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The story of Arctic Voyagesand explorationJohn Mathieson F.R.S.E., F.R.S.G.S.Published online: 27 Feb 2008.

To cite this article: John Mathieson F.R.S.E., F.R.S.G.S. (1934) The story of ArcticVoyages and exploration, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 50:5, 281-308, DOI:10.1080/00369223408734929

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 281

THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION

By JOHN MATHIESON, F.R.S.E., F.R.S.G.S.

(With a Map showing the tracks and discoveries of the chiefexplorers, Sketch-Maps and Illustrations.)

" There lies the port : the vessel puffs her sail :There gloom the dark broad seas. My mariners,Souls that have toil'd, and wrought, and thought with me—That ever with a frolic welcome tookThe thunder and the sunshine, and opposedFree hearts, free foreheads—you and I are old ;Old age hath yet his honour and his toil :Death closes all : but something ere the end,Some work of noble note, may yet be done,Not unbecoming men that strove with Gods.The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks :The long day wanes : the slow moon climbs : the deepMoans round with many voices. Come, my friends,'Tis not too late to seek a newer world.Push off, and sitting well in order smiteThe sounding furrows ; for my purpose holdsTo sail beyond the sunset, and the bathsOf all the western stars, until I die."

TENNYSON, Ulysses.

INTRODUCTION

IN the following chronological record of voyages to the ArcticRegions an effort has been made to include the names of all thosewho have made notable contributions to our knowledge of thegeography and resources of the Polar area and of the conditionsobtaining there. Something of what lies behind the bald summaryof achievement may be gathered from the following sentence fromThe Geography of the Polar Regions by Otto Nordenskjold and LudwigMecking : " Perhaps no other investigation requires such anequipment of technical resources and especially so much courage,persistence and vitality as the exploration of the Polar Regions.Mankind has conducted a gigantic battle for the unveiling of thoseregions, and nothing else affords a better conception of the majestyand spirit of polar nature than this struggle to uncover itssecrets " (p. 95).

That struggle took place in stages and was prompted by motiveswhich varied in the different periods. The early legendary voyages,mentioned in sagas and other records, up to and including thenorthern voyages of Columbus and of the Cabots, were undertakenwith the view of discovering new lands and extending the habitableglobe. The Great Discoveries, culminating in the circumnavigationof the globe in 1521 by Magellan, gave the possibility of access by

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sea to the rich lands of India, China and the South Sea islands, andso supplied a definite economic motive for exploration. But thepossession of the South Seas and of all that they contained washeld as the monopoly of Spain and Portugal, the former claimingthe area to the west and the latter that to the east of a north-to-south line drawn through the Azores. Hence the desire on the part

.of the northern nations to find a passageway in high latitudes,whether by an eastern or a western route, to Cathay and itswealth.

This search for a North-east or a North-west passage was for longa dominating motive, and among the early pioneers were Frobisher,Willoughby, Barents and Hudson. Although they failed to attaintheir objective, yet they made clear the fact that the Arctic area hadgreat economic resources of its own in the whales, walruses andseals of its waters and the furs and other products of its land animals.These resources were speedily exploited, and the process gave a newmotive for Arctic exploration. Many of the whale-hunters andfur-traders, such as Scoresby and others, played an important partin the exploration and charting of the lands and seas they visitedduring their journeys. In particular the founding of the MuscovyCompany in 1555 and of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1670 ledto important advances.

At the same time the desire to find a North-west or a North-eastpassage remained a dominant motive with the northern nations,as is well shown by the fitting out of the Franklin expedition in1845. The search for the members of that ill-fated expeditiongave an enormous impetus to exploration and research. Not onlydid it lead to the discovery of many new Arctic islands, but it cul-minated in the discovery of the North-west passage by Capt.Robert McClure in 1850-3. But though McClure's sledge journey,after his vessel became fast in the ice, enabled him to report theexistence of a passage, yet it is clear that Franklin had anticipatedhim before disaster befell. Not till 1903-6 was the discovery fullyutilised, when Capt. Roald Amundsen made his great voyage.

The North-east passage was first forced by Baron A. E. Norden-skiold in 1878-9, then by Commander Vilkitski in 1914, by Amundsenin 1918-20, and by Prof. O. Schmidt in 1932.

The next phase was the attempt to reach the Pole. Parry in1827 sledged to 820 4 5 ' N. ; Markham in 1875 reached 83°'2o' ;Nansen in 1895 attained 86° 14' and Cagni in 1900, 86° 34'.These were the outstanding events before Peary finally reachedthe North Pole in 1909 by sledge. The conquest of the air madepossible Byrd's aeroplane flight to the Pole in 1926, Amundsen's byairship in the same year and that by Nobile in 1928.

The long sequence of journeys detailed below has enabledgeographers and cartographers to define the limits of the ArcticOcean, though how much remains to be done is seen from the factthat fully half a million square miles of the area of that Ocean is

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 283

still unknown. Some of the most notable recent advances havebeen in connection with meteorological work, and the stationsestablished during the Second Polar Year have done much, thoughthe material has still to be worked out.

It has been said that what Arctic exploration has cost in humanlife and in material has been out of all proportion to the resultsobtained. This complaint, often repeated, was voiced especiallywhen the news came of the loss of Franklin and his ships with theircomplement of 134 officers and men. It is of interest, therefore, tonote that among the late Drs. H. and R. Goodsir's MS. papers, nowin the possession of the Society, there is an undated newspapercutting, taken from an unknown source but evidently from a journalpublished in Edinburgh about the time of the Franklin disaster,which seems peculiarly apposite :—

" The Fate of Franklin.—They err, and err grievously, whoallege that in the vast field of Arctic research, all is but un-profitable scattering of precious seed, or who measure only bythe value to the merchant of the at last discovered passage,or to the man of science of the magnetic or isothermal observa-tions recorded by the successive voyagers, the gain which hasaccrued, whether to the nation who organised them, or tohumanity itself, from a series of expeditions unparalleled in theannals of maritime discovery. Is it nothing to have lightedamid those dreary wastes a beacon-fire for all ages to come,around which are echoed from a hundred voices, tales ofheroism and adventure as stirring as those of Greece orRome ? "

It may be added that the following leaders of Arctic Expeditionsperished during their voyages :—1553, Sir H. Willoughby and his crews(64 persons) ; 1555, Richard Chancellor ; 1581, Charles Jackman ;1582, Oliver Brunei; 1597, Willem Barents; 1606, John Knight; 1611,Henry Hudson ; 1612, James Hall ; 1720, James Knight and the crewsof 2 vessels; 1735, ProntschischefF; 1741, Vitus Bering; 1764, Shar-laroff; 1838, A. K. Zivolka and eight others; 1847, Sir John Franklinand his crews ; 1871, C. F. Hal l ; 1881, G. W. de Long and most ofcrew ; 1897, S. A. Andree and 2 companions ; 1902, E. von Toll ;igo8, Mylius Erichsen; 191 o, Bernard Hantzsch; 1912, Sedoff; 1912,Russanof; 1913, Schroder-Stranz and most of party ; 1914, Brussilof;1928, Roald Amundsen ; 1931, Alfred Wegener ; 1932, H. G. Watkins.

CHRONOLOGY OF VOYAGES

I. 325 B.C.—cir. 870 A.D., EARLY AND LEGENDARY VOYAGES325 B.C., the Greek Pytheas, following the west coast of Europe,

is said to have reached the Arctic Circle ; 517 A.D., King Arthuris said to have sailed to Iceland from Ireland ; 825 A.D., the Irishmonk Dicuil discovered the Faroe Islands and Iceland ; cir. 870,Ottar or Othere, a Norseman, rounded North Cape and discoveredthe White Sea.

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II. dr. 870—1347, GREENLAND AND THE NORSEMEN

870, Gunnbjorn Ulfsson, driven westwards by a storm on hisway to Iceland, is reported to have sighted the coast of Greenland;982, Eric the Red sailed westwards to find the land seen by Ulfssonand colonised the west coast of Greenland; 1000, his son, LeifEricsson, while on his way to Greenland from Norway, discoveredwhat was probably Nova Scotia (Wineland the Good) ; 1003,Thorfinn Karlsefni sailed from Greenland to settle the land dis-covered by Leif. He came to Helluland (Labrador), Newfound-land (Markland) and then to Wineland ; 1060, King HaroldHardraada of Norway made an expedition into the Arctic Sea toexamine its extent; 1121, Eric Uppri, the first bishop of Greenland,left in search of Wineland ; 1347, a small ship from Greenlandsailed to Markland.

(1380, ZENI, NICCOLO, a Venetian, issued a map and narrative ofthe Polar Regions said to be based upon material left by his ancestors,Niccolo and Antonio Zeni; both map and narrative are apparentlyspurious.)

III. 1462—1563, EARLY VOYAGES TO NW. ATLANTIC AND PRE-LIMINARY SEARCH FOR NORTH-WEST PASSAGE

Portuguese from the Azores seem to have visited the fishing-grounds round Newfoundland so early as 1444, but the first knownvoyage is that of John Vaz Costa Corte-Real, believed to have dis-covered Newfoundland or Terra de Baccalhaos (" land of codfish ") in 1462 ; 1492, John Femandes, a native of the Azores,called Labrador from his occupation as a farmer, with Pedro deBarcellos went on a three years' voyage north, discovered Labradorand probably visited Greenland ; 1500, Gaspar Corte-Real re-discovered Greenland and later Newfoundland ; Miguel Corte-Real sailed with 3 vessels in 1502, but the result is unknown.

