
is higher than the moment itself, namely 41335,3 kN.m. Therefore, the SM520B material is
suitable for use in this type of girder although it has same load combination from the I girder.
87
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
There are several points that can be drawn to answer the objective of the test. The points that
can be obtained from the test are:
• Based on the ductile fracture type during tensile test, SM520B steel has the
characteristic of high ductility and toughness, therefore it has good weldability and
formability.
• Based on the test result conducted in BKI, the yield strength, i.e. 481,01 N/mm², and
tensile strength, i.e. 552,90 N/mm² of Bohler Fox S 2.5 Ni – E80 electrode used for the
butt joint v shaped welding of SM520B has met the requirement according to AWS
standard and therefore can be used for the construction of the girder.
• Based on the test result conducted in BKI, the average yield strength, i.e. 503,45
N/mm², and the average tensile strength, i.e. 608,87 N/mm² of SM520B steel plate from
BUKAKA-KSO has met the requirement according to ASTM DS67B standard and can
be used as the material for the girder.
• Higher Hardness Vickers value occur in the HAZ area during Vickers hardness, i.e.
235,8 J (Line 1) and 241,3 J (Line 2), testing because the area is prone to form phases
that are very hard and easily cracked. this results in increasingly brittle material.
Therefore, each steel plate should be carefully and correctly welded and proper post
weld heat treatment during the manufacturing process of the girder.
• Although the SM520B I girder can resist the flexure moment from the load combination
of dead load and live load, the SM520B tub girder shows a better and higher resistance
than the I girder. As a result, the material SM520B best used for the construction of
steel tub girder as shown in figure 5.1.
88
Figure 5. 1 Comparison of flexure moment and resistance of I girder and tub girder using
SM520B welding plate
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
I Girder Tub Girder
15239,2
22639,4
15630,206
41335,311
Ultimate flexure Moment SM520 (Mu)
Flexural Resistance SM520B (Ф. Mn)
89
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93
APPENDIX
94
95
Steel I Girder Analysis
I. Design Condition (Positive Flexure)
1. Section Properties
1) Slab Properties
Bs = mm
ts = mm
th = mm
fc' = MPa
Ec = MPa
Ar = mm2
Fyr = MPa
2) Girder Properties
[Section]
bfc = mm bft = mm
tfc = mm tft = mm
D = mm tw = mm
450,000 450,000
25,000 25,000
1658,000 22,000
3000,000
300,000
25,000
27,579
25125,517
0,000
413,686
[Design Strength]
Fyc = MPa (Compression Flange Yield Strength)
Fyw = MPa (Web Yield Strength)
Fyt = MPa (Tension Flange Yield Strength)
Es = MPa (Elastic Modulus of Steel)
355,000
355,000
355,000
205000,000
96
2. Elastic Section Properties
1) Steel Section
2) Short-term Composite Section
3) Long-term Composite Section
(Es/Ec = 3n (or n for time dependent material properties defined since the analysis results take into account the long term effects))
dTop (mm) 854,0 dBot (mm) 854,0A (mm
2) 58976,0 Iy (mm
4) 24289856738,7 Iz (mm
4) 381158698,7
SL (mm3) 1694038,7 SR (mm
3) 1694038,7
STop (mm3) 28442455,2 SBot (mm
3) 28442455,2
dTop(n) (mm) 199,8 dBot(n) (mm) 1508,2
A(n) (mm2) 169283,1 Iy(n) (mm
4) 63854749732,9 Iz(n) (mm
4) 83111479912,9
SL(n) (mm3) 369384355,2 SR(n) (mm
3) 369384355,2
STop(n) (mm3) 319624740,7 SBot(n) (mm
3) 42337832,3
dTop(3n) (mm) 468,5 dBot(3n) (mm) 1239,5A(3n) (mm
2) 95740,7 Iy(3n) (mm
4) 47394083300,9 Iz(3n) (mm
4) 27954688110,4
SL(3n) (mm3) 124243058,3 SR(3n) (mm
3) 124243058,3
STop(3n) (mm3) 101169726,7 SBot(3n)(mm
3) 38235253,4
97
II. Strength Limit State - Flexural Resistance
1. Flexure
■ Positive moment
1) Design Forces and Stresses
Loadcombination Name :
Loadcombination Type :
scLCB1
FX-MAX
ComponentMu (kN·m) Vu
(kN)
T
(kN·m)Steel (MD1) Long-term (MD2) Short-term Sum
336,392 34,301
Component fc,t (MPa)
Steel (MD1) Long-term (MD2) Short-term Sum
Forces ( + ) 5607,445 2490,384 7141,372 15239,201
430,960
ComponentMuz (kN·m)
Steel (MDz1) Long-term (MDz2) Short-term(MDz3) Sum
StressesTop -197,151 -24,616 -22,343 -244,109
Bot 197,151 65,133 168,676
Component fl (MPa)
Steel (MDz1) Long-term (MDz2) Short-term(MDz3) Sum
Forces 0,000 0,034 143,823 143,858
-0,390Stresses
Left 0,000 0,389 0,000 0,390
Right 0,000 -0,389 0,000
98
2) Cross-section Proportions ① Web Proportions (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.2.1)
Dtw
② Flange Proportions (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.2.2)bf
2tfbf = ≥ =tf = ≥ =
Iyc
Iyt
3) Flexural Strength Limit State in positive flexure ▪ Section Classification (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.6.2)
= MPa ≤ MPaDtw
Es
Fyc
in which :
Dcp = mm
∴ Compact section.
