The Qur’an Exposed:The Qur’an Exposed:Truth, Lies or Forgery? Truth, Lies or Forgery?

By Hamza Andreas TzortzisBy Hamza Andreas Tzortzis

Presentation for the Presentation for the Liverpool University Liverpool University Islamic Awareness WeekIslamic Awareness Week

44thth March 2008 March 2008

IntroductionIntroduction

My backgroundMy background www.theinimitablequran.comwww.theinimitablequran.com hamzatzortzis.blogspot.comhamzatzortzis.blogspot.com Popular culturePopular culture Socio-political implicationsSocio-political implications

Setting the SceneSetting the Scene

The Islamic perspectiveThe Islamic perspective– Searching for truth is based upon Searching for truth is based upon

evidenceevidence– There is no blind thinking or blind There is no blind thinking or blind

adoption of the Islamic creedadoption of the Islamic creed– Pre-requisite is belief in a sole cause for Pre-requisite is belief in a sole cause for

the universe (creator)the universe (creator)– Unlimited ‘mind’ vs. limited mindUnlimited ‘mind’ vs. limited mind– External revelation is required External revelation is required

The Qur’an:The Qur’an: Its History & Its History & PreservationPreservation

Recurrent Reporting & Recurrent Reporting & VerificationVerification

Recurrent reporting oral Recurrent reporting oral tradition tradition (mutawatir)(mutawatir)

The The huffadh huffadh were dying, as were dying, as a result Zayd Ibn Thaabit a result Zayd Ibn Thaabit was the main scribe was the main scribe instructed to write down instructed to write down the whole Qur’anthe whole Qur’an

Zayd referred to all those Zayd referred to all those who had memorised the who had memorised the Qur’an and to all the Qur’an and to all the written copies, verifying written copies, verifying them with other witnessesthem with other witnesses

Others that were included Others that were included in the recurrent reporting in the recurrent reporting were:were:

– Umar Ibn al- KhattabUmar Ibn al- Khattab– AliAli– UthmanUthman– Abu BakrAbu Bakr– Ubay Ibn KabUbay Ibn Kab– Abdullah Ibn MasoodAbdullah Ibn Masood– Muadh ibn JabalMuadh ibn Jabal– Abu Musa al-AshariAbu Musa al-Ashari– Muawiya ibn Abi SufyanMuawiya ibn Abi Sufyan– Uqba ibn AmirUqba ibn Amir– Abdullah ibn AqramAbdullah ibn Aqram– Khaleed ibn SaeedKhaleed ibn Saeed– And othersAnd others

Manuscript Evidence & No Manuscript Evidence & No VariantsVariants

Tashkent Manuscript (2nd Century after hijra)Tashkent Manuscript (2nd Century after hijra) Topkapi Manuscript (Uthmanic)Topkapi Manuscript (Uthmanic) Husayn Mosque in Cairo (Ali’s manuscript)Husayn Mosque in Cairo (Ali’s manuscript) There is no deviation in the manuscripts we There is no deviation in the manuscripts we

have todayhave today The The Institute fur KoranforschungInstitute fur Koranforschung, University of , University of

Munich, Germany, collected and collated some Munich, Germany, collected and collated some 42,000 complete or incomplete copies of the 42,000 complete or incomplete copies of the Qur’an gathered from all over the world. After Qur’an gathered from all over the world. After some fifty years of study they reported that in some fifty years of study they reported that in terms of differences there was no variants.terms of differences there was no variants.

Western ScholarshipWestern Scholarship Adrian Brockett Adrian Brockett

““The transmission of the Qur’an after the death of The transmission of the Qur’an after the death of Muhammed was essentially static, rather than Muhammed was essentially static, rather than organic. .. The efforts of those scholars who organic. .. The efforts of those scholars who attempt to reconstruct any other hypothetical attempt to reconstruct any other hypothetical original versions of the (written) text are original versions of the (written) text are therefore shown to be disregarding half the therefore shown to be disregarding half the essence of the Muslim scripture.”essence of the Muslim scripture.”

