The Korean Automobile Industry - Challanges & Strategies in the Global Market_Jurnal

The Korean Automobile Industry: Challenges and Strategies in the Global MarketAuthor(s): Dong-Ok Lee, Keunchul Lee, Jae-Jin Kim and Gill-Chin LimReviewed work(s):Source: Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 4, No. 4 (1996), pp. 85-96Published by: American Marketing AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25048673 .Accessed: 18/09/2012 06:27

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Executive Insights: The Korean Automobile Industry? Challenges and Strategies in the Global Market

ABSTRACT This article deals with the current challenges and future strategies for the Korean automobile industry in the global market. To under stand its strengths and weaknesses, the trends of the world market

for motor vehicles and the development of the Korean automobile

industry are discussed. In the first part, Korea's automobile produc tion in the world market is examined. A brief overview of the pro

duction and consumption of automobiles is provided along with a

description of the four-stage development of Korean car produc tion. In the second part, various forces of production are identified that affect Korean automakers' competitiveness in the global mar

ket. Capital formation, labor relations, the role of government, management style, production technology, research and develop ment, and workmanship are discussed briefly. Finally, in light of current observations, some of the challenges for the Korean auto

mobile industry in the future are pointed out and some recommen dations for automakers, labor, and the government are offered.

Dong-Ok Lee Keunchul Lee Jae-Jin Kim

Gill-Chin Lim

Motor vehicle production in Korea reflects various ways in which the automobile industry has been integrated into the global scheme of manufacturing at differing times. While Ko rea's industrialization took different forms of integration into the global economy, ranging from the export of high-labor contents to low-labor contents, the production techniques in

creasingly adopted higher levels of technology and capital input. Figure 1 (World Motor Vehicle Production 1946-93) shows the long-term trends in automobile production in the global context. In 1946, total production was only about 3.9

million vehicles. Despite short-term fluctuations in total out

put over time, the overall long-term production of automo biles increased steadily, reaching about 48.4 million in 1993. This growth of production was due to innovation in produc tion techniques and the improvement of labor productivity.

Korea's Automobile Production in the

World Market

In the late 19th century, passenger cars were made by the craft production system. It was not until 1914 that an in crease in productivity was realized by the mass production system. Henry Ford and Alfred Sloan were instrumental in developing this new approach, which led to the American domination of the world automobile industry through most of this century. Japan's market share was very small in the early 1960s but eventually grew through the 1980s to be as large as that of the United States and Europe. It is widely ac knowledged that the phenomenal growth of Japan's share is due mainly to the high productivity achieved by the lean

Submitted June 1995 Revised December 1995

February 1996

? Journal of International Marketing Vol. 4, No. 4, 1996, pp. 85-96 ISSN 1069-031X

85

production system pioneered by Kiichiro Toyota and Taiichi Ohno of Toyota (Womack, Jones, and Roos 1990).

Figure 1. World Motor Vehicle

Production, 1946-93

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

year

Source: Ward's Automotive News, Marketing, and Data Book. 1976-1994

The relative decline of the American automobile industry and the rise of the Japanese automobile industry have also been accompanied by the widespread emergence of interna tional equity arrangements, joint ventures, supply relation ships, marketing, technology, and assembly arrangements among various companies around the world. The interrela

tionships among the world's major automakers reflect how the Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) have entered the

world market. As shown in Figure 2 (Shares of World Vehicle Production by Region, 1946-93), Korea's share of automobile production increased gradually during the 1970s and 1980s.

Figure 2. Shares of World Vehicle

Production by Region, 1946-93

Western Europe

20

o) *- fo m

Source: Ward's Automotive News, Marketing, and Data Book. 1976-1994

86 Dong-Ok Leef Keunchul Lee, Jae-Jin Kim, and Gill-Chin Lim

Sources of Global Competitiveness: Forces of Production

There have been several stages of development in the Korean automobile industry since 1962, centered around the indige nous automakers, including Kia, Hyundai, Daewoo, and

Samsung. Using previous analyses (Korea Automobile Manu facturers Association 1993, Hyun 1989, Lee 1993a, 1993b, and 1993c, Tomisawa 1987), we present the following four stage development model of the Korean automobile industry.

Stage One (1962-1967): Semi-Knockdown Assembly Two Korean automakers(Kia and Hyundai) began pro duction.

Local content was near zero.

Technology and auto parts were supplied by obtaining foreign licenses and joint ventures.

Stage Two (1968-1974): Complete Knockdown Assembly Daewoo began production and established a joint ven ture with General Motors.

Hyundai assembled Ford Cortina with 21 percent local content.

Kia produced Brisa.