▪ Hybrid Factor, Rh (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.1.10.1)Rh = (homogeneous section)
= 75,364 ≤ 150 ...... OK
...... OK
Iyc = tfc · bfc3
= 189843750,000 mm4
= 9,000 ≤ 12 ...... OK
450,000 D/6 276,333 ...... OK
12
Iyt = tft · bft3
= 189843750,000
25,000 1.1tw 24,200
mm4
12
0,1 ≤ = 1,000 ≤ 10,0 ...... OK
min ( Fyc , Fyt ) 355,000 485,00 ...... OK
= 75,364 ≤ 150 ...... OK
90,355 ...... OKtw
0,000
1,000
2 · Dcp= 0,000 ≤ 3.76 √ =
99
▪ Plastic Moment(Mp) (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, D6.1)
① Plastic Forces
- Plastic Forces
Prt = = kN
Prb = = kN
Pt = = kN
Pw = = kN
Pc = = kN
Ps = = kN
- Distance from the plastic neutral axis
drt = mm(distance from the PNA to the centerline of the top layer of reinforcement)
drb = mm(distance from the PNA to the centerline of the bottom layer of reinforcement)
dt = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to midthickness of the tension flange)
dw = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to middepth of the web)
dc = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to midthickness of the compression flange)
ds = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to midthickness of the concrete deck)
Fyr Art 0,000
3993,750
0.85 fck · Bs · ts 21097,964
297,704
297,704
Fyr Arb 0,000
bft · tft · Fyt 3993,750
D · tw · Fyw 12948,980
1697,796
856,296
14,796
147,704
bfc · tfc · Fyc
② Plastic moment
- Check the case of the plastic neutral axis
Crb = mm
Crb
ts∴ PNA Below Prb in Concrete Deck
- Distance of the plastic neutral axis
- Plastic Moment
0,000
Pt + Pw + Pc = 20936,480
Ps
Mp =Y
2 · Ps + [ Prt · drt + Prb · drb +Pc · dc + Pw · dw + Pt · dt ]
kN ...... OK
Y = ts · (Pc+Pw+Pt - Prt -Prb ) = 297,704 mm
kN ≥ ( ) · Ps + Prb + Prt = 0,000
= 21044,263 kN·m2ts
100
▪ Yield Moment(My) (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, D6.2.2)
① Yield Moment of Top Flange
MD1
STop
MAD = kN·m
MyTop = MD1 + MD2 + MAD = kN·m
② Yield Moment of Bottom Flange
MD1
SBot
MAD = kN·m
MyBot = MD1 + MD2 + MAD = kN·m
∴ My = min ( MyTop, MyBot ) = kN·m
in which :
S : noncomposite section modulus (mm3)
S3n : long-term composite section modulus (mm3)
Sn : short-term composite section modulus (mm3)
MD1 : moment of noncomposite section (kN·m)
MD2 : moment of long-term composite section (kN·m)
MAD : additional yield moment of short-term composite section (kN·m)
Fy = +MD2
+MAD
= 355,000 MPaSTop(3n) STop(n) 2,844E+07 1,012E+08 3,196E+08
=5,607E+09
+2,490E+09
+MAD
4,258E+04
5,068E+04
Fy = +MD2
+MAD
=5,607E+09
MPaSBot(3n) SBot(n) 2,844E+07 3,824E+07 4,234E+07
+2,490E+09
+MAD
= 355,000
3,925E+03
1,202E+04
1,202E+04
101
▪ Flange Lateral bending Stress (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.1.6)
Because of discretely braced tension flange.