Arthur J. Arberry Arthur J. Arberry “… “… the Qur’an as printed in the twentieth century the Qur’an as printed in the twentieth century is identical with the Qur’an as authorized by is identical with the Qur’an as authorized by Uthman more than 1300 years ago.”Uthman more than 1300 years ago.”

The Qur’an:The Qur’an: Linguistic & Linguistic &

Literary MiracleLiterary Miracle

The Eternal ChallengeThe Eternal Challenge Qur’an Chapter 2 Verse 23Qur’an Chapter 2 Verse 23

““And if you are in doubt concerning that And if you are in doubt concerning that which We have sent down to our servant which We have sent down to our servant

(Muhammed (Muhammed pbuhpbuh) then bring a chapter of the ) then bring a chapter of the like thereof and call your witnesses like thereof and call your witnesses

(supporters and helpers) besides Allah if (supporters and helpers) besides Allah if you are truthful”you are truthful”

General MeaningGeneral Meaning Historical Scholarly ApproachHistorical Scholarly Approach Six Main ArgumentsSix Main Arguments

Six Main ArgumentsSix Main Arguments

Rational Deduction

Unique LiteraryForm Unique Genre

Eloquence

Six Main Arguments

Rhetoric

Complexities of Classical Arabic

Grammar

The Unique The Unique Literary FormLiterary Form

Unique Literary FormUnique Literary Form

Prose

Qur’an Poetry

Saj’ Mursal

Rhythmical Patters

Unique

Arabic Language

Forms of SpeechForms of Speech

Arabic Language has two main forms of speechArabic Language has two main forms of speech– PoetryPoetry– ProseProse

Prose: Saj’ and MursalProse: Saj’ and Mursal Poetry: Strict Rhythmical Pattern.Poetry: Strict Rhythmical Pattern. 16 Types of Patterns: al-Bihar16 Types of Patterns: al-Bihar

Metrical PatternsMetrical Patterns1.        at-Tawîl1.        at-Tawîl2.        al-Bassit2.        al-Bassit3.        al-Wafir3.        al-Wafir4.        al-Kamil4.        al-Kamil5.        ar-Rajs5.        ar-Rajs6.        al-Khafif6.        al-Khafif7.        al-Hazaj7.        al-Hazaj8.        al-Muttakarib8.        al-Muttakarib9.        al-Munsarih9.        al-Munsarih10.        al-Muktatab10.        al-Muktatab11.        al-Muktadarak11.        al-Muktadarak12.        al-Madid12.        al-Madid13.        al-Mujtath13.        al-Mujtath14.        al-Ramel14.        al-Ramel15.        al-Khabab15.        al-Khabab16.        as-Saria'16.        as-Saria'

Why is it Unique?Why is it Unique? Nelson & Arberry:Nelson & Arberry: All pre-Islamic and post- All pre-Islamic and post-

Islamic poetry fit into the al-BiharIslamic poetry fit into the al-Bihar

Arberry, Nicholson, Lawrence, Gibb, Qutb, Arberry, Nicholson, Lawrence, Gibb, Qutb, Haleem:Haleem: The Qur’an can not fit into any of The Qur’an can not fit into any of the known forms the known forms

This is achieved by not adhering to the This is achieved by not adhering to the rules of poetry and prose, by intermingling rules of poetry and prose, by intermingling metrical and non-metrical speech and metrical and non-metrical speech and stylistic differences such as semantically stylistic differences such as semantically orientated assonance.orientated assonance.

EloquenceEloquence

EloquenceEloquence

““Eloquence consists in expressing an Eloquence consists in expressing an appropriate meaning with a noble, apt and appropriate meaning with a noble, apt and

clear phrase, indicating what is to be clear phrase, indicating what is to be without superfluous additions.”without superfluous additions.”