Stage Three (1975-1981): Mass Production with Increased Local Content

Substantial growth of per capita GNP. Local content of Korean-made cars increased substan

tially to 85 percent. Some mass production techniques were introduced, in cluding the Toyota production system.

Stage Four (1982-present): New Product Development and Export

The auto industry began product diversification and in house R&D.

Hyundai began exporting Excel to the North American market.

The Samsung group started to build automobiles. Kia and Daewoo also entered the United States car market.

The increased mobility of capital along with the rising power of transnational cooperation has altered the nature of the

worldwide division of labor over the past three decades. While the experience of developing countries shares some characteristics with that of more advanced economies, Ko rea's case provides interesting insights on how such waves of global change have altered traditional industrial relations, thereby engendering various sources of innovation. It is the purpose of this section to examine some of the salient fea tures of competitiveness necessary for the Korean automobile

Executive Insights: The Korean Automobile Industry? 87 Challenges and Strategies in the Global Market

industry to succeed in the global market. Particular attention is paid to critical dimensions of automobile production, in cluding capital formation, labor relations, the role of govern

ment, management style, production technology, research and development, and workmanship.

Capital Formation. An important distinction between the capital markets of the United States and Japan and that of Ko rea hinges on the proportion of foreign ownership. The motor vehicle industry of both the United States and Japan partici pated in capital markets in Korea, although the extent of their participation was limited by government regulation. The Ko rean government provided various incentives to induce capi tal formation through national financial markets. Major

Korean automakers have enjoyed very little equity capital in vestment from automakers of the United States and Japan. Daewoo had 50 percent capital participation of GM through a joint venture which ended in 1992, and Hyundai operates

with 13 percent capital of Mitsubishi. For the formation of capital, the interlocking structure of Korean industry itself fa cilitates a reliable financial market for the Korean industrial conglomerate (chaebol). The ownership of domestic au tomakers is managed by shared stockholding with other com

panies in the same chaebol (Steers et al. 1989). For example, the shareholder of Hyundai Motor Company is also the share holder of Hyundai Precision & Industries Company Limited (HPICL). Both companies belong to Hyundai Chaebol group,

and both manufacture motor vehicles, parts, and compo nents. It was only in the 1970s that the Korean government supported formation of a national stock market and encour

aged Korean chaebol to release some of their shares into it. The chaebol structure and associated production linkages fa cilitate extra-market flexibility. For example, HMC purchases some components exclusively from HPICL through subcon tracting, although the quality and market price may not be competitive in national and foreign markets.

Labor Relations. Because labor enjoys substantial flexibility in terms of cost and efficiency, it may be the most critical ele

ment in the long-term competitiveness of automakers around the world. Labor, in its various aspects, determines how effi ciently automakers can operate with regard to cost-savings, product quality, and the ease with which new technologies can be adapted. As such, labor is an important source of global competitiveness. In the United States, labor relations are generally characterized as adversarial, a situation that has

frequently impacted the efficiency of American firms and their subsidiaries throughout the world. On the other hand, the competitiveness of Japanese firms has tended to benefit

from a more consensual relationship between labor and man

agement. In the case of Korea, labor relations are character ized as authoritarian. The labor-management relationship is

88 Dong-Ok Lee, Keunchul Lee, Jae-Jin Kim, and Gill-Chin Lim

strictly hierarchical and workers tend to be much more "un der the thumb" of their superiors. Generally, workers have fewer rights than their counterparts in the United States and relations tend to be less cooperative between labor and man agement in the United States than in Japan. However, the au thoritarian system no longer works as it did in the past

-

workers have organized and are demanding democracy at work while obtaining wage increases and improved working conditions in the process. In Korea, low labor wages are

proving less and less of an advantage in global competition.

The Role of Government. National governments play a key role in shaping domestic economies. The form of government intervention varies among countries, from direct market inter vention to the provision of incentives and subsidies through tax and expenditure systems. In Korea, the government has tended to intervene directly in the activities of industry,

banks, and consumers. For example, the government held the

primary ownership of banks until the mid-1980s. Under the state-led model of industrialization, industries took great ad vantage of the country's industrial policy, which set the sec toral initiatives of subsidies. The government selected certain industrial sectors as strategic targets of growth and provided them with low-rate interest loans and tax subsidies (Amsden 1989). To boost the export markets for Korean goods, the in dustries were permitted to have dual prices for domestic and foreign markets. Market prices for Korean consumers were of ten higher than the prices set for foreign markets. Moreover, government regimes oppressed national labor movements

throughout the period of intensive industrial growth. It was

only in 1987 that the government established minimum wage laws. The government neglected to provide social insurance, a responsibility taken on instead by large firms.