Cir. 1476, Pining and Pothorst led a little-known expedition whichleft Norway or Denmark for Greenland, and is supposed to havebeen piloted by Johan Scolvus or Ion Skolp.

1477, Of Christopher Columbus' northern voyage all that isknown is the following : " I n the year 1477, in February, I navi-gated one hundred leagues (263 m.) beyond Thule, the southernpart of which is seventy-three degrees distant from the equator,and not sixty-three as some pretend ; neither is it situated withinthe line which includes the west of Ptolemy, but is much morewesterly. The English, principally those of Bristol, go with theirmerchandise to this island, which is as large as England. WhenI was there, the sea was not frozen, and the tides were so great asto rise and fall twenty-six fathom."

1497, John Cabot, a Venetian pilot, accompanied by JohnFemandes set out from Bristol under the British flag in the Mathewand discovered the mainland of North America ; in 1498 SebastianCabot got near the coast of Greenland in lat. 580 N.

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 285

1508, Aubert or Hubert, a French navigator, sailed from Dieppein the Pense'e to explore the coast of Newfoundland.

1508-9, Sebastian Cabot made a voyage in regard to which thereis little certainty; 1517, Sir Thomas Pert, perhaps assisted bySebastian Cabot as pilot, attempted the North-west passage ; sailingnorthward to 67J0 they entered Hudson Bay, perhaps previouslydiscovered by Sebastian Cabot.

1524-5, Giovanni da Verrazano, a Florentine, and EstevanGomez, a Portuguese navigator, both made unsuccessful attemptsto discover a North-west passage ; 1527, John Rut and RobertThorne made little-known voyages to Belle I. Strait and C. Breton ;1534, Jacques Carrier on his first voyage touched at Newfoundlandand discovered New Brunswick ; 1536, Hore of London in theTrinities and Minion on an attempt to find the North-west passagereached C. Breton and then sailed NE. to Penguin I., Newfound-land, and " so farre northwards that they saw mighty islands ofyce in the sommer."

IV. 1553—1565, EARLY SEARCH FOR NORTH-EAST PASSAGE

1553-5, Sir Hugh Willoughby, with Richard Chancellor asPilot-general, commanded a trading expedition to China onbehalf of the Company of Merchant Adventurers. Willoughbywith the Bona Esperanza and the Bona Confidentia discovered NovayaZemlya, but perished with the crews of his ships off the coast ofLapland. Chancellor in the Edward Bonadventure, having beenseparated in a storm, and failing to encounter the sister ships,pushed on to the White Sea. From Kholmogori (Archangel) hemade a journey to Moscow and back, travelling over 3000 miles.A second voyage ended with Chancellor's shipwreck and death offthe coast of Aberdeen.

1556, Stephen Burrough, master of the Edward Bonadventureunder Chancellor, was sent out by the Muscovy Company in theSearch- Thrift, a small pinnace. He gave the name of North Capeto that headland, crossed the White Sea, sighting Kolguev I. andNovaya Zemlya, discovered and explored Vaigach I., and gavehis name to the strait between this island and Novaya Zemlya, nowcalled Kara Strait.

V. 1574—1602, FURTHER SEARCH FOR NORTH-WEST AND NORTH-EAST PASSAGES

1574, Vasqueares Corte-Real, a Portuguese navigator, is believedto have penetrated Hudson Strait; 1576-8, Sir Martin Frobisherwith the Gabriel (20 tons) and Michael (25 tons) was the first English-man to attempt the North-west passage. He discovered FrobisherBay or inlet, believed by him to be a strait, and Hudson Strait.His discovery of what he believed to be gold led to two otherexpeditions being sent, but the ore was worthless.

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1578, Oliver Brunei established Dutch settlements at the mouthof the Dvina and made a remarkable journey to the east, crossingtheSPetchora and reaching the banks of the Obi. He perished in1 5 8 2 ^ a vain attempt to penetrate the Kara Sea ; 1580, ArthurPet and Charles Jackman with the George (40 tons) and the William(20 tons) of London penetrated through the Kara Strait to theKara Sea ; Pet discovered the strait between Vaigach and themainland. Jackman was lost on the return journey.

1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert set out on an expedition to an" unknown goal," but achieved little ; in his second expedition in1583 he annexed Newfoundland, but was drowned on the returnvoyage.

1585-7, John Davis, the English navigator, undertook threevoyages in search of the North-west passage; the first voyage waswith the Sunshine and Moonshine, the second with these and the Starand Mermaid, the third with the Sunshine and Helena or Ellen, abark not over 20 tons. He reached 730 N. lat., discovered thestrait which now bears his name, explored the west coast of Green-land from C. Farewell to Sanderson's Inlet, and the American coastfrom C. Dyer, Cumberland Peninsula, to southern Labrador. Hewas a scientific seaman of the first rank.

(1588, LAURENT FERRER MALDONADO, a Spaniard, has been creditedwith making a passage from the North Atlantic to the Pacific and backagain ; but there is no proof of this.)

1594-7, Willem Barents made three voyages to the Arctic in searchof the North-east passage. On the first voyage he was accompaniedby the Dutch navigators Brant Tetgales and Cornelius Nai, in thevessels Swan, Mercury and a second Mercury, with Nai as admiral.Nai and Tetgales penetrated the Kara Sea while Barents roundedNovaya Zemlya, reaching lat. 770 20' N. In the second expeditionthere were seven vessels under the same leaders, Barents acting aspilot in the Greyhound, but the expedition failed to penetrate theKara Sea. In the third expedition his companions were JanCornelius Rijk and Jacob van Heemskerk, and two ships took part,Heemskerk acting as commander. Bear I. was discovered and laterSpitsbergen, believed to be part of Greenland ; its west coast wasfollowed to lat. 8o° N. From Bear I. on the southward journeyRijk returned home while Barents piloted Heemskerk to NovayaZemlya, passed the furthest point reached by Barents on his firstjourney and reached lat. 790 42' N. After rounding the north-east point of Novaya Zemlya the expedition wintered at Ice Haven,near which Barents died. The winter quarters were discovered byCapt. E. Carlsen 278 years later (p. 295).

(1602, Capt. GEORGE WEYMOUTH was sent out by the East IndiaCompany, London, to seek a passage by the opening seen by Davis (seeabove), but was compelled to return without achieving anything.)

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 287

VI. 1603—1700, THE SEARCH FOR ECONOMIC PRODUCTS ANDEARLY SURVEYS

1603, Stephen Bennett in the Grace (50 tons) took goods to Kolaand rediscovered Bear I. which he named Cherry I. He returnednext year in the Godspeed (60 tons) when he killed 50 walrus, andalso in 1605-6. Jonas Poole also made a number of voyages toBear I. (1603-9), killing many walrus and taking possession of iton behalf of the Muscovy Company.

1605-7, J o n n Cunningham, James Hall and John Knight madeseveral voyages to Greenland. Cunningham, a captain in theEnglish navy, in the Frost with Hall of Hull as mate, and Knightin the Katten were sent out by Christian IV of Denmark to seekfor the lost Greenland colony ; no discovery was made. In 1606Knight in the Hopewell reached the coast of Labrador in lat. 56° 48',landed on an island with five others and was never seen again.Hall piloted the Frost and Katten with three other vessels underGollske Lindenow to Greenland in search of silver ore in 1606,but neither this expedition nor that carried out in the Frost thefollowing year achieved anything.

1607-11, Henry Hudson made a number of voyages, first forthe Muscovy Company and afterwards for the Dutch East IndiaCompany. On his first voyage he reached 730 N. on the east coastof Greenland, and on his return discovered Jan Mayen whichhe called Hudson's Tutches. Jan Mayen is believed to have beenrediscovered by the Dutch navigator of that name in 1611 and isnamed after him. In 1608 Hudson got to lat. 80° 23' N. off WestSpitsbergen. On his last voyage in the Discovery he discoveredHudson Bay, but was sent adrift by his mutinous crew in a smallboat and never seen again. Hudson Bay was entered by Sir ThomasButton in the Resolution with the Discovery under Capt. Ingram in1612. The expedition wintered at the mouth of the Nelson R.,which was so named, and the following season Southampton I. wasexplored so far north as 650.

1609-14 was marked by a number of whaling expeditions toSpitsbergen waters, beginning with Jonas Poole's voyages (seeabove) on behalf of the Muscovy Company. In 1610 in the Amitie(70 tons) he reached lat. 790 50'. In 1612 the Englishman Bonnerpiloted the first Dutch whaling ship to Spitsbergen waters, and inthe same year Captain Marmaduke of Hull made discoveries there.In 1613 the Matthew with Robert Fotherby as pilot, accompaniedby the Tiger, commanded by Benjamin Joseph with William Baffinas pilot, and three other vessels made a successful whaling voyageon behalf of the Muscovy Company, and on a return the followingyear Baffin, Fotherby and Marmaduke made a number of dis-coveries in open boats. The outline of the Spitsbergen archipelagoexcepting North East Land was completed by Thomas Edge in1617. He discovered Wyches Is. and gave its name to Edge I.

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1612, James Hall with William Baffin as pilot in the Patience,accompanied by the Heartsease under Andrew Barker, reachedCunningham Fjord, West Greenland, in lat. 670 25'. Hall waskilled by an Eskimo at Sukkertoppen as an act of vengeance forthe kidnapping of a native on an earlier voyage.

