The Search for Employment: Motivation to Engage in a Coping Behavior

The Search for Employment: Motivation to Engage in a Coping Behavior’

BARBARA A. CASKA2 Samuel S. Stratton Department of Veterans Affnirs Medical Center

Albany, New York

The search for employment was examined as coping through engagement in motivated behavior. A model predicting social networking and employer contact behavior was tested with a sample of persons anticipating college graduation. Proposed relations among behavioral antecedents were primarily drawn from Ajzen’s (1985) theory of planned behavior, with the addition of cognitively appraised challenge. Structural equations analysis revealed general support for hypothesized relations among attitude, norms, perceived behavioral control, intentions, and behaviors. Cognitively appraised challenge partially mediated the effects of perceived behavioral control on job search intentions. Significant variance in job search attitude was attributed to a valence by outcome expectancy interaction. Findings may be useful in promoting job search efforts, as well as furthering theoretical delineation of the search process.

When faced with a need to find a job, some persons quickly attain employment; others remain jobless for extended periods of time. Those who do not succeed in the labor market are at risk for negative effects on physical health, mental well-being, style of life, relations with others, and self-image (as re- viewed by Kessler, Turner, & House, 1988; Warr, Jackson, & Banks, 1988). The pervasiveness and severity of the consequences of joblessness for both the individual and society illustrate the importance of determining why persons be- come or remain unemployed. In response, investigators have examined predictors of labor market success (e.g., Schaufeli & VanYperen, 1993), the structure of job search activities (e.g., Blau, 1994), and the effects of interventions designed to increase job search behaviors (e.g., Caplan, Vinokur, Price, & van Ryn, 1989). Theoretical models have been proposed to explain the process of

‘This research is based on the author’s doctoral dissertation, conducted at the University at Albany, State University of New York. Guidance and advice from Kathryn Kelley, Michelle van Ryn, and Kevin Williams are gratefully acknowledged. A portion of this research was presented at the 10th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology in Orlando, FL (May 1995).

2Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Barbara A. Caska, Samuel S. Stratton Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center (151), 113 Holland Avenue, Albany, NY 12208.

206

Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1998, 28, 3 , pp. 206-224. Copyright 0 1998 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved.

EMPLOYMENT SEARCH 207

coping with unemployment and the need to engage in job-seeking behaviors (Feather, 1990; Latack, Kinicki, & Prussia, 1995; Leana & Feldman, 1992). Despite a growing body of literature on predictors of the job search process, questions remain as to the relative strength and contributions of potential predictors, the relationships among those factors, and the generalizability of their explanatory contributions across various groups of persons engaged in a job search.

The purpose of the investigation presented in this paper was to test a model of the job search process among a sample of college students anticipating graduation. College graduates have often been overlooked in studies of the search for employment. This may be due to the traditionally assumed availability of employment for those holding advanced degrees. College graduates, however, are facing and are expected to continue to confront an increasingly competitive job market. The rate of employment growth is expected to decline between the years 1990 and 2005. It is estimated that over 30% of college graduates entering the labor force during that time will either be under- employed, working in jobs that have not traditionally required degrees, or unemployed (Shelley, 1992). As competition for jobs intensifies, job search strategies may play an increasingly important role in determining which graduates successfully land the most desired positions.

In some ways, the college student’s search for initial, full-time employment may differ from that of the more typically studied high-school dropout or unemployed worker. Obvious distinctions in potentially predictive demographic factors include level of education, age, number of dependents, socioeconomic status, and area of skill or expertise. As pointed out by Feather (1993), persons with higher levels of education may have developed unique coping skills or knowledge of the labor market, as well as distinct social networks, sources of social and financial support, attitudes, values, and self-concepts. In addition, persons anticipating college graduation have not yet been faced with the negative effects of unemployment. To the extent that job search activities are af- fected by factors associated with unemployment, such as financial status, self- image, or family conflict, this process might be further distinguished for the population of college graduates. It may be noted, however, that college students are not alone in conducting a search for a job without the experience of unemployment. Employed individuals may also engage in preparatory or active job search behaviors (Blau, 1994). An understanding of the search process as it occurs outside the realm of already experienced joblessness may apply to a wide range of individuals.

In the model of the job search process evaluated during this study, seeking employment was considered as an example of motivation to engage in a specific type of problem-focused coping behavior.