Imam al Haramayn al JuwayniImam al Haramayn al Juwayni

“…“…humans cannot imitate the Qur'an humans cannot imitate the Qur'an because their knowledge does not because their knowledge does not

encompass all the words of Arabic, all the encompass all the words of Arabic, all the ideas in them, and all the varieties of ideas in them, and all the varieties of

structure.”structure.”

Issa BoulataIssa Boulata

Word OrderWord Order

Example: Example:

‘‘You shall not kill your children because you You shall not kill your children because you cannot support them. We provide for cannot support them. We provide for youyou and for and for

themthem.’.’

Qur’an 80:151Qur’an 80:151

‘‘You shall not kill your children for fear of want. You shall not kill your children for fear of want. We will provide for We will provide for themthem and for and for youyou.’ .’

Qur’an 17:31Qur’an 17:31

Meticulous AccuracyMeticulous Accuracy In the first verse when the killing is from want due to the In the first verse when the killing is from want due to the

poverty of the family, the Qur’an emphasizes Allah’s poverty of the family, the Qur’an emphasizes Allah’s provision over the parent thus they are mentioned first.provision over the parent thus they are mentioned first.

In the second verse however the killing of such innocent In the second verse however the killing of such innocent children is conceded by the fear of the future possibility children is conceded by the fear of the future possibility of poverty, Allah assures one not do so by emphasizing of poverty, Allah assures one not do so by emphasizing the children before the family and how they will receive the children before the family and how they will receive this provision.this provision.

The words are meticulously chosen even the letters are The words are meticulously chosen even the letters are meaningfully used. No addition, elision, advancing, or meaningfully used. No addition, elision, advancing, or retarding occurs but by careful design. This approach is retarding occurs but by careful design. This approach is unequalled in any human composition. It is only found in unequalled in any human composition. It is only found in the Qur’an.the Qur’an.

The Unique The Unique Linguistic GenreLinguistic Genre

Cohesive & Rhetorical Cohesive & Rhetorical FeaturesFeatures

The Qur’an combines rhetorical and cohesive The Qur’an combines rhetorical and cohesive features in every verse.features in every verse.

Rhetoric in the Arab tradition is Rhetoric in the Arab tradition is “…the “…the conveying of meaning in the best of verbal conveying of meaning in the best of verbal forms”forms”

Cohesiveness is the feature that binds Cohesiveness is the feature that binds sentences to each other grammatically and sentences to each other grammatically and lexically. It also refers to how words are linked lexically. It also refers to how words are linked together into sentences and how sentences together into sentences and how sentences are in turn linked together to form larger units are in turn linked together to form larger units in texts.in texts.

Why is it Unique?Why is it Unique? These elements combine with each other in These elements combine with each other in

such a way that interlock and become such a way that interlock and become inseparable. inseparable.

This unique combination captivates the reader This unique combination captivates the reader and achieves an effective communicative goal.and achieves an effective communicative goal.

The rhetorical and cohesive components of the The rhetorical and cohesive components of the Qur’anic text cannot be divorced from each Qur’anic text cannot be divorced from each other. other.

K. Gragg in his book “The Event of the Qur’an”:K. Gragg in his book “The Event of the Qur’an”:

“…“…the Qur’an is understood to say what it says the Qur’an is understood to say what it says in an inseparable identity with how it says it.” in an inseparable identity with how it says it.”

ExampleExample Example: Example:

““Men who remember Allah much and women who Men who remember Allah much and women who remember”remember” Qur’an 33:35Qur’an 33:35

The Qur’anic verse above, in a different word The Qur’anic verse above, in a different word order such as the verse: order such as the verse: ““Men who remember Men who remember AllahAllah much and Women who much and Women who

remember remember AllahAllah much” much”

The non Qur’anic verse would not deliver the The non Qur’anic verse would not deliver the same effect as it has lost its rhetorical effect and same effect as it has lost its rhetorical effect and is superfluous in meaning. is superfluous in meaning.