1614-31, Hudson's discoveries in Hudson Bay were followedup by a number of other voyages. Robert Bylot, who had actedas Hudson's pilot, went with Captain Gibbons in the Discovery in1614 when nothing was achieved ; but in 1615 with WilliamBaffin and the same ship he completed the survey of the northside of Hudson Strait. Baffin made a number of scientific observa-tions during this voyage, and the following year discovered andcharted Baffin Bay, reaching lat. 770 45'. In 1619 Jens Eriksen Munkcommanded a Danish expedition to Hudson Bay in the Unicornand Lamprey. The party wintered near Churchill R., but allperished with the exception of Munk and three of the crew. Munkchanged the name of Hudson Bay to New Sea, and distorted the coastoutline, and his reports are distrusted. In the same year there issaid to have been an expedition by Capt. William Hawkridge,who had accompanied Sir Thomas Button, either to Hudson Straitor Frobisher Strait, but the narrative is confused, and no newdiscoveries are recorded. In 1631 Luke Fox in the Charles exploredthe west coast of Hudson Bay and sailed north to 66° 74', makingmany new discoveries. In the same year Capt. Thomas James inthe Bristol ship Henrietta Maria wintered off Charlton I. in JamesBay, which is named after him.

1644, Stadukin, a Cossack, explored the banks of the Kolyma(Siberia), established a trading post there and gave the first descrip-tion of the Tchuktchis (p. 306) ; 1648, Simon Dezhneff made ajourney from the mouth of the Kolyma to the Gulf of Anadyr,passing through Bering Strait on the " Strait of Anian." (Plate I.,Fig. 1.) This is the first authenticated voyage from the Arctic Sea to thePacific.

1652-1700, whaling and other voyages were responsible forfurther minor discoveries, especially off Greenland and NovayaZemlya; 1652, Danell, a Danish captain, discovered two islandsoff East Greenland, in the following year he reached 730 N., andalso found and named various islands off West Greenland ; 1654,Gael Hamke, a Dutchman, discovered in 740 5' N. the bay in EastGreenland which bears his name ; and in 1655, Broer Ruys andEdam, both in whaling vessels, also visited East Greenland ; 1670,Lambert reached 780 5' on the coast of East Greenland.

1664, Capt. Vlamingh, engaged in the Dutch whale fishery,sailed round the north of Novaya Zemlya ; 1675, Cornelis PierszSnobberger killed three whales and 600 walruses off Novaya Zemlya ;1676, Capt. John Wood in the Speedwell with Capt. Fawles in theProsperous, wrecked off Novaya Zemlya, declared that he found openwater between lats. 700 and 80° ; 1700, Capt. Cornelis Roule,

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PLATE I

Photo by Miss Hutchison.

FIG. I . Cape Prince of Wales, Bering Strait, Alaska, the most westerly point ofthe North American Mainland.

Photo by Miss Hutchison.

FIG, 2. The East Branch of the Mackenzie Delta, Canada.

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PLATE II

Photo by Miss Hutchison.

FIG. 3. Angmagssalik, Greenland, showing natives and their tents.

Photo by J. Matliieson.

FIG. 4. Nordenskiold Glacier, Spitsbergen.

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 289

engaged in the Dutch whale fishery, is believed to have sailednorth in the longitude of Novaya Zemlya.

1668, Zachariah Gillam in the Nonsuch commanded an expeditionto Hudson Bay. He wintered at Rupert R. and established astation at Fort Charles. Gillam returned the following year, andon May 2, 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company was founded.

1671, Frederick Martens, a German surgeon, visited Spitsbergenand wrote an account of its physical features and natural history.

VII. 1700—1789, BEGINNINGS OF PRECISE SURVEYS

1700-28, Van Keulen, father and son, published a famouschart embodying Dutch knowledge of the Spitsbergen area ; 1707,Capt. Cornells Giles discovered Giles Land, east of North East Land.He circumnavigated the group and published a chart.

1720, James Knight, governor of" the Hudson's Bay Company'sfactory at Nelson R., was lost on a voyage of exploration ; 1722,John Scroggs while searching for Knight thought he found indicationsof a passage to the Pacific ; 1741, Capt. Christopher Middleton,commanding the Discovery and Furnace^ was sent by the Admiraltyto search for this passage. He wintered in Churchill R., and laterdiscovered Wager R. and Repulse Bay ; 1746, Capt. W. Moore inthe Dobbs and California confirmed Middleton's discoveries, madetidal observations and noted a temperature of — 45° F. ; 1769-72,Samuel Hearne made three journeys on behalf of the Hudson'sBay Company and descended the Coppermine R. to the ArcticSea ; 1789, Sir Alexander Mackenzie discovered the mouth of theMackenzie R. (Plate I., Fig. 2) which he followed from Great SlaveL. to the Arctic Ocean.

1721, Hans Egede landed on an island off the Godthaabsfjord andfounded the colony from which the existing settlements in Greenlandhave been derived. His son Niels in 1786-7, and Lowenorn in thelatter year, followed the edge of the ice to 66° N. on the east coast,some two miles from the shore.

1728-41, Capt. Vitus Bering, a Dane, in the Fortune and Gabrielconfirmed the existence of the Strait which bears his name. In histhird expedition to the American side in the St. Peter and St. Paul hesighted Mt. St. Elias and named it. He died at Bering I. Duringthe voyage the ship's surgeon, Dr. W. Steller, described Steller'ssea-cow {Rhytina stelleri), now extinct.

1734, Lieut. Morovieff sailed from Archangel to the Gulf of Obi,and next year turned back from C. Taimyr ; 1735, Lieut. Pront-schischeff with his wife sailed down the Lena from Yakutsk, winteredat the mouth of the Olenek, forced his way nearly to the extremenorthern point of Siberia, but died, with his wife, the expeditionreturning under Lieut. T. Chelyuskin; 1737-8, Lieut. Owzinreached the mouth of the Yenisei, which was surveyed by Lieut.Minin from Yeniseisk to its mouth; while SterlegofF, one of his

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officers, penetrated to 750 26' N. ; 1739, Lieut. Cheriton Laptefwith Lieut. T. Chelyuskin descended the Lena R. and reachedC. St. Thaddei (St. Faddeya) in 76° 47' N. ; 1741, Chelyuskin wassent with sledges to trace the coastline and reached the northernmostpoint in lat. 770 30', now known as C. Chelyuskin ; 1745, MichaelNevodsikoff in the Eudoka discovered three of the Aleutian Is., theexpedition being promoted by Russian merchants to obtain furs,especially sea-otters ; 1748, Simon Novikoff sailed down the Anadyrto the open sea, lost his vessel on Bering I., built another from theremains of Bering's wrecked ship and returned ; 1757, the ownerof this vessel, Ivan Shilikin, sailed in it and killed 1220 sea-otters ;1761-4, SharlarofF, a Russian fur-trader, sighted the Liakhov orNew Siberia Is. and discovered Chaun Bay, but did not returnfrom his second voyage ; 1770, Liakhov rediscovered the islands.

1751, Lars Dalager, a Danish merchant, made a journey fromFrederikshaab, West Greenland, and is the first European known tohave set foot on the inland ice ; in the same year Peder OlsenWall^e, a Danish trade official, set out at the request of the GreenlandTrading Co. to find the remains of the Norse eastern settlement(Osterbygd). He started from Godthaab and reached the eastcoast, explored several fjords in the Julianehaab district and reached60° 20' N. ; 1761, Volquard Boon, a Dutch whaler, discovered thebay bearing his name in East Greenland.

1760, Sawwa Loshkin, a Russian pilot, circumnavigated thesouthern island of Novaya Zemlya ; 1768-9, Lieut. Rosmyssloffwintered at Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, surveying the strait.

1765, Vassili Tchitschakoff commanded a Russian expeditionsent to Spitsbergen and attained lat. 8o° 30' N. ; 1773, Capt. JohnConstantine Phipps, in command of two British ships, the Racehorseand Carcass, set out to reach the North Pole. He attained lat.8o° 48' N. and discovered Walden I., North Spitsbergen. Nelsonwas a midshipman on board the Carcass.

1776-9, Capt. James Cook with the Resolution and Discovery maderesearches in the sea between Asia and America. On the Asiaticcoast his discoveries extended to North Cape, 650 56' N., and on theAmerican coast to Icy Cape, 700 29' N. ; Richard Pickersgill wassent by the Admiralty in the Lion to Davis Strait to watch for Cookand reached 68° 10' N.

VIII. 1806—1855, SCIENTIFIC WORK AND RENEWED SEARCH FORNORTH-WEST AND NORTH-EAST PASSAGES

1806-14, Karl Ludwig Giesecke, a German in the service of theDanish Government, carried out mineralogical research along theentire inhabited coast of West Greenland, from 6o° N. to 730 N. ;1806-22, William Scoresby, in the Resolution, accompanied by hisson, reached 81° 30' on the Spitsbergen meridian, the farthest northreached by a sailing ship here ; he surveyed the east coast of Green-

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land from 750 N. to 690 ; in 1821 Capt. G. W. Manby accompaniedScoresby on a voyage to Greenland to demonstrate his harpoon guninvention.

1809, Hedenstrom, a Russian officer at Yakutsk, was sent bythe Government to survey the New Siberia or Liakhov Is. ; 1821,Anjou, another officer, was sent to make a more accurate survey.