208 BARBARA A. CASKA

The Role of Resources and Opportunities

The job search model examined in the present investigation is based on an assumption that personally assessed resources and opportunities will contribute to the performance ofjob search activities. Further, it is presumed that college students will have appraised the availability or sufficiency of their own resources and opportunities with some level of uncertainty. Resources include knowledge and skills relevant to activities, such as successfully answering interview questions or preparing a resume. Time to devote to the job search or anticipated support from others may be considered as resources as well. Even the financial capability to purchase a business suit or to have resumes professionally printed may affect the perceived ability to carry out search behaviors. Labor market conditions may be viewed as another limitation. If few organizations are hir- ing, chances to go to interviews may be seen as restricted. The role of available resources or opportunities in determining job search behaviors introduces a potentially nonvolitional element as a predictor of performance.

The Job Search as a Coping Behavior

If doubt or uncertainty are attributed to resources and opportunities, the job search may be considered as a form of coping. Lazarus and Folkman (1 984) defined coping as a process of “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (p. 141).

According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), the preliminary determinants of coping strategies are cognitive appraisals. Cognitive appraisals include the summed perceptions of how the need to find a job may affect one’s well-being. Given some doubt associated with looking for work, students searching for their first job will make stressful appraisals. Potential appraisals include challenge, threat, or handloss.

Appraised challenge and threat were examined as potential influences on job search intentions and behaviors during this investigation. Appraised harm/loss was not included as a predictor. It was assumed that college students would be in preliminary stages of the job search process, and would be unlikely to have suffered the negative consequences associated with failure to find a job. While the search for work may be initiated through cognitive appraisals, predictors of job-seeking activities may be more specifically delineated through a model of behavioral motivation.

Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior

The applicability of motivational theory in explaining job search behaviors has been empirically demonstrated. Expectancy value theory was incorporated


in investigations of the job search process by Feather and colleagues (e.g., Feather, 1992; Feather & O’Brien, 1987). Motivation to perform job search behaviors was examined as a function of one’s beliefs that successful performance of behaviors will lead to desired outcomes (outcome expectancy), and that those outcomes are valued or desired (outcome valence). Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975) theory of reasoned action and Ajzen’s (1985) theory of planned behavior each include components of expectancy value theory, and have been applied to the job search process (Caplan et al., 1989; van Ryn & Vinokur, 1992; Vinokur & Caplan, 1987).

In the job search model examined during this investigation, the theory of planned behavior provided the basis for defining predictors of search activities and their interrelationships. Ajzen’s (1 985) theory of planned behavior was developed to specifically predict motivated engagement in behaviors over which persons do not have complete volitional control. Ajzen proposed that strength of the intention-behavior link postulated in the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) depends on control over the ability to perform. When actual control over performance is limited, perceptions of the ease or difficulty of performance may directly and indirectly influence behavior. (Components of the theory of planned behavior are included in Figure 1.)

Ajzen compared perceived behavioral control to Bandura’s (1 986) concept of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to one’s judgment of his or her ability to carry out actions deemed necessary to accomplish successful performance. Self-efficacy is distinguished from outcome expectations, or the judged likelihood of behavior consequences (Bandura, 1986). Belief in one’s ability to successfully prepare and submit job applications differs from a belief that submitting an application will result in being hired.

Outcome expectations are included in Ajzen’s (1985) model as behavioral beliefs underlying attitudes. Attitudes are a function of (a) beliefs regarding the subjective probability that performing a behavior will lead to a certain outcome, and (b) the positive or negative evaluation of that outcome. The theory of planned behavior (like the theory of reasoned action) attributes behavioral intentions to attitudes and subjective norms. Subjective norms reflect the extent to which referent others are encouraging or discouraging job search behaviors and the motivation to comply with the wishes of those persons (Ajzen & Fish- bein, 1980).

Behavioral beliefs and outcome evaluations are conceptually similar to the expectations and job valences defined by Feather (1992). In the tradition of expectancy value theory, Feather and O’Brien (1 987) examined expectations and valence as predictors ofjob search intentions (omitting the mediational role of attitude). Job valence predicted search behaviors, while outcome expectations


Figure 1. Hypothesized relations among predictors of job search behaviors.

and a valence by expectation interaction term failed to significantly account for behavioral variance. The authors suggested that their measure of expectations, a control-optimism scale, may have been too general. The importance of con- sidering behavior-specific beliefs as determinants of attitude and intentions has been stressed by Ajzen (1988).

