The Role of Historical Criticism:

Contribution of Mikhail Bakhtin and Raymond Williams

Introduction

            Historical criticism, which is also referred to as higher criticism, is a branch of

historical literary analysis that deals with the investigation of original texts in relation to

the political or economic events occurring at the time these texts were produced. In

some cases, historical events were also used in order to explain the concepts behind

these literary works. Authors and analysts conducting more in-depth analysis of a

literary piece at times, also attempt to recreate and visualize the cultures being depicted

in these works. A common example of this work would be the Bible and its content. This

manner of reading and analyzing literature prospered within the universities of the

Anglo-American around late nineteenth and early twentieth century. 

 

            There are actually several types of historical criticism. The form criticism for

example, is a type of historical criticism that analyzes the forms and structures of the

literary texts so as to relate them to various sociological contexts. Narrative criticism on

the other hand utilizes questions and models based on literary theories in order to

interpret certain works. Indeed, critiquing a literary piece through historical means can

be carried out in different methods. For this paper, focus will be on one type of historical

criticism, known as cultural criticism. Works and concepts introduced by Mikhail Bakhtin

and Raymond Williams will be used to explain how cultural criticism is done. Most

importantly, the analysis of the contributions of these writers will determine the role and

significance of analyzing texts through historical criticism.

 

Cultural Criticism

            Cultural criticism is a literary analysis approach that is centered on the historical,

economic, political and social concepts behind a literary work or piece. At present,

cultural critics utilize various strategies like deconstructionism, gender studies, new

historicism and psychology in order to analyze the relevant cultural aspect implied in a

literary work. This type of literary analysis has actually evolved over time as critics use

this approach not only in interpreting literary works but also other aspects of culture

including commercials, publications, music as well as television or radio programs.

There had been a number of analysts and writers who have contributed greatly to the

development of this literary analysis. Among these were Mikhail Bakhtin and Raymond

Williams.

 

Mikhail Bakhtin

            Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin was a Russina literary scholar and philosopher who

had provided great contributions on rhetorical theory and literary criticism. In terms of

cultural criticism, Bakhtin’s contributions were centered on his notions on dialogue and

language. In one of his later essays entitled The Problem of Speech Genres, Bakhtin

aimed to explain how literary language differs from everyday language. In this work,

Bakhtin stresses that genres actually exist in communication and that these genres

were still unexplored. Thus, in this essay, Bakhtin noted that communication genres are

divided into two basic typologies: primary and secondary. While words, expressions and

phrases used and accepted in daily life fall under the primary genre, texts that have

legal or scientific features are considered secondary types.

 

            One of Bakhtin’s famous works was the Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Art where

he introduced three essential concepts relevant to language and dialogue (). One of

these concepts is that the individual self is unfinalizable. This concept emphasizes the

fact that people cannot be fully understood, finalized or labeled despite the possibility of

understanding others. Bakhtin explained this concept by citing that an individual cannot

be known or revealed fully in the world and that people have this capability of changing;

in some views, this concept may appear as a representation of what people know today

as the human soul, which symbolizes people’s worth, capability and hidden

characteristics.

 

            Another concept introduced from this work is the interrelation of the individual

self to others. Bakhtin cited that a person is intertwined with another in some way and

that other people serve as a great influence to the individual. In this concept, Bakhtin

emphasizes the role of others to an individual’s way of thinking and view of oneself.

Finally, the concept of polyphony, or many voices, was also introduced through this

work. According to Bakhtin, each Dostoevsky character has been given a voice different

from other, which actually represents the character’s individual self. This final concept is

related to the other two concepts introduced as this stresses the unfinalizable character

of people; thus, they are capable of creating true polyphony. This contribution of Bakhtin

helped in developing modern cultural criticism as it stresses that low and high cultures

occur not only in well-known and classical texts but also within the dialogic voices found

in other great works.

 

Raymond Williams

            Raymond Williams was a Welsh critic, novelist and academic. His works on

mass media, politics, culture and literature suggested his Marxist viewpoint. To this

point, he had been recognized as an influential figure in wider culture and the New left.

In line with cultural criticism, Williams have also provided several contributions through

his works and essays. In two of his works, Culture and Society: 1950 and The Long

Revolution, Williams stressed that culture is anything but constant; he viewed culture as

a changing and living thing. When these works were first published, the conventional

historical and social understanding of culture was changed significantly.  Similar to other

Marxists, Williams analyzed culture by means of relating it to ideologies.

 

While there had been other cultural analysts at that time, Williams’ principles and

concepts were different as it was not centered on how social class and class-related

conflicts shaped and changed culture. Moreover, Williams did not merely relate cultural

changes to the influence of various economic trends. In his essays, more focus was

given on the people themselves. Specifically, he analyzed how individuals creatively

react and respond to the different conditions that they encounter. This focal point of

analysis was emphasized further in his statements in one of his essays in 1958, Culture

is Ordinary. In this literary piece, Williams cited the Marxist principle that culture can be

interpreted and understood by relating it to production and economic systems. However,

Williams noted in this work that culture should be viewed as a whole way of life and not

just a superstructure based on economic trends and practices

 

Comparison and Contrast

            Based from the cited works on cultural criticism of Bakhtin and Williams, a few

similar and contradicting points can be drawn. Their essays for instance are similar as

they are centered on people and the individuality of each. Both of their works also

highlighted how individual differences bring about essential society aspects such as

human interaction in Bakhtin’s view and cultural materialism in Williams’ view. In

general, the essays of both Bakhtin and Williams emphasizes on the role people play in

bringing about individual realization as well as cultural changes.