Management Style. While Korean culture encourages a com

munity atmosphere within organizations as in Japan, com

pany management tends to be very authoritarian (W. B. Kim 1989). Because Japanese production techniques necessitate cooperative relations between management and labor, the au

thoritarian style of Korean firms has hindered import of the latest in these production techniques. In general, Korean

companies lag behind their American and Japanese counter parts in improving the technical aspects of management. Ko rea's competitive advantage in organizational management derives from strong management emphasis on company

spirit. For example, the record-breaking pace with which Hyundai established a new factory was recently heralded as a success of Hyundai spirit rather than technological advances or

management efficiency. Other companies also emphasize the cultural aspect of total devotion of workers to the firm.

Kia underscores Kia-In (Kia People), Samsung is proud of the Samsung family, and Daewoo believes its growth has been


founded on the concept of self-sacrifice. These are specific features of Korean automobile companies. Such an emphasis on self-sacrifice and complete devotion is rarely observed in

American automobile companies.

If one assumes that Korean automobile workers work less effi ciently as a team than Japanese automobile workers, and that

Korean corporate leaders relentlessly demand loyalty and sac

rifice, it can be concluded that the company culture is formed by a top-down process without true grassroots support. If this

discrepancy in the cultural norm of automobile company management in Korea continues, then employees may soon

feel a sense of betrayal and exploitation. Indeed, one might suspect that this has been one of the major reasons for labor discontent, which has led to massive strikes and protests.

Production Technology. Advances in production technology contribute to the improvement of product quality as well as labor productivity. The invention of mass production tech

niques led United States automakers to dominate the world car market. Similarly, Japanese automakers became one of the key practitioners of lean production techniques. The cur rent status of Korea's technological development suggests that the invention of new technology needs to be embedded in the specific political and cultural environment of the na tion-state. While Korea has attempted to import the latest in lean and mass production technologies, successful adoption

depends heavily on the culture of Korean workers and indus try. Interviews with several autopart firms in the summer of 1995 suggested that significant change is still needed in orga

nizational culture before Korean businesses can successfully adopt techniques of lean production. One of the major diffi culties of implementing organizational changes in produc tion is closely tied to the infrastructural differences among

firms, including technological development, employment re lations, and interfirm linkages.

Research and Development. Government investment ac

counted for approximately 70 percent of Korea's total R&D investment during the 1960s, 70s, and early 1980s. By the 1990s, however, 84 percent of the nation's R&D investment

was drawn from the private sector (Ministry of Science and Technology 1993). It will be a key challenge for Korean in dustry to determine which technologies to develop since, over time, such activities consume massive amounts of capi tal and manpower. For example, it takes over $2 billion in in vestments and more than 700 people to develop a new car

engine (KIET 1994). Thus, R&D investment will continue to be an important measure of market competence in the future. In spite of a rapid increase in R&D investment in Korea, the total spending of the five major automakers there amounted to only about 12 percent of GM's total R&D outlays in 1991.


Also, research manpower of the Korean automobile industry equaled only 20 percent of that of Japan in 1987. Equally im portant, capital investment in R&D tends to concentrate heav ily on the improvement of hard technology, including emission control, design simulations, fuel efficiency, and the develop

ment of alternative fuels, while R&D spending for the improve ment of management and production techniques tends to remain relatively low. Recently, automakers founded the Ko rean Automotive Manufactures Association in order to support R&D of soft technology, including labor-management relations.

Workmanship. Workmanship can also be an important source

of competitive advantage. In Korea and Japan, workers identify their "work" as something to master, or to perfect, while work ers in the West tend to do the

"job" (what they are employed for) at work. Yet, despite strong devotion to workmanship in

Korea, Korean products have tended to suffer from higher de fect ratios than normally found in Japan. Interviews with man agers and shopfloor workers in Korean automobile companies indicated that the higher defect ratio is closely related to differ ences in technology among subcontracting firms. Another

problem concerns the fact that larger firms hold very limited control over the production technology of their subcontractors.

Challenges and Strategies From its beginning in small knockdown assembly plants to its current status as a major competitor in passenger cars to the

world market, the Korean automobile industry has delivered a rather impressive performance. Will Korea be able to sustain its successful record in an increasingly competitive world

market in the future? In the previous section, we examined various forces that affect the operations of the Korean auto

mobile industry and found that there are numerous factors that distinguish it from the industries of the United States and Japan. Some of these factors reflect strengths that can serve as long-term sources of global competitive advantage.