Hypothesized Relations Among Variables

A model of the proposed relations among perceived behavioral control, cognitive appraisals, job search attitudes, subjective norms, behavioral intentions, and two types of job search behaviors is presented in Figure 1 . In accor- dance with the theory of planned behavior, it was hypothesized that (a) perceived behavioral control would positively influence both behavioral intentions and each type of job search behavior; (b) a favorable job search attitude would promote behavioral intentions; (c) subjective norms would be positively associated with intentions; and (d) intentions would directly promote job search behaviors. It was further predicted that an outcome expectancy by valence interaction would account for variation in job search attitude (omitted from the model). In addition to the determinants specified in the theory of planned behavior, cognitive appraisals were expected to contribute to job search intentions.

EMPLOYMENT SEARCH 21 1

Method

Participants

Data were collected through survey responses. Study participants were college students who anticipated graduation within 2 months and who were actively engaged in a search for full-time, post-college employment. Potential participants were identified through two college career development centers located in upstate New York. Materials were mailed to a total of 1,563 persons, including a cover letter explaining the nature of the study, a nine-page questionnaire, and a stamped envelope addressed to the researcher. Approximately 3 weeks after initial contact, postcards were sent to all potential subjects, thanking those who had completed the questionnaire, urging those who had not yet returned the survey to do so, and providing a phone number to call to re- quest a new copy of the questionnaire in case the original had been misplaced.

A total of 397 usable surveys were returned, at a response rate of approximately 26%. Of these, 2 17 met the criteria required for inclusion: (a) anticipated graduation within 2 months; (b) engagement in a search for post- college employment; (c) no secured post-college employment; and (d) no accepted enrollment as a full-time graduate school student for the following semester.

The final sample was generally representative of all respondents. Demo- graphic and academic similarities among subjects from the two colleges were found. The mean age of the sample was 23.42 (SD = 4.39). Subjects were primarily Caucasian (89.4%); 67% were female. Subjects represented a variety of academic majors. Ninety-five percent anticipated a bachelor’s degree upon graduation. The mean time spent actively searching for a job at the time of survey completion was 12.67 weeks (SD = 17.99).

Measures

Perceived behavioral control. Perceived behavioral control was measured as self-efficacy for job search behaviors. On a 5-point Likert-type scale, subjects indicated confidence in their abilities to: (a) make a good list of all the skills they have which can be used to find a job, (b) complete a good job application or rCsumC, (c) make the best impression and get points across in an interview, (d) use friends or other contacts to discover promising job openings, and (e) use friends and others to find out about employers who need their skills (van Ryn & Vinokur; 1992). The mean of responses to the five items was used as a single indicator of perceived behavioral control. A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .77 indicated acceptable internal consistency for this scale.


Job search attitude. Attitude was defined as the positive or negative evaluated quality of the job search process: An individual may react favorably or unfavorably to the need to secure employment. Three items were used to deter- mine the extent to which the subject considered it wise or foolish, beneficial or harmful, and useful or useless to try hard to get a job before graduation (van Ryn & Vinokur, 1992). Ratings were made on a 7-point scale.

Job valence. Responses to three questions indicated job valence. Subjects were asked to indicate the extent to which work was considered an important part of life, a source of satisfaction, and more than just a source of money (Vinokur & Caplan, 1987). Responses were made on a 5-point scale.

Outcome expectancies. Outcome expectancies were assessed by response to the item, “If I do well in performing job search tasks, chances of me actually getting a job before graduation are . . .” Ratings were made on a 5-point scale, ranging from veiypoor to verygood. This item was specifically constructed for the present investigation to reflect the strength of one’s belief that successfully performing job search behaviors would result in employment.

Subjective norms. Subjective norms were indicated by responses to two items, adopted from van Ryn and Vinokur (1992): (a) “How hard does the person closest to you think you should be trying to get a job lined up for after graduation?” and (b) “How hard do other people think you should be trying to line up a job for after graduation?” Responses were indicated on a 5-point scale.

Behavioral intentions. In the search for employment, behavioral intentions are defined as plans to engage in activities. As suggested by Ajzen (1985, 199 l), intentions indicate how hard a person will try. Intentions to engage in job search behaviors were assessed by responses to two questions: (a) “From now until you graduate, how hard do you intend to try to line up a job for after graduation?” (rated on a 5-point scale), and (b) “How likely is it that you will try hard to get a job before you graduate?” (rated on a 7-point scale; van Ryn & Vinokur, 1992).

Job search behaviors. Job search behaviors were defined as level of engagement in a specific action (e.g., frequency of performance). Predicted behaviors included employer contact and social networking. Engagement in employer contact behavior was measured through summed frequencies of performance for four search-related activities (Mallinckrodt & Frentz, 1988; van Ryn & Vinokur, 1992; Vinokur & Caplan, 1987). Subjects indicated the number of times during the last 4 weeks they had (a) used or sent out a rCsumt; (b) filled out application forms for a job; (c) actually gone for a job interview; and (d) telephoned, writ- ten, or visited potential employers. Social networking behavior was indicated by the number of times the subject had (a) gotten together with job contacts or people who could help find a job, and (b) talked with people who could help find a job (Kinicki & Latack, 1990). Networking items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (hardly ever do this) to 5 (almost always do this).