fl = ≤ = MPa
▪ Flexural Resistance of Composite compact section (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.7.1.2)
ⅰ. Nominal Flexural Resistance in a continuous span
Mn1 = = kN·m
ⅱ. Nominal Flexural Resistance by Dp
Dp > 0.1Dt therefore,
Dp
Dt
∴ Mn = min ( Mn1, Mn2 ) = kN·m
▪ Check Flexural Resistance of Composite compact section (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.7.1)
1
3
in which :
Muy = kN·m
Sxt = mm3 ( = Myt/Fyt)
Фf =
▪ Ductility Requirement (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.7.3)
Dp = ≤ = mm
in which :
Dp = mm
Dt = mm (total depth of the composite section)
fl =MDz1
+MDz2
+MDz3
0,390 0.6Fyf 213,000 ...... OK
1.3 Rh · My 15630,206
= 0,390 MPaSg SLT SST
= 20333,363 kN·m
15630,206
Muy + fl · Sxt = 15243,599 ≤ Фf · Mn =
Mn2 = Mp ( 1.07 - 0.7 )
297,704 0.42Dt 843,360 ...... OK
297,704 (distance from the top of the concrete deck to the neutral axis of the composite section at the plastic
moment)
15630,206 kN·m ...... OK
15239,201
33868268,642
1,000
2008,000
102
Steel Tub Girder
I. Design Condition (Positive Flexure)
1. Section Properties
1) Slab Properties
Bs = mm
ts = mm
th = mm
fc' = MPa
Ec = MPa
Ar = mm2
Fyr = MPa
2) Girder Properties
[Section]
bfc = mm bft = mm
tfc = mm tft = mm
D = mm tw = mm
H = mm
450,000 2000,000
22,000 20,000
1658,000 20,000
3500,000
300,000
22,000
27,579
25125,517
0,000
413,686
1700,000
[Design Strength]
Fyc = MPa(Compression Flange Yield Strength)
Fyw = MPa(Web Yield Strength)
Fyt = MPa(Tension Flange Yield Strength)
Es = MPa(Elastic Modulus of Steel)
355,000
355,000
355,000
205000,000
103
2. Elastic Section Properties
1) Steel Section
2) Short-term Composite Section
3) Long-term Composite Section
(Es/Ec = 3n (or n for time dependent material properties defined since the analysis results take into account the long term effects))
dTop (mm) 985,2 dBot (mm) 714,8
A (mm2) 126120,0 Iy (mm
4) 55050360179,2 Iz (mm
4) 101122701000,0
SL (mm3) 82549143,7 SR (mm
3) 82549143,7
STop (mm3) 55876132,5 SBot (mm
3) 77017356,7
dTop(n) (mm) 411,9 dBot(n) (mm) 1288,1
A(n) (mm2) 254811,6 Iy(n) (mm
4) 138102872822,1 Iz(n) (mm
4) 232495387002,3
SL(n) (mm3) 189792152,7 SR(n) (mm
3) 189792152,7
STop(n) (mm3) 335296979,6 SBot(n) (mm
3) 107212925,5
dTop(3n) (mm) 696,6 dBot(3n) (mm) 1003,4A(3n) (mm
2) 169117,5 Iy(3n) (mm
4) 96696623760,8 Iz(3n) (mm
4) 145016026143,3
SL(3n) (mm3) 118380429,5 SR(3n) (mm
3) 118380429,5
STop(3n) (mm3) 138813198,0 SBot(3n)(mm
3) 96368519,5
104
II. Strength Limit State - Flexural Resistance
1. Flexure
■ Positive moment
1) Design Forces and Stresses
Loadcombination Name :
Loadcombination Type :
scLCB1
FX-MAX
ComponentMu (kN·m) Vu
(kN)
T
(kN·m)Steel (MD1) Long-term (MD2) Short-term Sum
181,166 323,113
Component fc,t (MPa)
Steel (MD1) Long-term (MD2) Short-term Sum
Forces ( + ) 9102,852 3678,625 9857,934 22639,411
248,312
ComponentMuz (kN·m)
Steel (MDz1) Long-term (MDz2) Short-term(MDz3) Sum
StressesTop -162,911 -26,501 -29,401 -218,812
Bot 118,192 38,172 91,947
Component fl (MPa)
Steel (MDz1) Long-term (MDz2) Short-term(MDz3) Sum
Forces 0,000 0,000 3,755 2,531
-0,020Stresses
Left 0,000 0,020 0,000 0,020
Right 0,000 -0,020 0,000
105
2) Cross-section Proportions
① Web Proportions (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.11.2.1)
D
tw
② Flange Proportions (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.11.2.2)
bf
2tfbf = ≥ =
tf = ≥ =
3) Flexural Strength Limit State in positive flexure
