THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE FOR POLICY STUDIES

1991

THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF FUNDRAISING SPECIAL EVENTS

Alain ANCIAUX

INTRODUCTION

The goal of this article is to give an anthropological analysis of fundraising special events as being a key moment in the cultural pattern of a philanthropic society.

This paper is divided into four parts : the presentation of fundraising as a cultural mark of a philanthropic society, the definition and anthropological typology of fundraising special events, a field assessment of one fundraising special event organized in Baltimore in March 1991 and, finally, the quest for serendipitous effects through the looking-glass of the nonprofit sector. This overview of fundraising will be focussed on the approach of special events : both features will be only studied in voluntary, eleemosynary organizations which "are found only in democracies. Their extent and health are certain barometers of democratic values"(Brakeley, 1980 : 163).

FUNDRAISING

The government input to non-profit organizations has decreased dramatically between 1980 and 1990 increasing the effects of The President Carter's policy choice to abandon the direct-aid programs to low-income people(Smith,1980:252).

The non-profit organizations have been much interested in fundraising on their own, outside the government contracts. At the same time, it has also created a great deal of need because the cuts have been also in the public sector,in the Welfare State,and the people can not get it from the public sector where they should. Organizations developed help to feed those needs.

The governmental abdication of responsibility (increased with the Reagan administration impact) has created a greater need, has stimulated non-profit organizations who are involved in raising funds competing with each others for scant resources.

THE BACKGROUND

This idea meets the analysis of Thomas E.Broce : "The 1980s brought a new cadre of fund seekers into the marketplace : those persons whose organizations and

agencies had previously been supported almost exclusively by government"(1986:14).

In fact, fundraising is an increasing activity and the context is quite different,for example,of the 40s when Harold J.Seymour putted the stress on the "rules of the game" with such features as "money is always raised locally"(1947:16) and "private funds (...)should be confined to emergency situations for which no public funds could be found"(1947:14).

The political context can also be reviewed in a more critical way as reported by Hazen and Miller:"Trouble,self-doubt,fear,denial,and cynism characterized the American political scene" (Rabinowitz, 1990:149).

There is also the recreation of the viewpoint that the non-profit sector can do all this (to "feed the need"). The non-profit organizations can not solve the fundamental problems because those issues are linked to the capitalist model of society . There is no any escape from diresponsibility from the government who really has the only authority to redistribute income.The rich must pay more and the poor less (equitable redistribution of money) to meet the basic needs : education,health, housing....The government is not willing to do that and it is an abdication of responsibility . So, is fundraising the altered side of the Welfare State ? In a way, many activities of the non-profit organizations are putted into fundraising and one of the follow-up of the government cut backs is that they are prospecting more and more money in time in their nonprofit organizations, which means they are having less time for the program work that they need to do.It is also been a mixed thing. The nonprofit sector is at large extent apolitical in USA and there has also not been a sort of commitment to say how to do politically go back and reelect officials who go back reinstate a government for a large politic agenda.

The European viewer can be surprised by those ideas. The hypothesis could be that fundraising is a part of the North American pattern as an heritage of the first settlers who were,for example, members of strong religious communities sharing a common sense of values and redistribution(the Amish,the Mormons,the Anabaptists,the Menonites...).Not at all...fundraising seems to be a non foreseen activity as a response to governmental failures.Or, in a wider view,the return from a national solidarity to a community solidarity to be turned into fundraising by non-profit organizations.

But, in the same time, different organizations of the non-profit sector are fighting this going back movement as expressed by the advocacy appeal of the Independent Sector : "Don't allow government to transfer responsibility for the provision of human services to voluntary organizations while cutting the budgets and other support of these organizations"(1988:6).

AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PATTERN

Some think that the situation today is the result of the yesterday mistakes:"A landmark shift in the relationship between the two sectors(public and nonprofit) occured in the 1960s,when many voluntary agencies virtually backed into the more extensive use of public funds with little consideration of the consequences" (Kramer , 1980 : 68). In this case, is fundraising a poisoned gift ?

Fundraising could be the feature of a cultural an anthropological pattern situated between the Dionysiac society and the Apollonian society.

Traditionally, the Dionysiac societies or tribes unit different goods (mainly food and drinks) that they consume in a short ritual lapse of time (a day, a night, a week...).