1815-18, Otto von Kotzebue, a Russian, in the Rurik passedthrough Bering Strait visiting the islands, explored the coast ofAlaska, and found mammoth teeth in the Sound now called afterhim, snowing that the animal had migrated from Asia to Americaduring the Ice Age.

1818, Capt. David Buchan and Lieut. John Franklin in thewhalers Dorothea (370 tons) and Trent (250 tons) while attemptingthe North-west passage by the Spitsbergen route reached lat.8o° 34' N.

1818, Capt. John Ross and Lieut. Edward William Parry in thewhalers Isabella (385 tons) and Alexander (252 tons) proceeded to DavisStrait to search for the North-west passage. Capt. Sabine accom-panied the expedition to make magnetic and pendulum observa-tions. Baffin's earlier discoveries were verified and many new onesmade, including Melville Bay, and a new whale fishery was openedup to the north of Baffin Bay ; 1819-20, Parry in the Hecla withLieut. Liddon in the Griper returned, again accompanied by Sabine.Parry forced a passage through Lancaster Sound, passing north ofthe magnetic pole from east to west and reaching long. 1130 48' W. ;1821-3, Parry in the Fury with Capt. G. F. Lyon in the Hecla setout with instructions to investigate Repulse Bay (north of South-ampton I.) and attempt to explore the coast to Bering Strait. Hewintered on Melville Peninsula, discovered Fury and Hecla Strait,but being beset there drifted into Fox Channel, the ships finallybeing liberated in Hudson Strait; 1823, Capt. Douglas Claveringin the Griper made an Arctic voyage in connection with Sabine'spendulum work, Clavering exploring the East Greenland coast fromC. Parry, 720 5' N., to Shannon I., 750 12'N., while Sabine madependulum observations at 13 stations ; 1824, Capt. G. F. Lyon inthe Griper (180 tons) with Lieut. Bullock in the Snap attemptedwithout success to continue Parry's work ; 1824-5, Parry in theHecla with Capt. Hoppner in the Fury wintered at Prince Regent'sInlet (off Lancaster Sound), but the Fury had to be abandoned ;1827, Parry, now Sir William and Hydrographer to the Admiralty,left the Hecla on the north coast of Spitsbergen in 790 55' andpushed north with two small boats fitted with runners. The extremepoint reached, 82° 45' jV., 20° E., remained for 48 years the farthest north.

1819, Lieut. Lasarev made a fruitless voyage to Novaya Zemlya ;1821-4, Capt. Liitke, a Russian, surveyed its west coast as far northas Cape Nassau ; in 1828-9 he surveyed in Le Seniavine a considerablepart of the coast of Asia between lats. 530 and 650 N.

1820-3, Baron F. von Wrangell, a Russian, made four journeys,

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surveying the Asiatic coast from the mouth of the Kolyma eastwardsto C. Shelagski. From C. Yakan he sighted the land later known asWrangell or Wrangel Island ; 1843, Middendorff, a Russian, byexploring the region ending in C. Chelyuskin completed thedelineation of the coast of Siberia.

1821, John Franklin, accompanied by Dr. John Richardson,George Back and Robert Hood, was commissioned by the ColonialOffice, in co-operation with the Hudson's Bay Company, to fill inthe blanks on the northern coastline of Canada. Between themouth of the Coppermine R. and C. Turnagain (Dease Strait)550 miles were explored ; 1825-6, Franklin, accompanied by Back,descended the Mackenzie R. to its mouth and explored 374 milesof coastline to the west ; 1825-7, Richardson discovered andexplored the coast between the mouths of the Mackenzie andCoppermine, and sighted Wollaston L a n d ; 1825-8, Capt. F. W.Beechey in the Blossom entered Bering Strait and explored as faras Point Barrow, 710 23' 30" N. lat. ; 1833, Back with Dr. RichardKing discovered the Great Fish R. and followed it to the ArcticSea, surveying the estuary ; 1837-9, Thomas Simpson and P. W.Dease travelled from Fort Chippewyan to the mouth of theMackenzie R., and explored the coast to Point Barrow on the westand to the west shore of King William Land on the east.

1827, Prof. B. M. Keilhau, a Norwegian geologist, made thefirst purely scientific expedition to Bear I. and Spitsbergen ; 1837,Prof. Sven Loven visited the west coast of the latter for geologicaland other scientific work ; 1838-9, Capt. M. Fabvre, commandinga French expedition in the La Recherche with a scientific staff, spentthe first season at Bell Sound and the second at Magdalena Bay,Spitsbergen : C. Martin's glacial investigations during this ex-pedition marked an epoch ; 1847, Capt. Lund in the Antoinettenavigated Walter Thymen's Strait, Spitsbergen. -

1829-33, Capt. John Ross with his nephew James Clark Rossin the Victory, a small vessel furnished by Felix Booth, traversedPrince Regent Inlet and wintered on land which he called BoothiaFelix. James Ross crossed this and fixed the position of the magneticpo le ; land west of Boothia Felix was also discovered and namedKing William Land. The ship had to be abandoned, the partybeing picked up by a whaler in Barrow Stra i t ; in 1846-7, JohnRae, a Scottish doctor in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company,proved that Boothia was part of the continent.

1829-31, Commander W. A. Graah, of the Danish navy, visitedthe south extremity of East Greenland and explored the coast upto 650 18' N. After wintering he returned to the settlements onthe west coast with much scientific material ; 1831, Haake visitedthe coast of East Greenland near 740 N. ; 1833, Blosseville in theFrench ship Lilloise sighted land in East Greenland in 68° 34' N.and traced it to 68° 55'.

1832-5, Pachtussow surveyed the east coast of Novaya Zemlya

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as far north as Pachtussow I. ; 1836-8, August Karlovitz Zivolka,a Russian pilot, made voyages to Novaya Zemlya, in one of whichhe was accompanied by Prof. Baer, who made large botanical andzoological collections; Zivolka died in Novaya Zemlya togetherwith eight of his crew.

1845-7, Sir John Franklin with Capt. Crozier sailed in the Erebusand Terror in search of the North-west passage. The ships were lastseen in Baffin Bay, and though as was proved later Franklin afterabandoning his ships died on July n , 1847, he had shown the existenceof the passage. A number of relief expeditions were sent out; 1848,Sir John Richardson and Dr. J . Rae explored the coast from theMackenzie mouth to the Coppermine on foot; in 1849-51 Raecontinued his search and explored the shores of Wollaston andVictoria Lands, travelling 5300 miles and surveying 700 miles of coast-line ; in 1853-4 Rae established the insularity of King WilliamLand, found the relics of the Franklin Expedition and received theAdmiralty reward of £10,000. He discovered in all about 1700miles of new territory ; 1848-9, Sir James Ross with Lieut. LeopoldMcClintock went out in the Enterprise and Investigator and, afterwintering near the north-east point of Devon I., McClintock madea long sledge journey along the northern and western coasts ofSomerset I . ; 1849, Dr. R. A. Goodsir left in the Advice, a Dundeewhaler (Capt. Penny), to search for his brother Harry who was asurgeon on the Erebus, but found nothing. Goodsir returned in1850 as surgeon to Penny's two brigs, the Lady Franklin and Sophia,which accompanied Capt. Horatio Austin's Expedition in theAssistance and Resolute with two steam tenders, the Pioneer and Intrepid.The expedition went by Barrow Strait, and an extensive system ofsearch by sledge was arranged by Lieut. McClintock in concertwith Penny; 1850-1, Lieut. E. J. de Haven in the Advance withS. P. Griffin in the Rescue and E. K. Kane as fleet surgeon led anAmerican search party which was beset in Wellington Channel,the ships drifting north to lat. 750 25', long. 930 31' W. BeyondDevon I. they discovered land which they named Grinnell1; 1850,Sir John Ross in a private expedition in the Felix surveyed CornwallisI. and brought back native reports of the Franklin Expedition ;1850-3, Capt. Robert J. McClure in the Investigator penetrated toC. Herschel via the Pacific, but was beset in the ice off Banks I.He made a journey across to Melville I. and proved the existence of apassage {McClure Strait). He was rescued by Capt. Kellett in theResolute (see below).

1850-4, Robert Collinson in the Enterprise got separated from theInvestigator, and after exploring Prince Albert Land, Prince of WalesStrait and Melville I. returned with his ship via Bering Strait;1851-2, Capt. William Kennedy in the schooner Prince Albert wassent out by Lady Franklin with Lieut. Bellot of the French navy

1 Note that there are two areas to which this name was given; cf. Kane's secondvoyage below and Lockwood, p. 296.

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second in command, and wintered on the east coast of SomersetI. Bellot discovered Bellot Strait separating Somerset I. fromBoothia ; 1852-4, Capt. Edward A. Inglefield, R.N., in the Isabel,mapped great stretches of coast in and about Smith Sound andmade a voyage to Beechey I. in the Phoenix ; 1852-4, Sir EdwardBelcher commanding an expedition with the Assistance (CommanderG. H. Richards), the Resolute (Capt. H. Kellett), the Pioneer (Lieut.Sherard Osborn), the Intrepid (Commander F. L. McClintock) andthe transport North Star (Lieut. Pullen) went out by Barrow Strait.The expedition discovered some new islands, examined Cornwallis,Bathurst and Melville Is. thoroughly and made remarkable sledgingjourneys. The Resolute was abandoned by Belcher's orders onMay 15, 1854, in lat. 740 41' , long. 101° W., but drifted 1000 milesthrough Barrow Strait and Baffin Bay and was brought to port byan American whaler and restored to the British Government;1853-5, ^ r - E. K. Kane in the Advance, equipped by Henry Grinnelland George Peabody, sailed for Smith Sound, the northern outletof Baffin Bay, and examined Grinnell Land (=part of Ellesmere I.)and Greenland from C. Ingersoll to C. Constitution. He abandonedhis brig and travelled 80 miles to Upernivik where the survivorswere rescued by Lieut. Hartstene who had been sent in search ofthem ; 1854-5, Lieut. Frederick Meacham and Lieut. Leopold

. McClintock made Arctic land journeys with Vesey Hamilton,completing the discovery of the north and west sides of Melville I.,and filling in the whole outline of Prince Patrick I. ; James Andersonof the Hudson's Bay Company descended the Back R. in three canoesand met Eskimo with many Franklin relics, thus confirming Rae'sdiscoveries (p. 293).