Non-Qur’anic Arabic texts mostly employ Non-Qur’anic Arabic texts mostly employ cohesive elements but the Qur’an uses both cohesive elements but the Qur’an uses both cohesive and rhetorical elements in every verse.cohesive and rhetorical elements in every verse.

Rational DeductionRational Deduction

Historical FactHistorical Fact Margoliouth, Muir and Zammit:Margoliouth, Muir and Zammit: Historical fact that Historical fact that

the Arabs at the time of revelation were masters the Arabs at the time of revelation were masters in the use of Arabicin the use of Arabic

They were articulate users of the language but They were articulate users of the language but also held those skilled in the arts of linguistic also held those skilled in the arts of linguistic composition in high esteem. composition in high esteem. ““It should be known that Arabs thought highly of It should be known that Arabs thought highly of poetry as a form of speech. Therefore, they made poetry as a form of speech. Therefore, they made

it the archives of their history, the evidence for it the archives of their history, the evidence for what they considered right and wrong, and the what they considered right and wrong, and the

principal basis of reference for most of their principal basis of reference for most of their sciences and wisdom.”sciences and wisdom.”

Ibn KhaldunIbn Khaldun

They All FailedThey All Failed If the people best placed to challenge the Qur’an If the people best placed to challenge the Qur’an

failed, then who can do it?failed, then who can do it? Some of the challengers: Some of the challengers:

– MusaylamahMusaylamah– The Quraish The Quraish – Ibn Al-Mukaffa‘ Ibn Al-Mukaffa‘ – Abu'l-'Ala Al-Marri Abu'l-'Ala Al-Marri – Yahya b. Al-Hakam al-GhazalYahya b. Al-Hakam al-Ghazal– Sayyid 'Ali MuhammadSayyid 'Ali Muhammad– Ibn al-RawandiIbn al-Rawandi– Bassar bin Burd Bassar bin Burd – Sahib Ibn 'AbbadSahib Ibn 'Abbad– Abu'l - 'Atahiya Abu'l - 'Atahiya

A FailureA Failure

““The elephant. What is the elephant? And The elephant. What is the elephant? And who shall tell you what is the elephant? He who shall tell you what is the elephant? He

has a ropy tail and a long trunk. this is a has a ropy tail and a long trunk. this is a [mere] trifle of our Lord's creations.”[mere] trifle of our Lord's creations.”

MusaylamahMusaylamah

Concerning the style of his speech; he Concerning the style of his speech; he followed the kahin style of rhymed prose, followed the kahin style of rhymed prose, and of the pronouncing of oaths. and of the pronouncing of oaths.

If the Arabs at that time failed, who is the If the Arabs at that time failed, who is the author? Using Rational Deduction, it can author? Using Rational Deduction, it can not be a Arab, a non-Arab or even the not be a Arab, a non-Arab or even the Prophet MuhammedProphet Muhammed..

God’s Word?God’s Word?

Rational deductionRational deduction Is it from an Arab, Non-Arab, the Prophet (pbuh) Is it from an Arab, Non-Arab, the Prophet (pbuh)

or the Creator?or the Creator? The Prophet and Hadith – Linguistic differencesThe Prophet and Hadith – Linguistic differences The pre-requisite – CreatorThe pre-requisite – Creator No other rational explanation!No other rational explanation!

Western Western ScholarshipScholarship

Non-Muslim ScholarshipNon-Muslim Scholarship

Consensus opinion on the superior nature of the Consensus opinion on the superior nature of the Qur’an’s language.Qur’an’s language.

"The Koran [sic] admittedly occupies an important "The Koran [sic] admittedly occupies an important position among the great religious books of the position among the great religious books of the world…. it yields to hardly any in the wonderful effect world…. it yields to hardly any in the wonderful effect which it has produced on large masses of men. It has which it has produced on large masses of men. It has created an all but new phase of human thought and a created an all but new phase of human thought and a fresh type of character. It first transformed a number fresh type of character. It first transformed a number of heterogeneous desert tribes of the Arabian of heterogeneous desert tribes of the Arabian peninsula into a nation of heroes…."peninsula into a nation of heroes…."G. MargoliouthG. Margoliouth

Miracle After MiracleMiracle After Miracle

My favourite…..My favourite…..““As tangible signs Qur’anic verses are As tangible signs Qur’anic verses are

expressive of an inexhaustible truth. They expressive of an inexhaustible truth. They signify meaning layered within meaning, signify meaning layered within meaning, light upon light, miracle after miracle.”light upon light, miracle after miracle.”