Cognitive appraisals. Appraised challenge associated with engagement in a job search was assessed through agreement with the item “I view looking for a job as a challenging, exciting experience.” Appraised threat was measured through response to the item, “I feel threatened by the thought of having to find a job.” Ratings were made on a 5-point scale.

Analyses

Hypothesized relations among perceived behavioral control, cognitive appraisals, attitudes, subjective norms, intentions, and job search behaviors were examined through structural equations analysis. Means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated among the indicators of latent constructs. Evaluation of the hypothesized model was conducted with LISREL VII, following PRELIS preparation of data (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1989).

A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine job valence, outcome expectancies, and a valence by expectancy interaction as predictors of job search attitude. In a two-step procedure, the main effects of valence and expectancies were first entered into a regression equation predicting attitude, followed by the forced entrance of the interaction term.

Results

Model Evaluation

Descriptive statistics. Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among the indicators for constructs included in the measurement model are provided in Table 1. Initial exploration of the correlation matrix revealed that cognitively appraised threat was only weakly associated with job search intentions and behaviors. As indicated in Table 1, correlations among indicators of threat, intentions, and behaviors ranged from +.04 to -. 10. Appraised threat was excluded as a predictor in final model evaluation.

Overall model3t. Figure 2 presents the final structural model of relations among the variables. Acceptable overall model fit was indicated with a goodness-of-fit index of .91 and a comparative fit index of .89 (Bentler, 1990). Path values are presented as standardized coefficients in Figure 2. With the ex- ception of the link between perceived behavioral control and employer contact behaviors, paths in the model were significant (p < .05).

Single indicators represented appraised challenge and perceived behavioral control. Multiple indicators were used to provide error estimates for all other underlying variables in the model. Variables used as markers for the underlying latent constructs are identified in Figure 2 with an asterisk. Standardized residual

Tabl

e 1

2

P

Des

crip

tive

Stat

istic

s an

d C

orre

latio

ns A

mon

g M

easu

red

Vari

able

s g 73

MS

D1

2

3 4

5 6

7 8

91

01

11

21

31

41

51

6;

o

g D

?

1. T

HR

2.

64

1.11

-

0

2. C

HL

3.12

1.

11 -

.24*

-

E; 3.

SEF

3.

79

0.70

-.2

8* .

36* -

F 4.

NO

1 5.

NO

2 6.

AT1

7.

AT2

8.

AT3

9.

IN

1 10

. IN

2 11

. SN

l 12

. SN

2 13

. EC

1 14

. EC

2 15

. EC

3 16

. EC

4

3.75

1.

20

.13

.04

.14*

3.

76

1.04

.0

5 .0

6 .0

1 5.

38

1.42

-.0

3 .2

7*

.15*

5.

50

1.28

-.0

8 .2

0*

.ll

5.71

1.

38 -.

OO

.17*

.1

7*

5.02

1.

80 -

.08

.33*

.2

6*

3.47

1.

28 -

.lo

.23*

.2

7*

2.54

1.

07 -

.06

.21*

.4

4*

3.06

1.

03 -

.lo

.22*

.5

0*

6.26

10.

50 -

.lo

.07

.19*

1.

24

2.61

-.0

3 .0

7 .0

3 1.

29

2.52

-.0

1 .0

8 .0

8 3.

32

6.76

.0

4 .1

4* .

15*

-

.63*

-

.29*

.3

1* -

.27*

.3

2*

.73*

.2

6*

.32*

.6

6*

.52*

.3

2*

.52*

.5

1*

.43*

.5

3*

.28*

.1

6*

.12

.35*

.2

4*

.ll

.09

.13

.16*

.0

6 .1

0 .1

8*

.16*

.1

2 .1

7*

.01

-.05

.12

-

.76*

-

.46*

.45

* -

.47*

.4

3*

.77*

-

.06

.10

.33*

.3

8* -

.ll

.18*

.3

3*

.42*

.7

1* -

.10

.14

.29*

.2

9*

.33*

.3

3* -

.14*

.15

* .2

1 * .

18*

.24*

.1

8*

.34*

-

.12

.10

.23*

.1

6* .

16*

.17*

.4

8* .