▪ Section Classification (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.11.6.2)
= MPa ≤ MPa
D
tw
▪ Hybrid Factor, Rh (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.1.10.1)
Rh = (homogeneous section)
= 82,900 ≤ 150 ...... OK
= 10,227 ≤ 12 ...... OK
450,000 D/6 276,333 ...... OK
...... OK
1,000
22,000 1.1tw 22,000 ...... OK
min ( Fyc , Fyt , Fyw) 355,000 485,00 ...... OK
= 82,900 ≤ 150
106
▪ Plastic Moment(Mp) (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, D6.1)
① Plastic Forces
- Plastic Forces
Prt = = kN
Prb = = kN
Pt = = kN
Pw = = kN
Pc = = kN
Ps = = kN
- Distance from the plastic neutral axis
drt = mm(distance from the PNA to the centerline of the top layer of reinforcement)
drb = mm(distance from the PNA to the centerline of the bottom layer of reinforcement)
dt = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to midthickness of the tension flange)
dw = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to middepth of the web)
dc = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to midthickness of the compression flange)
ds = mm(distance from the plastic neutral axis to midthickness of the concrete deck)
② Plastic moment
- Check the case of the plastic neutral axis
= kN ≥ Pc + Ps + Prb + Prt = kN
∴ PNA in Web
- Distance of the plastic neutral axis
D
2
- Plastic Moment
Pw
2D
Fyr Art 0,000
Fyr Arb 0,000
bft · tft · Fyt 14200,000
536,800
536,800
1453,200
614,200
225,800
386,800
2 · D · tw · Fyw 23543,600
2 · bfc · tfc · Fyc 7029,000
0.85 fck · Bs · ts 24614,291
Pt + Pw 37743,600 31643,291 ...... OK
Y = · (Pt - Pc - Ps - Prt -Prb + 1 ) = 214,800 mm
Pw
Mp = · [ Y2
+ (D - Y)2 ]+ [ Ps · ds + Prt · drt+ Prb · drb+Pc · dc+ Pt · dt ] = 46859,050 kN·m
107
▪ Yield Moment(My) (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, D6.2.2)
① Yield Moment of Top Flange
MD1
STop
MAD = kN·m
MyTop = MD1 + MD2 + MAD = kN·m
② Yield Moment of Bottom Flange
MD1
SBot
MAD = kN·m
MyBot = MD1 + MD2 + MAD = kN·m
∴ My = min ( MyTop, MyBot ) = kN·m
in which :
S : noncomposite section modulus (mm3)
S3n : long-term composite section modulus (mm3)
Sn : short-term composite section modulus (mm3)
MD1 : moment of noncomposite section (kN·m)
MD2 : moment of long-term composite section (kN·m)
MAD : additional yield moment of short-term composite section (kN·m)
Fy = +MD2
+MAD
= 355,000 MPaSTop(3n) STop(n) 5,588E+07 1,388E+08 3,353E+08
9,103E+09+
3,679E+09+
MAD=
5,552E+04
6,830E+04
Fy = +MD2 +
MAD =9,103E+09
MPaSBot(3n) SBot(n) 7,702E+07 9,637E+07 1,072E+08
+3,679E+09
+MAD = 355,000
21296,272
3,408E+04
3,408E+04
108
▪ Flexural Resistance of Composite compact section (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.7.1.2)
ⅰ. Nominal Flexural Resistance in a continuous span
Mn1 = = kN·m
ⅱ. Nominal Flexural Resistance by Dp
Dp > 0.1Dt therefore,
Dp
Dt
∴ Mn = min ( Mn1, Mn2 ) = kN·m
▪ Check Flexural Resistance of Composite compact section (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.11.7.1)
in which :
Muy = kN·m
Фf =
▪ Ductility Requirement (AASHTO LRFD Bridge, 2012, 6.10.7.3)
Dp = ≤ = mm
in which :
Dp = mm
Dt = mm (total depth of the composite section)
1.3 Rh · My 44301,074
Mn2 = Mp ( 1.07 - 0.7 ) = 41335,311 kN·m
41335,311
Muy = 22639,411 ≤ Фf · Mn
536,800 0.42Dt 840,000 ...... OK
536,800 (distance from the top of the concrete deck to the neutral axis of the composite section at the
plastic moment)
= 41335,311 kN·m ...... OK
22639,411
1,000
2000,000