Bruce LawrenceBruce Lawrence“…“…and that though several attempts have and that though several attempts have

been made to produce a work equal to it been made to produce a work equal to it as far as elegant writing is concerned, as far as elegant writing is concerned,

none has as yet succeeded.”none has as yet succeeded.” F. F. ArbuthnotF. F. Arbuthnot

Conclusion: A Miracle Indeed it Conclusion: A Miracle Indeed it is!is!

Martin Zammit concludes in his book “A Martin Zammit concludes in his book “A comparative Lexical Study of Qur’anic Arabic”: comparative Lexical Study of Qur’anic Arabic”:

““Notwithstanding the literary excellence of some of Notwithstanding the literary excellence of some of the long pre-Islamic poems…the Qur'an is definitely the long pre-Islamic poems…the Qur'an is definitely on a level of its own as on a level of its own as the most eminent written the most eminent written manifestationmanifestation of the Arabic language.” of the Arabic language.”

Rev. R Bosworth Smith concludes that the Qur'an, Rev. R Bosworth Smith concludes that the Qur'an, in his book "Muhammad and Muhammadanism", is:in his book "Muhammad and Muhammadanism", is:

"…It is the one miracle claimed by Muhammad, his "…It is the one miracle claimed by Muhammad, his standing standing miraclemiracle, and a , and a miraclemiracle indeed it is." indeed it is."

Forgery?Forgery?

Grammatical Mistakes?Grammatical Mistakes? The Qur’an is a source text for Arabic grammar!The Qur’an is a source text for Arabic grammar!

Example:Example: “You notice that the word was written “You notice that the word was written Saabi'uuna in 5:69 and was written Saabi'iina in 2:62 Saabi'uuna in 5:69 and was written Saabi'iina in 2:62 and 22:17. In the last two verses the word was and 22:17. In the last two verses the word was declined correctly. But the word Saabi'uuna in 5:69 declined correctly. But the word Saabi'uuna in 5:69 was given the 'uu….This then is an obvious was given the 'uu….This then is an obvious grammatical error.”grammatical error.”

Neal Robinson, Haleem, Abdur Raof and Ibn Athir:Neal Robinson, Haleem, Abdur Raof and Ibn Athir: This change in case is similar to changes of number This change in case is similar to changes of number and person and tense. All these are used in the and person and tense. All these are used in the Qur’an for rhetorical purposes in their contexts. This Qur’an for rhetorical purposes in their contexts. This is a well known feature called iltifaat. Of which there is a well known feature called iltifaat. Of which there are countless examples in Classical Arabicare countless examples in Classical Arabic

Foreign Words?Foreign Words? Claims that the Qur’an is not, as it states, in a “…Claims that the Qur’an is not, as it states, in a “…

plain Arabic Qur’an” due to the presence of ‘foreign’ plain Arabic Qur’an” due to the presence of ‘foreign’ words:words:

MountMount (Qur’an 95:2) borrowed from Syriac (Qur’an 95:2) borrowed from SyriacHeavy Heavy (Qur’an 18:31) from Persian(Qur’an 18:31) from PersianSinaiSinai (Qur’an 95:2) from Nabatean (Qur’an 95:2) from NabateanThe InscriptionThe Inscription (Qur’an 18:9) from Greek (Qur’an 18:9) from GreekThe SeaThe Sea (Qur’an 7:136) from Coptic (Qur’an 7:136) from CopticTo turn onto someoneTo turn onto someone (Qur’an 7:156) from Hebrew (Qur’an 7:156) from Hebrew

Imam Shafi’i:Imam Shafi’i: Natural Linguistic phenomenon - Natural Linguistic phenomenon - These foreign words in the Qur’an had already been These foreign words in the Qur’an had already been naturalised into the Arabic language naturalised into the Arabic language

al-Suyuti:al-Suyuti: A few foreign words does not make it any A few foreign words does not make it any less Arabic then the presence of foreign words in a less Arabic then the presence of foreign words in a Persian Poem would not make it any less Persian. Persian Poem would not make it any less Persian.