52* -

.14*

.1

5*

.29*

.2

4* .

27*

.35*

.4

7* .

38*

.31*

-

~~

Not

e. T

HR

= T

hrea

t; C

HL

=Cha

lleng

e; S

EF =

Sel

f-ef

ficac

y; N

O =

Sub

ject

ive n

orm

s; A

T =

Atti

tude

; IN

= In

tent

ions

; SN

= S

ocia

l net

- w

orki

ng; E

C =

Em

ploy

er c

onta

ct. N

= 2

04 to

217

due

to m

issi

ng d

ata.

*p

< .0

5.

EMPLOYMENT SEARCH 21 5

Figure 2. Final structural model of the job search process. Standardized coefficients only; unless indicated, all paths significant (p < .05). Goodness-of-Fit Index = .91; Comparative Fit Index = .89. Where multiple indicators, marker variables are identified with an asterisk (*).

error variance values for each of the indicator variables and for the endogenous latent constructs are presented in Table 2. The residuals for the indicator variables were generally low, suggesting reasonable representation of the constructs (i.e., low unreliability). The proportion of variance accounted for in endogenous variables ranged from 13% to 6 1 YO.

Supportfor hypotheses. Support for the hypothesized relations among the variables may be derived from the strength and direction of path coeficients within the model. Job search intentions were positively associated with job search attitudes and subjective norms. As expected, cognitively appraised challenge also significantly influenced intentions. Intentions were positively associated with each of the job search behaviors. Perceived behavioral control predicted intentions and social networking behavior, but contrary to hypothesis did not significantly contribute to employer contact behaviors. An unanticipated significant link between perceived behavioral control and appraised challenge was found.


Table 2

Error Observed in Final Structural Model

Latent construct and indicator variable(s) Residual error variance

Perceived behavioral controla Self-efficac yb

Subjective normsa Person closestC Other people

Wise/foolish Beneficial/harmfulc Useful/useless

Appraised challenge View as challengeb

Intention How hard intend to try How likely will tryc

Got together with others Talked with othersC

Sent rCsumtC Job application Interview Visited employer

Attitudea

Social networking

Employer contact

-

-

.16

.52

.34

.18

.3 1

.87

.39

.24

.22

.57

.36

.22

.83

.49

.67

.53

.68

-

-

aExamined in the model as an exogenous latent construct; residual error variance was not estimated. bSingle indicator variable used; residual error variance was not estimated. CMarker variable for latent construct, where multiple indicators were used.

Hierarchical Regression Analysis

Means, standard deviations, zero-order correlations, and reliability coefficients for variables included in the hierarchical regression analysis are presented in Table 3. Single, mean ratings of the constructs attitude and valence were used in the regression analysis. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients are provided on the diagonal in Table 3 (outcome expectancy was measured with a single


Table 3

Descriptive Statistics, Reliability, and Correlations Among Predictors ofJob Search Attitude

M SD 1 2 3

1. Outcome expectancy 3.47 1.00 -a

2 . Valence 4.16 0.65 .13 .69 3. Attitude 5.50 1.25 .26* .20 .88

Note. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients provided on diagonal. N = 2 1 1 to 2 15 due to missing data. aReliability coefficient unavailable since single item used. *p < .05.

item). The attitude items and the valence items each exhibited acceptable internal consistency when considered as a scale.

The results of the hierarchical regression analysis are presented in Table 4. As indicated, a valence by expectancy interaction significantly accounted for variance in job search attitudes beyond the main effects of these variables.

Discussion

The overall fit of the evaluated model as well as the significance and magnitude of path coefficients supported a number of the hypothesized relations among predictors of job search behaviors. General support for the theory of planned behavior was found. As expected, intentions directly predicted behavior, and were explained by norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control. In further support of Ajzen’s (1985) theory, attitude was influenced by an outcome expectancy by valence interaction. Cognitively appraised challenge significantly contributed to behavioral intentions in addition to those variables specified in the theory of planned behavior, partially mediating the effects of perceived behavioral control. Appraised threat was not significantly associated with the job search intentions or behaviors.

The theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behavior each at- tribute behavioral attitudes to the product of behavioral beliefs and outcome evaluations. The significant contribution of an expectancy by valence interaction to job search attitude was consistent with this contention.