Further search for traces of the Franklin Expedition were madeby Capt. Leopold McClintock in 1857-9 in the Fox, and by theAmerican Charles Francis Hall in 1860-9. McClintock made avery extensive search and found a human skeleton on King WilliamLand with other relics, while his companion Hobson found a writtenrecord.

IX. 1858—1886, INTENSIVE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The main outline of the Arctic Lands being now known,expeditions of many kinds, including yachting excursions, werenumerous ; the more important may be summarised accordingto locality :—

1. Spitsbergen. 1858-62, Dr. Otto Torell, a Swedish geologist,with A. E. Nordenskiold and Quennerstedt, made a comprehensivesurvey of the geology and natural history and preliminary observa-tions in connection with the measuring of an arc of meridian ;Nordenskiold, accompanied by Duner and Malmgren, returnedin 1864 and carried out a number of detailed observations, but thearc was not finally measured till 1899-1902 ; 1858-71, James Lamont,

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a Scot, during four hunting expeditions made observations on theanimal life ; discovered coal in Advent Bay in 1859 anc^ rectifiedthe position of Hope I. ; 1863, Capt. Elling Carlsen was the firstto circumnavigate the archipelago ; 1864-5, Capt. S. Tobiesen withtwo other Norwegian whaling captains sailed round North EastLand, and after abandoning their ships rowed up Hinlopen Straitand round to Ice Sound. In 1865 Tobiesen wintered on Bear I.and made a series of meteorological observations ; 1867, Capt.Ronnbak circumnavigated West Spitsbergen and discovered agroup of islands on the east coast; 1868, Nordenskiold reached81 ° 42' N., in long. 170 30' W. ; in the same year Capt. K. Koldewayreached 81c 5' off the north coast and sighted Wyches Is. ; 1870,Baron von Heuglin and Count Zeil explored Edge and Barents Is.and Freeman Strait ; 1871, Dr. Julius von Payer and Lieut. KarlWeyprecht attempted to reach Giles Land (p. 289), they attainedlat. 780 41' N. and then sailed east, sighting Novaya Zemlya; 1871,Benjamin Leigh-Smith visited Waygat I., from where he saw thesouthern end of North East Land which he called C. Mohn ; on hisreturn he explored the coast of North East Land for forty milesbeyond C. Platen. In another journey in 1873 he showed that NorthCape was an island ; 1872, Count Wilczek explored the Horn Soundarea ; in the same year Capt. Altmann visited Wyches Is. (cf. Edge,p. 287) ; 1872-3, A. E. Nordenskiold made an unsuccessful attemptto reach the Pole by reindeer sledge from a base in North Spits-bergen ; 1878 onwards, Lieut. A. de Bruyne made many visits tothe Spitsbergen and Barents Seas, taking soundings and makingnatural history collections.

2. Novaya /(emlya. 1870, Capt. E. H. Johanesen, a Norwegian,circumnavigated the group and made important hydrographicalobservations ; 1871, Capt. Elling Carlsen rounded the northernisland and determined the longitude of the north-eastern point as670 30' E. He found the ruins of Barents' winter quarters (p. 286)and obtained many relics now exhibited at the Amsterdam Museum ;1879, Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Capt. A. H. Markham, R.N.,sailed along the west coast to the most northerly point, passedthrough the Matochkin Shar to the east coast, and examined theice towards Franz Josef Land so far as 780 24' N.

3. Franz Josef Land. 1872-4, the Payer-Weyprecht Expedition intrying to make the North-east passage were obliged to abandon theirship, the Tegetthoff, and take to the boats ; in August, 1873, theydiscovered the archipelago which they named Franz Josef Land ;1880-4, Benjamin Leigh-Smith made two voyages to the new land ;in the second his ship the Ezra was crushed in the ice, and the partyafter wintering reached Novaya Zemlya in boats.

4. Greenland. 1860-1, Dr. I. I. Hayes wintered at Port Foulkein lat. 780 17', and in an attempt to penetrate to the interior traversedthe inland ice for 40 miles ; 1867, Edward Whymper and Dr. RobertBrown met with little success in an attempt to penetrate the inland

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ice, but brought back important geological and natural historycollections ; 1868, David Gray, in a Scottish whaler, discoveredScott's inlet on the east coast in lat. 730 30' N. ; 1869-70, Capt.Koldeway commanded the German expedition in the ships Germaniaand Hansa, and was accompanied by Lieut. Julius Payer. The northshore of Dove Bay, in lat. 77° N., north of C. Bismarck on the eastcoast, was reached in sledges, and the Germania returned after tenmonths in the ice at Sabine I. The Hansa was crushed in the ice, andthe crew made a remarkable journey on an ice-floe to the southernextremity of Greenland ; 1870, Nordenskiold with Dr. S. Berygrenvisited the west coast, made a short journey on the inland ice andinvestigated the geology of Disko I. ; 1871-3, Charles Francis Hall,proceeding by Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, made a newrecord here by reaching 82 ° n ' , but Hall succumbed to the hard-ships endured ; 1875, Prof. Amund Helland, a Norwegian geologist,made observations on the movement of the glaciers ; 1875-6, Capt.George S. Nares, detached from, the Challenger expedition, sailed upthe west coast with the Alert, Discovery and Valorous, accompanied byCapt. A. H. Markham and Lieut. Pelham Aldrich. The Alert waspushed up the west coast of Kennedy Channel, and a new recordwas made by Markham in a sledge journey to 830 20' 26" ; other newrecords were made by exploring parties ; 1879, Commander Mourierand Capt. C. F. Wandel in the Danish steamer Ingolf attempted tosurvey the east coast between 66° and 690 N., but were not able tocome within six miles of the shore ; 1881-4, in connection with thesetting up of International Circumpolar stations for meteorologicaland magnetic work (the First Polar Year), Lieut. A. W. Greelycommanded an American expedition which included Lieut. J. B.Lockwood. Lockwood carried out remarkable sledging journeys,making a new record with the attainment of 830 24' in long.420 45' W., crossing Grinnell Land (cf. p. 293) to GreelyFiord and filling in many details ; 1883, Nordenskiold made avoyage to the west coast and a sledge journey on the inland ice, andalso visited the east coast, landing near the present colony ofAngmagssalik (Plate II., Fig. 3) ; 1883-5, Lieut. Gustav F. Holmwith Lieut. Yarde, both of the Danish navy, in an official expeditionshowed that Angmagssalik was the most accessible spot on the eastcoast, and proved that the Norse eastern settlement (p. 290) had beenin the Julianehaab district and not on the east coast; 1884-6, theDanish cruiser Eylla with a scientific staff carried out hydrographicalsurveys, and botanical work was done on shore ; 1884-5, Lieut.G. C. Amdrup mapped much of the coastline to the north ofAngmagssalik and made glaciological observations.

5. American Arctic Coast. 1873, Capt. A. H. Markham visitedFury Beach (Prince Regent's Inlet) and found the wreck of the Furylost by Parry (p. 291) in 1824 I l^T5) Sir Allen Young in the Pandorapenetrated far down Peel Sound (east of Somerset I.), but wasobliged to abandon the attempt to force a passage ; 1878, Lieut.

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Frederick Schwatka found many Franklin relics in King WilliamLand ; 1883-4, Dr. Frank Boas in the Germania exploredCumberland Sound.

6. Asiatic Arctic Coast and Achievement of North-east passage. 1867,Capt. Thomas Long explored the area now known as Wrangell I.and examined the extinct volcano (2480 ft.) ; 1873, Tschekanowskiwas sent out by the Russian Imperial Geographical Society to surveythe coast in sledges ; 1875-6, A. E. Nordenskiold made preliminaryvoyages to the Yenisei; 1878-9, he set out in the Vega, reached themouth of the Lena without difficulty, but was held up in the iceonly 120 miles from Bering Strait. The Vega rounded East Cape thefollowing season, and thus the North-east passage was successfully accom-plished ; 1879-81, Commander G. W. de Long of the U.S. navywith the Jeannette, fitted out by James Gordon Bennett, entered thepack near Herald I. in 71 ° 3 1 ' ; for twenty-two months the shipdrifted with the ice and sank finally to the north of the Liakhov Is.,the leader and most of the crew perishing in an attempt to reachcivilisation; wreckage of the ship drifted ashore in West Greenlandin 1884 ; 1881, Lieut. Berry in the Rodgers, while searching forde Long, landed on and explored Wrangell I . ; 1885-6, Dr. A. Bungewith Baron E. von Toll visited the Liakhov or New Siberia Is.and described fossil remains of mammoth, rhinoceros, deer, etc.Toll returned in 1893, reaching 75° 37' N. on the coast of Kotelniwith dog-sledges, finding further mammalian remains and provingthat in the mammoth period trees grew in this latitude, 30 beyondtheir present limit. In 1900-2, after visiting the Taimyr peninsula,he went to Bennett I. and left a record but did not return.