Additionally the reference to “Plain Arabic…” is to Additionally the reference to “Plain Arabic…” is to the Qur’an as a whole, and not the individual words the Qur’an as a whole, and not the individual words in it. in it.

Authorship TheoriesAuthorship Theories

A Poet?A Poet? A Madman?A Madman? Taught by Others?Taught by Others?

A Poet?A Poet? Claims by Bell, Rodinson and StobartClaims by Bell, Rodinson and Stobart Bell describes the Prophet as a poet Bell describes the Prophet as a poet

“…“…not of the ordinary type”!not of the ordinary type”!

Stylistic differencesStylistic differences Non-conformity to the Metrical patternsNon-conformity to the Metrical patterns

““This is not the word of a poet! Little faith This is not the word of a poet! Little faith you have!”you have!”

Qur’an 69:41Qur’an 69:41

A Madman?A Madman? Claims by San Pedro and the Historian Claims by San Pedro and the Historian

TheophanesTheophanes Historian Phillip K. Hitti wrote Historian Phillip K. Hitti wrote “The Prophet “The Prophet

experienced ecstatic seizures as he experienced ecstatic seizures as he received the revelations, giving rise to the received the revelations, giving rise to the charge he was epileptic”charge he was epileptic”

Even Orientalists like Daniel refute these Even Orientalists like Daniel refute these claims claims “…epilepsy as applied to the “…epilepsy as applied to the Prophet was the explanation of those who Prophet was the explanation of those who sought to amuse rather than to instruct”sought to amuse rather than to instruct”

““Do they not reflect and ponder? There is Do they not reflect and ponder? There is no madness in their companion..”no madness in their companion..” Qur’an Qur’an 7:1947:194

Incongruence between medical symptoms Incongruence between medical symptoms an Islamic literaturean Islamic literature

Taught by Others?Taught by Others? Claims by Muir, Margoliouth and others that Claims by Muir, Margoliouth and others that

Baheerah the monk taught the Prophet, allegedly Baheerah the monk taught the Prophet, allegedly when they met when he was a teenager.when they met when he was a teenager.

Even if the incident is true how can the whole Even if the incident is true how can the whole Qur’an be developed from a meeting lasting only Qur’an be developed from a meeting lasting only a few hours?a few hours?

Others such as Menzes and Gardner claim the Others such as Menzes and Gardner claim the Qur’an was taught by Salmaan al-FarseeQur’an was taught by Salmaan al-Farsee

Where did the Prophet get all of the other Where did the Prophet get all of the other information before he met the convert Salmaan information before he met the convert Salmaan al-Farsee?al-Farsee?

Other such as Bodly and Gibb claim it was the Other such as Bodly and Gibb claim it was the Arab Christian Qis ibn Sa’eedah. Arab Christian Qis ibn Sa’eedah.

They both conveniently forget that this individual They both conveniently forget that this individual died over a century before the Prophets birth!died over a century before the Prophets birth!