The role of valence and expectancies has received limited attention in the realm of job search research. Applications of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975)


Table 4

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Predictors of Job Search Attitude

Variable B S E B p R2 AR2

Step 1 Outcome expectancy .30 Valence .32

Step 2 Outcome expectancy -.91 Valence -.61 Expectancy x Valence .29

.lo* .08 .24* .13 .16*

.12* .02* .49 -.72 .39 -.31 . l l 1.14*

Note. N = 2 1 1 due to missing data. *p < .05.

model have more commonly begun at the level of attitude, omitting examina- tion of underlying beliefs (e.g., van Ryn & Vinokur, 1992). A few researchers have examined the direct influence of valence and expectancies on job search motivation. Significant main effects of valence on motivation were reported by Vinokur and Caplan (1987), Feather (1990), and Feather and O’Brien (1987). In the present study, attitude mediated the effects of valence and outcome expectancies on intentions. Support for this hypothesized effect was derived through the inclusion of a task-specific measure of outcome expectancies. Fail- ure of prior research to confirm contributions of this interaction effect may be partially attributed to global assessment of this construct (Feather & O’Brien, 1987).

Support for the direct influence of perceived behavioral control on job search behaviors was limited. While the path coefficients linking intention to each of the job search behaviors were similar in magnitude, the link between perceived behavioral control and social networking was substantially stronger than that between perceived behavioral control and employer contact. The lat- ter path failed to reach significance at the .05 level. According to Ajzen (1 988), direct links from perceived behavioral control to behavior are expected only when perceived control is a reasonable representation of actual control over the behavior in question. It may be that perceived and actual control are more closely aligned for social networking than for the employer contact behaviors.


External factors may limit control over obtaining a job interview or arranging visits with potential employers, regardless of one’s perceptions. The differences in strength of the paths linking perceived behavioral control to each of the two behaviors were not expected. Implications for interventions designed to promote job search efforts may be drawn from this observation. To the extent that perceived control varies from actual control, positive contributions of self- efficacy may be mediated through intentions.

While the role of perceived behavioral control was recognized in the theory of planned behavior, the results of the present study indicate that perhaps the pervasiveness of its influence may have been underestimated. An unexpected positive association between perceived behavioral control and appraised challenge was found. An expanded role of perceived behavioral control is consistent with Bandura’s (1 986) contention that self-efficacy beliefs are proximal determinants of thoughts, behaviors, and emotional reactions to taxing situa- tions.

The role of a ‘‘stressful’’ type of cognitive appraisal in promoting job search efforts provides some validity for the conceptualization of the search process as a form of coping. In a model of responses to job loss proposed by Latack et al. (1995), cognitive appraisals were considered as determinants of coping goals and (indirectly) strategies. Latack et al. focused on threat and harm/loss in response to potential discrepancies in various life facets (e.g., economic, social) associated with job loss. Appraised challenge was briefly addressed in this theoretical model, described as a part of the process of coping through cognitive reappraisal.

In the present study, appraised threat was only weakly associated with indicators of engagement in the problem-focused coping strategy of actively searching for work. It is possible that the minimized role of threat may be attributed to characteristics of the sample studied in this investigation. College students with limited financial demands, no dependents, and little or no experience with work as a source of personal identity, self-esteem, or interpersonal relations (Jahoda, 1981) might be expected to feel less threatened by the thought of potential joblessness. Similarly, graduates may have had compara- tively fewer negative experiences with the job search process. Although threat was not associated with search intentions or activities, the sample of students studied during this investigation still sought employment. It seems that at least among certain segments of the population of those searching for work, threat may not be a necessary determinant of engagement in job search activities.

Appraised challenge played a more prominent and initial role in determining engagement in a job search coping strategy than that suggested by Latack et al. (1 995). The contributions of appraised challenge may be partially due to the fact that this group of subjects was not jobless. The search for work might


more likely be viewed with excitement or enthusiasm by those who have not had experience with failure to find work. Based on the results of the present investigation, challenge may play a preliminary role in determining engagement in at least one type of coping strategy.

The application of psychosocial stress constructs in predicting responses to job loss has been well established. Comprehensive models of stress reactions to unemployment have been developed, including those by Fineman (1 983), Payne and Hartley (1987), and DeFrank and Ivancevich (1986). In this context, a wide array of personal and situational factors have been examined as precur- sors to initial perceptions ofjob loss and predictors ofjob search coping efforts. One of the more commonly studied personality characteristics has been self- esteem.

Evidence for the role of self-esteem in predicting job search efforts has been mixed. Ellis and Taylor (1983) found that self-esteem positively contributed to job search behaviors that involved social skills. However, Prussia, Kinicki, and Bracker (1993) found that self-esteem, as an indicator of unemployment affect, did not significantly influence the behavioral outcome of find- ing a job. Blau (1994) determined that while task-specific self-esteem contributed to job search behaviors beyond the effects of job satisfaction, com- mitment, and security, global self-esteem did not.