In a provocative article entitled "The Myth of Asia's Miracle," Krugman (1994) has suggested that the rapid growth of Asian countries such as Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Korea is due largely to the effective mobilization of resources. By mak ing a historical comparison with the growth of communist economies in their earlier years, he argued that the high growth of the Pacific Rim has been more a result of increases in input than increases in the efficiency of production. Krugman con

tends that "deferred gratification" is the secret that brought such high growth to those nations. This thesis is also supported by business leaders in Korea who have emphasized the impor tance of company culture, which is grounded in "sacrifice" and "devotion." It may well be then that Korea's success in the auto

industry is largely the result of judicious resource mobilization combined with the self-sacrifice of the Korean people.


In light of the above analysis, it is now appropriate to advance some suggestion on how the Korean automobile industry might enhance its competitive position in the global marketplace.

R&D, Technology, and Efficiency

First of all, it may be useful for the industry to carefully ex amine its technological capability and its contribution to sus tainable growth. These findings suggest that, while past competitive advantage has resulted in large part from growing investment in capital and labor, these factors alone cannot sustain continuing advances in the long term. To continue their progress of recent years, it will be increasingly important for the industry to invest in R&D for creating new products and in the latest operations technology for improving produc tive processes. To this end, there is a need to conduct a careful study investigating the contribution of technology to the growth of the automobile industry in Korea.

It was pointed out that Korea's R&D spending is much smaller than that of Japan or the United States and that Ko rean

companies have produced motor vehicles utilizing bor rowed technology. Technology can be either borrowed from foreign countries or developed by domestic scientists and en gineers. Dependency on foreign technology can be profitable in the short run but will not allow Korean automakers to be leaders on the world scene. To be truly competitive, the in dustry must increase initiatives efforts to develop its own

technologies. Without such efforts, it is unlikely that firms such as Samsung can function as little more than assembly operations (Han-Kook Il-Bo, 28 March 1995).

Management Innovation Innovation in management is just as critical as technological innovation (Hammer and Champy 1993, Champy 1995). Af ter many years of suffering from loss of market share and profits, American automobile companies have taken pains to re-engineer their management systems. Strategic manage

ment has been rigorously applied, organizational systems re structured, and employees laid off for leaner, more efficient

management and production. The recent comeback in the United States auto industry is clearly linked to management efficiency gained by re-engineering. Similarly, management innovation is a prerequisite to sustain the competitiveness of

Korean firms. One suggestion would be an adaptive applica tion of new management techniques integrated into the Ko rean culture and work ethic. This is certainly a new area for

multidisciplinary research.

Knowledge Sharing The major automobile companies in Korea are owned by some of the country's largest business conglomerates compet ing in markets for a variety of goods and services ranging


from perishable consumer items to durable goods. They are in constant competition with one another and so far, there

has been little effort among the automakers to cooperate in technological development. While it is unrealistic for all of these companies to engage jointly in such efforts, there are certain areas where cooperation and knowledge-sharing can be a benefit, all without sacrificing the competitive spirit es sential to an efficient market. For example, the sharing of

world market information and publicly available technologi cal know-how, as well as the joint development of capital in tensive technology offering wider implications for public

well-being, are areas ripe for cooperation among Korean au tomakers. The country's well-developed, government-sup ported research institutes (GRIs) can also play a significant role in enhancing knowledge (Nam 1994).

Global Demand and Supply In the face of a rapidly changing global economy and polity, it is important for the industry to acquire detailed information and to undertake comprehensive analyses regarding the de

mand for, and supply of, motor vehicles in the global market. A detailed study of global supply and demand can guide goals for overall production, long-term capital investment plan ning, the split between domestic consumption and exports, and specialization in production items. There is little doubt that economic growth in China, Indonesia, Thailand, and other Asian countries will create new demand for automo biles. Given differences in culture, taste, and preferences, new

production and marketing strategies need to be developed if Korea wishes to enter these potentially enormous markets. At the same time, these nations are also potential suppliers that can support Korea's growing productive ability.

More Responsive Design, Pro duction, and Delivery Systems

In recent years, consumer preferences for automobiles have

changed significantly. This trend implies that diversification in design and an ability to predict changes in the market and to swiftly alter production and marketing plans are all be coming essential ingredients in an automobile company's overall strategy. High factory productivity alone can no

longer guarantee or sustain success in the world automobile market. A company capable of delivering a quality product while maintaining quick response in design will be a winner. Transition from the lean production system to the agile pro duction system will be timely.