ConclusionConclusion

To Conclude… To Conclude… There is a corpus of material available concerning There is a corpus of material available concerning

today’s topictoday’s topic The Qur’ans claim has been proven and affirmed The Qur’ans claim has been proven and affirmed

by western scholarshipby western scholarship The Qur’an has shown that it is a unique The Qur’an has shown that it is a unique

inimitable Arabic textual construction that has inimitable Arabic textual construction that has stood the test of timestood the test of time

Modern authorship theories do not provide Modern authorship theories do not provide adequate evidence and the question of adequate evidence and the question of authorship continues to baffle academicsauthorship continues to baffle academics

The Qur’an is the final testament that doesn’t The Qur’an is the final testament that doesn’t claim a monopoly on the truth, but claims it is claim a monopoly on the truth, but claims it is divine and has an unbroken chaindivine and has an unbroken chain

This presentation should evoke many questions This presentation should evoke many questions and provide a fertile ground for a frank and and provide a fertile ground for a frank and honest discussionhonest discussion

Thank you!Thank you!

Email: a_tzortzis@yahoo.comEmail: a_tzortzis@yahoo.com Mobile: 07988850946Mobile: 07988850946

www.theinimitablequran.comwww.theinimitablequran.com hamzatzortzis.blogspot.comhamzatzortzis.blogspot.com

Alhamdulillahir Rabbil’AlameenAlhamdulillahir Rabbil’Alameen[All Praises & Thanks Due to the Lord of the [All Praises & Thanks Due to the Lord of the

Worlds]Worlds]

References & Further ReadingReferences & Further Readinghamzatzortzis.blogspot.comhamzatzortzis.blogspot.comwww.theinimitablequran.comwww.theinimitablequran.comwww.islamic-awareness.orgwww.islamic-awareness.orgH. Abdul-Raof. 2003. Exploring the Qur'an. Al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press.H. Abdul-Raof. 2003. Exploring the Qur'an. Al-Maktoum Institute Academic Press.M. Abdullah Draz. 2001. The Qur'an an Eternal Challenge (al-Naba' al-'Azim).The M. Abdullah Draz. 2001. The Qur'an an Eternal Challenge (al-Naba' al-'Azim).The Islamic Foundation.Islamic Foundation.M. Sells. 2000. A Literary Approach to the Hymnic Surahs of the Qur'an. Curzon Press.M. Sells. 2000. A Literary Approach to the Hymnic Surahs of the Qur'an. Curzon Press.Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 2004. The Qur'an: A New Translation. Oxford University Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 2004. The Qur'an: A New Translation. Oxford University Press.Press.Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 1999. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles. I. Muhammed Abdel Haleem. 1999. Understanding the Qur’an: Themes & Styles. I. B.Tauris Publishers B.Tauris Publishers The history of the Qur’anic text from revelation to compilation – A comparative study The history of the Qur’anic text from revelation to compilation – A comparative study with old and new testaments, Dr M. M. al-Azamiwith old and new testaments, Dr M. M. al-AzamiG. Yule. 1985. The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press, p. 52G. Yule. 1985. The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press, p. 52H. Abul-Raof. 2003. Exploring the Qur’an. Al-Makhtoum Institute Academic Press, p. 38H. Abul-Raof. 2003. Exploring the Qur’an. Al-Makhtoum Institute Academic Press, p. 38A. Jeffrey. 1938. The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur’an. Baroda: Oriental Institute, p. A. Jeffrey. 1938. The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur’an. Baroda: Oriental Institute, p. 110110al-Suyuti. 1996. al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur’an. Vol. 1. Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Ulum, p. 367al-Suyuti. 1996. al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur’an. Vol. 1. Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Ulum, p. 367M A S Abdel Haleem Grammatical Shift For The Rhetorical Purposes: Iltifāt And Related M A S Abdel Haleem Grammatical Shift For The Rhetorical Purposes: Iltifāt And Related Features In The Qur'ān Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 1992, Features In The Qur'ān Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 1992, Volume LV, Part 3.Volume LV, Part 3.Approaches to the History of Interpretation of the Qur’an, p 44Approaches to the History of Interpretation of the Qur’an, p 44Arberry’s translation of the Qur’an, IntroductionArberry’s translation of the Qur’an, IntroductionWilliam Wright. 1955 (1898). A Grammar of the Arabic Language, Vol II, part 4. William Wright. 1955 (1898). A Grammar of the Arabic Language, Vol II, part 4. Cambridge University Press, p. 350-390 Cambridge University Press, p. 350-390 Louis Cheikho, Shu’ara' 'al-Nasraniyah, 1890-1891 Louis Cheikho, Shu’ara' 'al-Nasraniyah, 1890-1891 Bruce Lawrence. Journal of Qur’anic Studies. Vol VII, Issue I 2005. Approximating Saj’ in Bruce Lawrence. Journal of Qur’anic Studies. Vol VII, Issue I 2005. Approximating Saj’ in English Renditions of the Qur’an, p. 64 English Renditions of the Qur’an, p. 64