The contributions of task-specific dimensions of the self-construct to one’s global sense of self-esteem has a history of theoretical and empirical attention (e.g., James, 1890/1963; Marsh, 1993; Tharenou, 1979). Korman (1970) suggested that global self-esteem may be formed in response to various sources of information, including feedback from many types of behavioral performance. Global self-esteem reflects numerous domains; task-specific self-efficacy is narrow in focus. Based on this, global self-efficacy may explain some variation in job search efforts, but is not expected to be as strongly predictive of intentions or behaviors as the more task-specific construct. Research examining the relationship between global and task-specific self-esteem in the job search process has been limited.

A few methodological issues may limit the generalizability of present investigation findings. Since data were collected entirely through self-report, common method variance was a concern. Results may have been biased due to acquiescence, the tendency to simply agree with items, or social desirability (Spector, 1987).

The potential for acquiescence was addressed by including a number of reverse-scored items throughout the survey. In addition, item responses were inspected for variation at the level of subject (with the removal of one returned survey due to obvious response set bias). While social desirability can- not be completely ruled out, its potential effects may have been limited by the


assurance of complete confidentiality, explanation of the study’s purpose, and an emphasis on the need for open, honest responses throughout the survey. Spector (1987) found limited effects of respondent bias across psychometri- cally sound instruments measuring varying constructs through self-report. The majority of instruments included in this analysis had been previously developed and demonstrated good psychometric properties.

A more serious threat to generalizability was the low rate of response to re- quests for participation. The 26% response rate is lower than that typical of unemployed persons engaged in a job search (e.g., Wanberg, Watt, & Rumsey, 1996). The rate of response may be attributed to the timing of data collection and the population from which the sample was drawn. Participants were college seniors preparing for graduation. Surveys were distributed within a few weeks of graduation to increase the likelihood of active engagement in the job search process. During this time, students are typically faced with an increase in course work, including preparation of final papers and completing examina- tions. In addition, these students were likely faced with the additional burdens of conducting a job search and preparing to leave school. It seems reasonable to expect that some students simply felt that they could not spare the time required to complete the nine-page questionnaire. In addition, no monetary rewards or other incentives were offered for survey return.

Characteristics of respondents from each of the two colleges were compared. No differences were found in gender, income, age, college grade point average, or length of time engaged in the job search. In addition, the rate of response was similar across the two schools: one at 25.08%, the other at 26.68%. While this comparison does not establish that respondents were typical of the general population of college students, at least consistency in the rate and demographic characteristics of those providing data was found. Similar information on all students listed with the career resource centers at the two colleges was not available to establish this level of representation. Hence, generalizability of results may be limited, with replication required.

The cross-sectional nature of the investigation limits conclusions to persons who are faced with potential joblessness within a 2-month of period of time. It is conceivable that at least the strength of path coefficients may vary either in the preliminary stages of a job search or following graduation. It may be expected that behavioral experiences will be followed with reappraisal, and perhaps changes in perceived behavioral control, attitudes, or subjective norms.

The unique characteristics of the sample may be considered as a strength of the investigation. Given the anticipated declines in future economic growth, and limited research on college students, findings may be useful to career coun- selors. For example, it seems that training or instruction directed at improving


self-efficacy would be extremely helpful to students searching for their first career-related employment. While completing each behavior may not immedi- ately result in obtaining a job, evidence suggests that as frequency of performing appropriate behaviors increases, chances of achieving employment improve (Eden & Aviram, 1993).

The link between behavioral engagement and achievement of employment may be particularly strong for social networking. Social contacts have been found to be an important source of employment referral in various occupational categories. Silliker (1 993), for example, determined that information from friends, relatives, and acquaintances accounted for a mean of 54% of obtained jobs across a variety of occupational categories. In the evaluated model presented in this paper, 43% of the variance in social networking was explained. The specification of predictors of this key source of employment opportunities is an important contribution of this investigation.

The results of this study offer delineation of the relations among variables contributing to job search efforts. The strength and direction of paths among the predictors may have practical implications for increasing the likelihood of engagement in job-seeking activities. A continuing prevalence of layoffs and unemployment emphasizes the need for an increased understanding of the job search process.

References

Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckman (Eds.), Action-control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 1 1-39). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.

Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, personality and behavior. Chicago, IL: The Dorsey Press.

Ajzen, I. (199 1) . The theory of planned behavior. organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-2 1 1 .