Quality In a recent newspaper interview article, a Hyundai executive

agreed with the reporter that a decline in Hyundai's share in the American market is clearly linked to the relatively lower quality of Hyundai cars (Detroit Free Press 1995). It is gener ally accepted that the success of the invasion of Japanese au tomakers into the American market was largely the result of


the high quality of their cars. Similarly, the recapture of mar ket share by American firms in recent years has also been largely a function of improved quality. Thus, Korean automo

bile companies need to place the highest emphasis on quality if they want to continue their past record of exports and to expand their markets further.

Labor Management Relations Earlier, the authoritarian and adversarial relationship between labor and management in the Korean automobile industry

was commented on. At the height of intense confrontation and strikes, serious damage was done to the overall amount of the country's production. Traditionally, instead of follow ing a negotiating strategy in the resolution of labor conflicts,

Korean workers have tended to resort to extreme means such as demonstrations, strikes, and violence (Lim and Lee 1988). Given the benefits that would accrue to both labor and man agement to learn about negotiation approaches, workshops and training sessions for labor leaders and managers should be widely conducted. There are a growing number of useful references and practices that use negotiation to resolve con flicts (Fisher and Ury 1991, Susskind and Cruikshank 1987, Ury 1991).

Redefining the Role of Government

Many governments around the world are burdened by bureau cracy and inefficiency, with rules, regulations, and corruption posing major obstacles to free-market enterprise. The Korean government has attempted to provide various incentives to private companies to promote industrial growth and has estab lished government-supported research institutes to stimulate scientific and technological progress. However, during the high growth period of the 1960s, 70s, and 80s, the government neglected to uphold labor's basic rights, and has taken little re cent action to provide a supportive system for ordinary work ers. Maintaining a high level of motivation to work hard requires solid support for the well-being of workers.

The Authors Dong-Ok Lee is assistant professor in integrative studies/social sci ence at Michigan State University.

Keunchul Lee is research associ ate in mechanical engineering at

Michigan State University. Jae-Jin Kim is a Ph.D. candidate in economics at Michigan State

University.

Gill-Chin Lim is endowed profes sor of geography and urban plan ning at Michigan State University.

Tension also exists between government and the auto indus

try. Public policymaking in Korea leans toward heavy regula tion and authoritarian, undemocratic decisions in general.

One of the critical tasks of the new civilian government should be to initiate needed government reform in policy ar eas

affecting the automobile industry. Moreover, as fluctua tions in the won, yen, and dollar have an immediate and profound impact on the importing and exporting of motor ve hicles and parts, and as trade barriers among nations affect the production and consumption of automobiles, the Korean government would do well to pay keen attention to macro economic issues involving trade barriers and exchange rates.

In summary, there is a strong need for Korean automakers, la

bor, and government to work together in greater harmony to


ACKNOWLEDGMENT This article is part of a larger study on the Korean automobile industry conducted under the auspices of CAMPS (Comparative and Multidis ciplinary Planning Study Group). CAMPS Group consists of scholars who study issues in transformation of societies from comparative and

multidisciplinary perspectives. Currently the group includes geog raphers, economists, automotive

engineers, computer scientists, and

planners. Gill-Chin Lim, professor of geography and urban planning, is directing the group. Dong-Ok

Lee is responsible for industrial policy, Keunchul Lee for automo tive technology, and Jae-Jin Kim for economic analysis.

develop technology, to manage more efficiently, to resolve conflicts more peacefully, and to sell more automobiles glob ally. Reorientation in thinking, reform in policies, re-engi neering in management, emphasis on development of new technologies, and realignment of the work ethic are all neces sary if Korea expects to thrive in the increasingly competitive global market. If aspects of culture have been a key to the suc cess of individual companies, then Korea would do well to develop a national ethos encouraging domestic automakers to succeed in the world market.

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Article Contentsp. 85p. 86p. 87p. 88p. 89p. 90p. 91p. 92p. 93p. 94p. 95p. 96

Issue Table of ContentsJournal of International Marketing, Vol. 4, No. 4 (1996), pp. 1-106Volume InformationFront MatterFrom the Editor in Chief [p. 3-3]Executive Summaries [pp. 5-7]International Retail Sourcing: Trend, Nature, and Process [pp. 9-33]Factors Influencing Customer Trust in Salespersons in a Developing Country [pp. 35-52]Facing Foreign Market Turbulence: Three Swedish Multinationals in Iran [pp. 53-74]Executive InsightsRoles of R&D and Manufacturing in Global Marketing Management [pp. 75-84]The Korean Automobile Industry: Challenges and Strategies in the Global Market [pp. 85-96]

Book ReviewReview: untitled [pp. 97-99]

Back Matter

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The Korean Automobile Industry - Challanges & Strategies in the Global Market_Jurnal