X. 1886—1909, STAGES IN THE CONQUEST OF THE POLE

1886, Peary made his first Greenland voyage. Starting betweenJacobshavn and Ritenbenk he travelled 117 miles over the inland ice ;1888, Nansen made his epoch-making traverse of the inland ice fromthe east to the west coast (Fig. 5) ; 1889, Capt. C. F. Wandel madeexhaustive hydrological investigations off the west coast of Greenland,returning in 1895-6 ; 1891-2, Lieut. C. Ryder wintered in ScoresbySound, 70° 27' N., 260 12' W., and explored and mapped theinner fjords ; 1890-4, Peary crossed the inland ice from north ofInglefield Gulf (west coast) to Independence Fjord (north-east), andreturned in two separate journeys ; 1891-3, Dr. E. von Drygalskistudied the inland ice and the marginal glaciers.

1893-6, Nansen made use of the drift of the Jeannette wreckageto plan a journey which he hoped would carry him to the Pole.The From was allowed to be caught in the pack near the Liakhov Is.and drifted north-westwards. When it became clear that the driftwould not carry him to his objective Nansen left the ship, in 840 4' N.,1020 E., with Johanesen on a northern sledge trip. They reached86° 14' N. and returned to Franz Josef Land. Here the Jackson-

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FIG. 5. Journeys across the inland ice in Greenland up to 1931.

From The Polar Record.

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Harmsworth expedition (1894-7) under F. G.Jackson had establisheda base at C. Flora and were carrying out extensive surveys. Nansenand Johanesen were rescued by the Jackson relief ship. Meantimethe From under Capt. Otto Sverdrup had reached navigable waternorth of Spitsbergen.

1894, Capt. Gustav F. Holm founded the settlement of Angmags-salik in eastern Greenland ; 1894-8, Walter Wellman made an un-successful attempt to reach the Pole from Spitsbergen ; 1896-9, SirMartin Conway with others, and the Prince of Monaco didmuch scientific work in Spitsbergen and the surrounding seas;1897, S. A. Andree made his unsuccessful attempt to reach thePole in a balloon from Spitsbergen and reached lat. 82 ° 56' N. ;1898-9, Prof. A. G. Nathorst, after exploring the east coast ofGreenland between Scoresby Sound and Franz Josef Fjord,and making many scientific observations, continued to Spitsbergenin an unsuccessful search for traces of Andree. He circumnavigatedthe group and did much scientific work.

1898-1902, Peary made a first attempt to reach the Pole, andthough unsuccessful proved the insularity of Greenland andcharted the north coast; 1899-1900, the Duke of the Abruzziwith Capt. Umberto Cagni attempted to reach the Pole from FranzJosef Land. Cagni made a new record, surpassing Nansen'sfarthest by about 20 miles and reaching 86° 34' N., long. 650 20' E.;1901, Evelyn Briggs Baldwin commanded the unsuccessful Baldwin-Ziegler expedition which also made an attempt on the Pole fromFranz Josef Land.

1899-1902, Capt. Otto Sverdrup in the Fram, going out by JonesSound, proved that Ellesmere and Grinnell Lands (p. 294) formedpart of one land-mass, the west coast of which he traced, and alsodiscovered Axel Heiberg I. ; 1900, Lieut. G. C. Amdrup completedthe mapping of the east coast from C. Farewell to C. Bismarck ;1901-2, H. C. Krause and his wife made a botanical survey of theeast coast.

1902, Peary travelled to C Hecla in Grant Land and thennorthward over sea-ice to 84° 17' N. in 70° W., when he was com-pelled to return ; 1902-4, Mylius Erichsen with Dr. Knud Rasmussensledged across Melville Bay and wintered among the C. York Eskimo;1903, Anthony Fiala of the Ziegler Polar expedition reached 82° 4'off Franz Josef Land in the America, discovering many newislands. His ship was crushed in the ice, but the party succeeded inreaching Franz Josef Land ; 1903-6, Capt. Roald Amundsen in the Gjoasuccessfully accomplished the North-west passage from east to west. Heremained with his vessel for two years in Petersen Bay, King WilliamLand, sledged to the magnetic pole and along the coast of VictoriaLand, which was charted up to 750 N., and also made many magneticand meteorological observations ; 1905, the Duke of Orleans in theBelgica commanded by Lieut. Gerlache made an expedition to thewaters east of northernmost Greenland, landing in several places and

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collecting much material ; 1905, Peary in the Roosevelt with Capt.Robert Bartlett voyaged by Smith Sound and the north coast of GrantLand, sledged to C. Hecla and made a new record by reaching 870 6'N. ; 1905-7, Alfred H. Harrison surveyed the Mackenzie delta andadjacent area and visited Banks I. ; 1906-7, the Prince of Monacowith Dr. W. S. Bruce made further observations in Spitsbergen andsurveyed Prince Charles Foreland ; 1906-8, Mylius Erichsen withLieut. Trolle in the Danmark and Capt. J . P. Koch explored north-eastern Greenland; Mylius Erichsen and two others perished ;1907, Capt. Einar Mikkelsen explored the Beaufort Sea, startingfrom Flaxman I., Alaska.

[1907-9, Dr. F. A. Cook spent two years in the Arctic andalleged that he had reached the Pole, but the statement has beengenerally discredited] ; 1908-9, Peary reported having reached the Poleon April 6, 1909, where a sounding through the sea-ice gave 1300 fathoms,no bottom.

XI. 1909—1933, RECENT SCIENTIFIC WORK

With the achievement of the Pole, attention became concentratedon particular problems and on areas still imperfectly known,though the post-war development of civilian flying led to manyspectacular flights and initiated aerial surveys (Plate IV.). Thevarious areas may again be considered separately and the majorexpeditions noted in so far as they yielded new material,

1. Spitsbergen. 1909, 1912, 1914, Dr. W. S. Bruce with otherscompleted the survey of Prince Charles Foreland; 1911-12, aNorwegian Arctic expedition studied West Spitsbergen; 1921, theOxford University Expedition carried out ornithological, geologicaland other research in the western area; in a second expeditionin 1924, under the leadership of Mr. George Binney, North EastLand was crossed for the first time ; 1923-33, the NorwegianFisheries Arctic Hydrographic Expeditions made extensive observa-tions in the waters round Spitsbergen, the Barents Sea, the eastcoast of Greenland, etc., and where landing was possible carriedout geological and other work on shore; 1930-2, Rolf Kjaer andDr. Hans Frebold carried out hydrographical and geological in-vestigations ; 1931, Sir Hubert Wilkins attempted to traverse theArctic Sea beneath the ice in a submarine from Spitsbergen. Theattempt failed, but the vessel, the Nautilus, reached 81 ° 51' N . ;in the same year a Norwegian expedition under Prof. Ahlmanninvestigated North East Land; 1932, Cambridge expeditions carriedout detailed work in Spitsbergen and Bear I.

2. Polar Flights from Spitsbergen. 1925, the Amundsen-EllsworthPolar flight started from King's Bay and made a flight of 8 hrs.,landing in lat. 87° 44' N., long. io° 21' W.; in the same yearCommander F. A. Worsley led an expedition organised with theintention of flying to the Pole, but achieved only flights over the

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 301

sea round North East Land; 1926, a flight from Spitsbergen to thePole and. across the unexplored Arctic Sea to Point Barrow, Alaska,was accomplished in the dirigible airship Norge, the party includingCapt. R. Amundsen, Mr. Lincoln Ellsworth, Col. Nobile andothers. The time occupied was 71 hrs. and the distance covered2700 miles ; in the same year Lieut-Commander R. E. Byrdcrossed the Pole by air in a 15! hrs. flight from Spitsbergen ; 1928,Gen. Umberto Nobile made two nights in the Italia, reaching thePole on the second, but the airship was wrecked on the returnjourney, and Capt. Amundsen was lost during a search for theparty ; in the same year G. H. Wilkins reached Green Harbour,Spitsbergen, after a flight from Point Barrow, Alaska. •

3. Greenland. 1909-12, Capt. Einar Mikkelsen went out to searchfor traces of Mylius Erichsen (p. 300); 1912, Dr. A. Quervain crossedthe inland ice with dog-sledges in 41 days from near Ritenbenkon the west coast to Angmagssalik on the east (Fig. 5) ; 1912,1916-17, 1919-24, Dr. Knud Rasmussen carried out a series of ex-peditions from Thule in the north-west, crossing the inland iceto Independence Fjord and making detailed investigations of theEskimo ; 1912-13, Capt. J. P. Koch with Dr. Alfred Wegenercrossed the inland ice from Germania Land on the east coast tonear Upernivik on the west; 1913-17, D. B. Macmillan commandedan expedition in search of Croker Land sighted by Peary, but foundno land. Further explorations were made in Ellesmere I. and thenorth-west; 1920-3, Dr. Lauge Koch led an expedition roundGreenland in memory of Hans Egede's landing in 1721 (cf. p. 289),and proved that C. Morris Jesup and not C. Bridgman was thenorthernmost point ; 1922-3, J. D. Craig with the Arctic underCapt. Bernier explored Ellesmere I. ; 1924, Capt. Einar Mikkelsenled an expedition to Scoresby Sound; 1925-6, 1928-9 and 1931,Dr. J. B. Charcot visited the east coast in the Pourquoi Pas; 1925-6,P. Mackenzie explored Ellesmere I. ; 1926, the CambridgeExpedition under J. M. Wordie did much mapping of the eastcoast between lats. 720 and 750 ; 1926-9, Dr. Lauge Koch exploredthe area between Scoresby Sound and Danmarks Havn on GermaniaLand, and also large parts of the north-east and north-west coasts.He returned in 1930 to the north-east area for geological and otherresearch ; 1930, Dr. Adolf Hoel led a Norwegian expedition toEast Greenland ; 1930-1, Prof. W. H. Hobbs, of the University ofMichigan, carried out meteorological research in western Greenland;1930-1, H. G. Watkins led the British Arctic Air Route Expeditionwhich established a meteorological station on the inland ice at aheight of 8000 ft. in lat. 67° 3', long. 41 ° 48' W., while two crossingsof the inland ice were also made ; 1930-1, Prof. Alfred Wegener ledthe German Greenland expedition which established a meteorologicalstation on the inland ice at a height of 9000 ft. in lat. 71° 8' N.,long. 400 W., and carried out much important glaciological work;the leader and another member lost their lives.