References & Further References & Further ReadingReadingA Literary Approach to the Hymnic Surahs of the Qur'an: Spirit, Gender and Aural A Literary Approach to the Hymnic Surahs of the Qur'an: Spirit, Gender and Aural

Intertextuality. Curzon Press, p. 3-25; Mitwalli al-Sharawi, The Miracles of the Qur’an. Dar ul Intertextuality. Curzon Press, p. 3-25; Mitwalli al-Sharawi, The Miracles of the Qur’an. Dar ul Taqwa. See Qur’an 15:45-52 & 12:31-35 for examples of the unique fusion of metrical and non-Taqwa. See Qur’an 15:45-52 & 12:31-35 for examples of the unique fusion of metrical and non-metrical speech.metrical speech.Guide to Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief, Imam al Haramayn al JuwayniGuide to Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief, Imam al Haramayn al JuwayniRhetorical Aspect of the Qur’an, Issa BoulataRhetorical Aspect of the Qur’an, Issa BoulataH Abdul-Raof. 2001. Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p. 137 H Abdul-Raof. 2001. Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p. 137 I Boullata. 1988. The Rhetorical Interpretation of the Qur’an: I’jaz and Related Topics. Oxford: I Boullata. 1988. The Rhetorical Interpretation of the Qur’an: I’jaz and Related Topics. Oxford: Claredon Press, p. 143 RClaredon Press, p. 143 RH Abdul-Raof. 2001. Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p. 107-H Abdul-Raof. 2001. Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p. 107-108108K Cragg. 1994. The Event of the Qur’an. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Oneworld, p. 46K Cragg. 1994. The Event of the Qur’an. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Oneworld, p. 46H Abdul-Raof. 2001. Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p. 137H Abdul-Raof. 2001. Qur’an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis. Curzon Press, p. 137Martin Zammit. 2002. A comparative Lexical Study of Qur'anic Arabic. Brill Academic Martin Zammit. 2002. A comparative Lexical Study of Qur'anic Arabic. Brill Academic Publishers & R. Bosworth Smith. 2004. Muhammad and Muhammadanism. Kessinger Publishers & R. Bosworth Smith. 2004. Muhammad and Muhammadanism. Kessinger Publishing. Publishing. Bruce Lawrence, p. 18. The Qur’an: A Biography. 2006.Bruce Lawrence, p. 18. The Qur’an: A Biography. 2006.F. F. Arbuthnot. 1885. The Construction of the Bible and the Koran. London, p 5F. F. Arbuthnot. 1885. The Construction of the Bible and the Koran. London, p 5G. Margoliouth. 1977. Introduction to J.M.Rodwell’s, The Koran. Everyman’s Library, p. vii G. Margoliouth. 1977. Introduction to J.M.Rodwell’s, The Koran. Everyman’s Library, p. vii Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, 1406. vol. 3, 375. Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, 1406. vol. 3, 375. Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, London, 1967, pp. 87 ff.  Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, London, 1967, pp. 87 ff.  Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah 6:320 and Al-Isabah 3:225Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah 6:320 and Al-Isabah 3:225A F L Beeston, et al (Ed.), Arabic Literature To The End Of The Ummayyad Period, 1983, CUP, p. A F L Beeston, et al (Ed.), Arabic Literature To The End Of The Ummayyad Period, 1983, CUP, p. 212 212