 

While there may be similarities, Bakthin’s essays were also different from

Williams as it is more centered on language and dialogues that people use. Through the

identification of communication genres as well as the concept of polyphony, Bakhtin

was able to explain how language and dialogic notions serve as essential aspects of

culture and human individuality. Williams on the other hand is more concerned on the

behavior of people that makes up his concept of cultural materialism. Specifically, his

essays on culture were published with the aim of contradicting the Marxist tenet that

culture can be understood only by considering economic systems and social classes.

 

Role of Historical Criticism

            Clearly, the works of Bakhtin and Williams have their own similarities and

differences. Nevertheless, both writers and critics were able to stress the role of

historical criticism, particularly to people and the society. For instance, the works and

concepts introduced by Bakhtin showed how individuals can understand their selves

and others. In today’s context, this contribution of Bakhtin helped in building awareness

as well as appreciation of individual differences. Bakhtin’s concept of polyphony clearly

implies this contribution. In particular, each individual is indeed different from others; in

order to interact well and harmoniously, these differences must be recognized and

respected by others. Through this, people can understand others more as well as build

better relationships.

           

            Williams’ on the other hand introduced the concept that culture is a living thing

and that its growth is dependent on the people’s ability to react to situations, and not

merely on their social statuses. This contribution of Raymond Williams to historical

criticism helped in bringing in better comprehension and depth to a social aspect as rich

and diverse as culture. Through this principle, people today now understand that culture

is multi-faceted and that it is a representation on how well people adapt to various

environmental changes.

 

            From these works, the role of historical criticism has been made apparent. For

one thing, this literary analysis approach led to the modification of conventional as well

as misunderstood concepts or beliefs. The work of Bakhtin for instance, clearly implied

how language and dialogues differ from one another, as well as how these made people

obtain distinct features or “voices”. The works of Bakhtin and Williams also showed the

role of historical criticism in giving more meaningful depth to various human issues.

Culture during the historical times for example has only been limited to its relation to

economic trends, social classes and other Marxist principles. Yet the work of Raymond

Williams indicated that it is the people and not their social classes that make up culture.

 

            The modification and addition of depth to various human principles through

historical criticism also resulted to significant realizations. For example, the criticism of

Bakhtin to self and others made people more aware of their distinct capabilities and

characteristics. This realization in turn helped in making effective human interaction

possible as it promotes the appreciation and respect for individual differences. The

introduction of this principle encourages people to obtain more knowledge on individual

differences so as to conduct various aspects of contemporary living like trade and

cross-border business operations. The same also applies for Williams’ contributions to

historical criticism; through his works cultural differences and behaviors have become

more recognized and people have become more open-minded when dealing with

diverse cultures.

 

Conclusion

            Historical criticism has long been recognized as an approach to analyzing

literary works by means of tracing back historical events that occurred during the time

these pieces were produced. Cultural criticism is a type of historical criticism that is

more centered on relating literary works to various cultural, social, economic, political

and human aspects for analysis or interpretation. Through the works and essays

of Mikhail Bakhtin and Raymond Williams, how cultural criticism is applied had been

explained.

 

However, in addition to this, the contributions of these writers also led to the

identification of historical criticism’s role, particularly to the people and the society. In the

discussion, it has been stressed that this literary analytical approach is not only useful in

analyzing various literary pieces. Rather, historical criticism also plays a role in

modifying conventional beliefs, bringing more depth to various human principles as well

as encouraging essential realizations that somehow contributes to the improvement of

contemporary living. In conclusion, the contribution of historical criticism should not be

viewed limitedly on its relation to past but also on its contributions to the present and

future times.

What is New Historicism?

New Historicism is a literary theory based on the idea that literature should be

studied and intrepreted within the context of both the history of the author and the

history of the critic. Based on the literary criticism of Stephen Greenblatt and

influenced by the philosophy of Michel Foucault, New Historicism acknowledges not

only that a work of literature is influenced by its author's times and circumstances,

but that the critic's response to that work is also influenced by his environment,

beliefs, and prejudices.

A New Historicist looks at literature in a wider historical context, examining both how the

writer's times affected the work and how the work reflects the writer's times, in turn

recognizing that current cultural contexts color that critic's conclusions.

For example, when studying Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, one always comes to

the question of whether the play shows Shakespeare to be anti-Semitic. The New

Historicist recognizes that this isn't a simple yes-or-no answer that can be teased out by

studying the text. This work must be judged in the context in which it was written; in

turn, cultural history can be revealed by studying the work — especially, say New

Historicists, by studying the use and dispersion of power and the marginalization of

social classes within the work. Studying the history reveals more about the text;

studying the text reveals more about the history.

The New Historicist also acknowledges that his examination of literature is "tainted" by

his own culture and environment. The very fact that we ask whether Shakespeare was

anti-Semitic — a question that wouldn't have been considered important a century ago

— reveals how our study of Shakespeare is affected by our civilization.

New Historicism, then, underscores the impermanence of literary criticism. Current

literary criticism is affected by and reveals the beliefs of our times in the same way that

literature reflects and is reflected by its own historical contexts. New Historicism

acknowledges and embraces the idea that, as times change, so will our understanding

of great literature.

CliffsNotes.com. What is New Historicism? 10 Jan 2011

<http://www.cliffsnotes.com/Section/id-305403,articleId-121683.html>.

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