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1931, Commander von Gronau crossed Greenland by airship,travelling in 8 hrs. from Scoresby Sound to Sukkertoppen; 1931,Mehren and Hoygaard, two Norwegians, crossed the inland ice fromKamarujuk glacier on the west in lat. 71° 10' to Waltershausenglacier near Franz Josef Fjord on the east, attaining a height of9700 ft. ; 1931, a Norwegian expedition investigated the areabetween Scoresby Sound and Shannon I., while among various otherexpeditions may be mentioned that led by Dr. Lauge Koch to theeast coast between lats. 730 and 740 6' which is still in the field.Dr. E. H. Kranck joined this expedition in 1933 as geologist; 1932,Dr. Knud Rasmussen explored the south-east coast, and in thesame year Capt. Einar Mikkelsen examined the BlosseviUe coast andKangerdlugsuak region ; the year was also noted for the establish-ment of international meteorological stations in Greenland andelsewhere under the Second Polar Year Scheme (cf. p. 296); 1932-3,Watkins led an expedition to continue his work in East Greenland,but lost his life during a kayak journey.

4. American Arctic Coast and Islands. 1908-12, V. Stefanssonexplored the area east of the lower Mackenzie ; 1910, BernardHantzsch made the first crossing of Baffin I., but lost his life inFox Channel; 1913-18, Stefansson and others set out in the Karlukon the Canadian Arctic Expedition to define the Parry Archipelagoand explore the area north of the Beaufort Sea. Much detailedwork was accomplished, but the Karluk sank 60 miles off Herald I.and two parties were lost; 1923-6, Major L. T. Burwash, F. D.Henderson and others continued investigations in Baffin I., KingWilliam I. and other parts of the archipelago and along the coasteast of the Mackenzie delta ; 1926-7, G. H. Wilkins carried outflights in Alaska; in 1927 he penetrated 553 miles to the north ofWrangell I. and recorded the deepest sounding yet taken in theArctic Sea, 18,450 ft.; 1930, Major Burwash surveyed the coastof King William I. from the air.

5. Asiatic Arctic Coast and Islands. 1910-13, the Russian Hydro-graphical Expedition in the Taimyr and Vaigach explored theSiberian coast and discovered Nicholas II Land ; 1914-15, thesame two ships made a further exploration of Nicholas II Landand completed the passage from the Pacific to Archangel ; 1912,Russanof started for the Liakhov Is. via Spitsbergen and NovayaZemlya, but the ship and party were lost; in the same year Sedoffattempted to reach the Pole via Novaya Zemlya; 1912-13, Lieut.Schroder-Stranz in an attempt on the North-east passage went toSpitsbergen but was lost; 1912-14, Lieut. G. L. Brussilof, caught inthe ice of the Kara Sea in 71 ° N., drifted to Franz Josef Land. Theship was abandoned in lat. 830 N., long. 630 E. ; only two membersof the crew were rescued at C. Flora by Sedoff's ship (see above) ;1918-25, Roald Amundsen undertook a lengthy Arctic voyage inthe Maud, drifting across the Polar Sea and making numerousscientific observations; 1927, a scientific research station was

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 303

established by the Soviet Government in the Liakhov Is., andinvestigations carried out there and over the tundra near themouth of the R. Yana ; 1928-30, a Russian expedition mapped thelower course of the R. Indigirka and established meteorologicalstations; 1930, a Russian expedition left Archangel, and crossingthe Kara Sea studied the Kjellman or Minin Is. and the neighbour-ing area ; in the same year a Norwegian expedition under Dr.Gunnar Horn discovered many relics of Andree's balloon expedi-tion (p. 299) in Novaya Zemlya.

1930, Prof. O. J. Schmidt led a Russian expedition which roundedFranz Josef Land, while the Soviet Government announced itsintention of taking over the area and renaming it Fridtjof NansenLand ; 1931, Dr. Eckener in the airship Graf ^eppelin made anextensive flight over Fridtjof Nansen Land and Severnaya Zemlya(Nicholas II Land) ; 1931-2, a party left by Schmidt's expeditioncarried out long sledge journeys to the west of Severnaya Zemlyaand reached its northernmost point, in lat. 88° 16' N., long.950 37' E., which they called C. Molotoff; 1932, Prof. Schmidtled the Siberiakov expedition which left Archangel on July 28 andreached Bering Strait on October 1, this being the first time the North-east passage had been negotiated in a single season ; in the same yearProf. N. N. Zubov circumnavigated F. Nansen Land for the firsttime.

1933 was marked especially by the work carried out at thevarious International Polar Stations in connection with the SecondPolar Year; by a continuation of Russian work in Arctic Siberia ;and by a number of minor expeditions mainly engaged in specificscientific problems (geology, botany, zoology, etc.), rather than inexploration and survey.

EXPLORERS WHO GOT NEAREST THE POLE

Year.

159616071616177318061827

18701875

1882

1895

Name;

W. BarentsH. HudsonW. BaffinJ. PhippsW. ScoresbyW. E. Parry

(sledge)C. F. HallA. H. Markhara

(sledge)Lockwood

(sledge)F. Nansen (sledge)

Lat.

8o°80° 23'77° 45'80° 48'81° 30'82° 45'

82° 11'83° 20'

83° 24'

86° 14'

Vear.

189519001902190619091925

1926

1926

1928

Name.

Sverdrup (in From)U. CagniR. E. Peary

Do.Do.

R. Amundsen(aeroplane)

R. Amundsen(airship)

R. E. Byrd(aeroplane)

U. Nobile(airship)

Lat.

85° 55'86° 34'84° 17'87° 6'Pole87° 44'

Pole

Pole

Pole

The North Magnetic Pole in lat. 70° 5' N., long. 96° 44' W., was located byJames Clark Ross in 1831.

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304 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE

GENERAL RESULTS

Some of the more important facts which have emerged from thelong series of Arctic voyages and journeys may be noted inconclusion.

Distribution of Land and Sea. The area within the Arctic Circle,in marked contrast to that delimited by the Antarctic Circle,consists of a central sea surrounded by land save for certain breaksin its continuity. Figures may be given approximately as follows :—

Polar Sea . . . 5,021,600 sq. miles

Arctic LandsAlaska . . . 148,500 sq. milesCanada . . . 675,430 „Greenland . . . 711,300 „Norway and Svalbard . 82,460 „Sweden . . . 25,300 „Finland . . . 37,410 „Russia . . . 1,500,000 „

3,180,400 sq. miles.Total area (land and sea), 8,202,000 sq. miles.

Range of Arctic Conditions (Fig. 8). The whole land area cannot,however, be described as Arctic in the strict sense, for the Arctic Circleonly determines temperature to a limited extent. Thus Arcticconditions are virtually absent in the 144,000 sq. miles lying withinthe Arctic Circle in Norway, Sweden and Finland. On the otherhand, Greenland is throughout Arctic though it touches lat. 6o° N. ;so also is the Bering Strait area though it extends to the south ofthe Circle. This is also true of Labrador, despite the latitude. Thecoldest areas are within Siberia and Canada. Of the total land areaat least 800,000 sq. miles are covered with ice, the largest glaciatedarea being found in Greenland where the ice seems to be over8000 ft. thick. Much of the exposed surface is frozen to aconsiderable depth. Thus borings in the Yukon show that frostpenetrates to 220 ft., similar figures for Siberia being 382 ft. andSpitsbergen 1000 ft. Precipitation is small, totalling about 11 inches,and the glaciers seem everywhere in retreat. In Spitsbergen theNordenskiold glacier (Plate II., Fig. 4) was measured by de Geer in1880 and by me in 1920, and was found to have retreated 500 yardsin the interval.

Arctic Peoples. Eskimo occupy the coastline from Kamchatkato the Aleutian Is. and Alaska, northern Canada, mainland andislands, Labrador and Greenland. The total number is estimatedat 45,000, but the Greenland Eskimo are of mixed blood. The Lappsoccupy the lands to the north of Norway, Sweden, Finland and

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PLATE III

FIG. 6. Kass Billen Bay, Spitsbergen, in the centre of the coal vein.The foreground shows the tramway leading to Bruce City which lies just behind the camera.

Photo by J. Mathieson.

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PLATE IV

MAP

SHOWING ARCTIC

EXPLORATION BY AIR.