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1 980). Understanding attitudes andpredicting social behavior. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1 986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bentler, P. M. (1 990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psycho- logical Bulletin, 107, 238-246.

Blau, G. (1994). Testing a two-dimensional measure of job search behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 59, 288-3 12.

Caplan, R. D., Vinokur, A. D., Price, R. H., & van Ryn, M. (1989). Job seeking, reemployment, and mental health: A randomized field experiment in coping with job loss. Journal ofApplied Psychology, 74, 759-769.


DeFrank, R. S., & Ivancevich, J. M. (1986). Job loss: An individual level review and model. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 28, 1-20.

Eden, D., & Aviram, A. (1993). Self-efficacy training to speed reemployment: Helping people to help themselves. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78,

Ellis, R. A., & Taylor, M. S. (1983). Role of self-esteem within the job search process. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68,632-640.

Feather, N. T. (1990). Thepsychological impact of unemployment. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

Feather, N. T. (1 992). Expectancy-value theory and unemployment effects. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65,3 15-330.

Feather, N. T. (1993). Success and failure in the labor market: Some com- ments. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14,573-576.

Feather, N. T., & O’Brien, G. W. (1987). Looking for employment: An expectancy-valence analysis of job-seeking behaviour among young people. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 78,25 1-272.

Fineman, S. (1983). White collar unemployment: Impact and stress. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1 975). Belief; attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theoly and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Jahoda, M. (198 1). Work, employment, and unemployment: Values, theories and approaches. American Psychologist, 36, 184-191.

James, W. (1963). Theprinciples ofpsychology. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. (Original work published 1890)

Joreskog, K., & Sorbom, D. (1989). LZSREL VZZ. Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software.

Kessler, R. C., Turner, B., & House, J. S. (1988). Effects of unemployment of health in a community survey: Main, modifying and mediating effects. Journal of Social Issues, 44(4), 69-85.

Kinicki, A. J., & Latack, J. C. (1990). Explication of the construct of coping with involuntary job loss. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 36, 339-360.

Korman, A. K. (1970). Toward an hypothesis of work behavior. Journal ofAp- plied Psychology, 54,3 1-4 I .

Latack, J. C., Kinicki, A. J., & Prussia, G. E. (1995). An integrative process model of coping with job loss. Academy of Management Review, 20,3 1 1- 342.

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal andcoping. New York, NY: Springer.

Leana, C. R., & Feldman, D. C. (1992). Coping with job loss: How individuals, organizations and communities respond to layofs. New York, NY: Lexington Books.

352-360.


Mallinckrodt, B., & Frentz, B. R. (1988). Social support and the impact of job loss on older professionals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35,28 1-286.

Marsh, H. W. (1993). Relations between global and specific domains of self: The importance of individual importance, certainty, and ideals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65,975-992.

Payne, R., & Hartley, J. (1987). A test of a model for explaining the affective experience of unemployed men. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 60,

Prussia, G. E., Kinicki, A. J., & Bracker, J. S. (1993). Psychological and behavioral consequences of job loss: A covariance structure analysis using Weiner’s (1985) attribution model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78,

Schaufeli, W. B., & VanYperen, N. W. (1993). Success and failure in the labour market. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14,559-572.

Shelley, K. J. (1992, July). The future of jobs for college graduates. Monthly Labor Review, 13-2 1.

Silliker, S. A. (1993). The role of social contacts in the successful job search. Journal ofEmployment Counseling, 30,25-34.

Spector, P. E. (1987). Method variance as an artifact in self-reported affect and perceptions at work: Myth or significant predictor? Journal of Applied

Tharenou, P. (1979). Employee self-esteem: A review of the literature. Jour- nal of Vocational Behavior, 15,3 16-346.

van Ryn, M., & Vinokur, A. D. (1992). How did it work? The role of experi- mentally manipulated job-search self-efficacy in determining job-search behavior among the unemployed. American Journal of Community Psy-

Vinokur, A., & Caplan, R. D. (1987). Attitudes and social support: Determi- nants of job-seeking behavior and well-being among the unemployed. Journal ofApplied Social Psychology, 17, 1007- 1024.

Wanberg, C. R., Watt, J. D., & Rumsey, D. J. (1996). Individuals without jobs: An empirical study of job-seeking behavior and reemployment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81,76-87.

Warr, P., Jackson, P., & Banks, M. (1988). Unemployment and mental health. Journal of Social Issues, 44(4), 47-68.

3 1-47.

382-394.

Psychology, 72,438-443.

chology, 20, 577-597.

Documents

The Search for Employment: Motivation to Engage in a Coping Behavior