. n i g h t s/ Andree 2897

Amunasen 2985 -26Byrd J9SSNobile (lta.lia.) 29S8Witkms 19B8Graf Zeppelin 1331Gronau J931Cramer jW

FIG. 7.

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Fig. 8. The Natural Provinces of the Arctic Region.

The thick line marks the limit of the Arctic area as determined by the presenceof trees, sub-regions being shown by thinner lines and the isotherms of thewarmest month by broken lines. I is the Outer Arctic Belt, where the averagetemperature of thewarmest month liesbetween + io°C.and+5°C.(5O°F.—4icF.),and some stock-rearing (e.g. of reindeer) is possible. In II, the High-ArcticBelt, the temperature of the warmest month lies between 5°C. and o°C, nostock-rearing is possible, but large, wild grazing animals occur, dwarf andscattered flowering plants being present. This includes II A, the greater partof the American Arctic Archipelago; IIB, the northern borders of Greenland;IIC, the N. Atlantic Polar Islands; IID, the outermost fringe of the Asiaticcoast with its offshore islands. I l l includes only the inland ice of Greenland.

From The Geography of the Polar Regions.

Vol. 50, No. 5 (September 15, 1934)

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Russia and are estimated to number 31,000. The Samoyeds(" raw-flesh eaters") occupy parts of Novaya Zemlya and themainland coast as far east as the Yenisei basin and are estimated atabout 12,500. Some 16,500 Chukchees or Tchuktchis occupy theArctic lands of north-east Siberia to Bering Strait, and consist of amaritime group living on sea products and a tundra groupdependent on reindeer. On the Siberian coast occur also Koryak(10,500), Gilyak (7000), some Yakut Tartars and a few Russiancolonists. In Canada some 4000 Indians live within the ArcticCircle as well as about 1000 whites. The special conditions inNorway (283,000 Norwegians), Sweden (58,000 Swedes) andFinland (48,000 Finnish) are reflected in the northward extensionof the characteristic stocks of the corresponding states. Figuresfor the Russian extension are not obtainable.

Minerals. Coal is the most widely distributed mineral, the bedsvirtually forming a ring, mainly within the Arctic Circle, a fact ofmuch theoretical importance. It occurs in Alaska in 66° N., 16o° W.,and also on the Circle in 150° W. ; in Canada in Banks, Melvilleand Ringer Is. ; in East Greenland in Disko I. (700 N.) as well asfarther north in lat. 74°. Spitsbergen (Svalbard) is rich in coal (PlateIII.) of various ages (Tertiary, Cretaceous, Carboniferous), theamount being estimated at 10,000,000,000 tons, while the annualoutput is 300,000 tons. Bear I. also contains coal as well as Ando I.,Norway, but in both cases the quality is very poor. In AsiaticRussia deposits occur in lat. 66° in longs. 88° and 1500 E., after whichthe beds turn southwards towards Kamchatka.

Gold has been produced in Arctic Canada for over 70 years,and it is estimated that Siberia contains 880,000 sq. miles of gold-bearing rocks. There is a small and diminishing production inFinland.

Of other minerals the iron, silver and platinum deposits of theUrals are mainly outside the Arctic Circle, but the important ironore beds of Sweden in lats. 67°-68°, longs. ia,°-22° E., border thearea. Norway has a large deposit of low-grade iron ore at Sydva-ranger in lat. 69° 40'. Spitsbergen contains one of the largest andbest deposits of gypsum in the world, and oil has been discoveredin the Mackenzie valley in Canada. Greenland contains asbestos,mica, copper, graphite and cryolite, the last exported to the amountof 10,000 tons annually.

Animal Life of the Lands. Fur-bearing animals are numerousand constitute a considerable source of wealth, as well as in manycases a food supply. The musk-ox (New World), wild caribou anddomesticated reindeer (Old World), bear (brown and polar),fox, beaver, hare, ermine, lynx, marten, otter, wolverine, mink,and so on, may be noted. Of minor resources the tusks of the sub-fossil mammoth are noteworthy. In 1881 Nordenskjold estimatedthat since the first discovery of mammoth remains in Siberia thetusks of 20,000 animals had been collected.

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THE STORY OF ARCTIC VOYAGES AND EXPLORATION 307

Resources of the Polar Sea. While detailed investigations havebrought out many facts of great scientific interest, the wealth oflife within the Arctic Sea has always been one of its main attrac-tions. When Hudson rediscovered Spitsbergen he reported thatits fjords were swarming with whales, and for 280 years after 1610Spitsbergen and Greenland waters became the great centre of whale-hunting. Dutch tables for the period 1669-1778 show a catch of57J59° whales yielding oil and whalebone to the value of£18,631,292, and a profit of 25 per cent, on capital outlay. Whal-ing returns-presented to the House of Commons for 1829 show thatoil and whalebone for one season yielded £376,150 to Britishwhalers. The elder Scoresby claimed to have killed 498 whales in28 voyages, the value of which exceeded £150,000. Such figuresillustrate the value of the fishery. The oil was used for streetlighting and making a superior soap. The whales were, however,practically exterminated by intensive fishing, and this is true alsoof the walrus in many areas, while the valuable sea-otter wasonly saved by protection. Cod-fishing is still of great importancein the Lofoten Is., off Labrador and on the Murman coast. Thebest halibut fishery is that off the coasts of Greenland and roundBear I.

If the life of the Arctic lands and seas is adequately protectedand the valuable minerals can be worked at a profit there still seemsa great future for the area.

REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A large number of books and papers have been consulted in com-piling this paper, but it appears unnecessary to add another bibliographyto those already existing. It may suffice to name the following generalworks :—

Sir J o h n Barrow, Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions,London, 1818, and Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions,

from the year 1818 to the present time, London, 1846.Sir W. M. Conway, No Man's Land: A History of Spitsbergen from its

discovery in 1596 to the beginning of the scientific exploration of the country,Cambridge, 1906 (Bibliography).

A. W. Greely, Handbook of Polar Discoveries, 3rd ed., Boston, 1907(Bibliographies).

H. R. Mill, " Polar Regions." The Encyclopedia Britannica, n t h ed.,Cambridge, 1911 (Bibliography).

Sir Clements Markham, The Lands of Silence : A History of Arctic andAntarctic Exploration, Cambridge, 1921 (Bibliography).

R. N. Rudmose Brown, The Polar Regions, London, 1927(Bibliography).

O. Nordenskjold and L. Mecking, The Geography of the Polar Regions,American Geographical Society, Research Publication, No. 8, NewYork, 1928 (Bibliographies).

Since the first issue in January 1931, The Polar Record, The ScottPolar Research Institute, Cambridge, supplies new material as it comes

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308 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE

to hand. See also the Bulletin of the Arctic Institute of U.S.S.R. andTransactions of the Arctic Institute of U.S.S.R., Leningrad.

I am also deeply indebted to the following who have answeredinquiries and placed at my disposal material otherwise unobtainable :Professor H. W. Ahlmann, University, Stockholm; Mr. Karl ErikBergsten, Lands Universitets Geografiska Institut, Lund; Capt.E. Bjorstad, Secretary, Det Norske Geografiske Selskab ; Dr. LeonardBreitfuss, Zoologisches Museum der Universitat, Berlin; Mr. W. V.Cannenburg, Director, Nederlandsch Historisch Scheepvaart Museum,Amsterdam ; Dr. A. Haushofer, Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin ;Dr. Adolf Hoel, Norges Svalbard og Ishavs-Underspkelser, Oslo ; Dr.E. H. Kranck, Swedish High School of Commerce, Helsingfors ; Mr.F. C. C. Lynch, Director, Department of the Interior, Canada, NationalDevelopment Bureau, Ottawa ; Dr. Hugh Robert Mill; Miss E. T.Platt, Assistant Librarian, American Geographical Society, New York ;Dr. J. Schokalsky, Leningrad ; Mr. F. C. Swannell, Lands SurveyDepartment, Victoria, B.C.; Mr. J. Lome Turner, Assistant Chairman,Dominion Lands Administration, Ottawa; Mr. J. M. Wordie,Cambridge ; also to the following officials: Chief of the Section forCartography, Survey Department, Helsingfors ; Le Secretaire General,Societe de Geographic, Paris ; Segretario, Reale Societa GeograficaItaliana, Rome; Director, United States Geological Survey,Washington, D.C.

I have also to thank the Editor of The Polar Record for permission toreproduce the map of Greenland showing journeys across the Ice Cap, andthe American Geographical Society, New York, for permission to re-produce the map of the natural provinces of the Arctic, taken fromThe Geography of the Polar Regions, p. 74. Miss I. W. Hutchison, F.R.S.G.S.,has kindly placed at my disposal photographs taken by her during herjourneys in Greenland and Alaska. Mr. J. Bartholomew has generouslypresented the large map of the Arctic Regions which accompanies thisarticle and embodies the latest discoveries.

THE INTERPRETATION OF SCOTTISH SCENERY

By E. B. BAILEY, M.C., M.A., F.R.S.

{With Maps1)

THERE are few more fascinating topics than the evolution of scenery.The subject has attracted considerable attention during the pasthundred and fifty years ; and it seems fitting in the Jubilee issueof the Scottish Geographical Magazine to take stock of the progressthat has been made, especially in its more local bearings.

James Hutton, 1726-1797, may be regarded as representingScotland in a small international group of independent pioneers,

1 The maps used in illustrating this article have been kindly presented by Mr. JohnBartholomew, to whom author and editor are profoundly indebted.

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