The Apollonian societies have an opposite behavior : they try to accumulate resources without to consummate them.

Fundraising is located in the in-between. Let us say that is the trend of a Poseidon society. My idea by inventing this medium term (may be the specific characteristic of the third sector organizations) is that the money and resources can be seen as water. They must circulate and the role of non profit organizations ( not only in link with fundraising activities) is to regulate the arrival and the distribution of money.

Fundraising can be compared to the use of water by barrages : the water is important, but less than the electric energy produced by the intermediary role of the dam.

So are the nonprofit organizations specific examples of a Poseidon pattern (but this is a theoreical view and I will review in the last part of this article the case of nonprofit organizations much more Apollon or Dionysos-pattern orientated).

In this case,could it be a Poseidon cult ? It is possible to underline the role of nonprofit organizations as a new ritual framework and a holy place for the social welfare, where sacred gifts are made to expel the fears created by the social gaps in the welfare society.

Under this vision,the Holy Quest of the nonprofit sector is to advocate for social change.

But the American public is very much drifted by an individualistic sort of mentality, of values system. That is an ideology very powerful and people are very reluctant to contribute to challenging organizations aiming at social change. Most of money raised through the voluntary sector is for charitable purposes, social services,etc...

Fundraising is focussed on individual contributions, not for political purposes, but well for social aims as shown by Sandy F.Dolnick describing grass roots fundraising for diabetes. Individual contributions " are comprised and unsolicited contributions sent to the agency. The contribution may be made because someone close or the person himself may have contracted the disease "(1987 : 124).

In private giving to nonprofit organizations, individuals contributions ( mainly given to churches) play an important role as shown by the diagram of the American association of Fundraising Counsel (in millions of US $ given in 1991)(...).

This sector of contributions is charachterized by an overwhelming feature : the giver is an individual,sometimes an anonymous person ( maybe the only truth of root of philanthropy).

The example of fundraising for diabetes is a potential link with the meaning of money given for churches or, for example,during pilgrimages.

There is a double sense,quite equivocal for the giver : the money is not always given to help other people but well to prevent oneself from a specific disease ( or even from a social or economic accident).

As an anthropologist, I have spent two years in Algeria to study the beliefs and customs of a black Muslim sect. They are practising possession rituals to avoid diseases and psychosomatical sickness (1985). They try to expel the djinn or bori (the devils) from their body by giving money during the ceremony or meeting(the diwan).

What is the difference between this ritual and a gift in the framework of a fundraising activity ? None.

The individual gift is linked, sometimes to a wish or a promise, but also to the fear concerning a special disease (AIDS,diabete,cancer...).Fundraising is an appeal and the gift is a quasi religious behavior ,an exorcism of the disease or the fear of the disease. I could called it the " Bori syndrome".

As indicated by KK,"people give out of self-interest"(1988:9).

In the last ten years, there has been a small increase of the total of private giving. If we look to the total amount of money given, the change is insignificant over the twenty-five last years.

People at the whole are giving more but in some sense they are not more generous because the total amount must be seen in regards to the growth of the population.

This general context can explain various studies concerning the way to increase contributions and contributions attitudes as shown by C.Fraser and R.E.Hite (1988 and 1989) or P.Eisenberg (1983) describing the problems of the voluntary sector.

THE MARKETING AGE

Fundraising becomes a problem of marketing and resources development . Fundraising has to be seen in a methodology framework covering a list of techniques : what is the best way to raise money using the mail, what is the best way to raise money using the telephone but...all that is subsidiary to building a strong organization with a committed group of volunteers and board members and staff people. It is dificult to do fund raising effectively without having a strong organization .

Nevertheless, the use,for example, of social and economic indicators more than social development perspective is highly ambiguous : it opens the way to use market perspective and market way to think about(or even instead of) philanthropy.

So,philanthropy could be a sort of modern fable called : " The ritual giver and the market expert".

I prefer not to overextend the presentation of fundraising in terms of marketing: so many books are now focussed on that issue that I prefer to send the reader to the bibliography at the end of this report and to Salamon's studies led by the following idea : " There is also reason to expect that this growth (of the nonprofit sector) will occur through greater integration of the voluntary sector into the market economy".

Lester Salamon underlines the fact that such linkage is not a to-day discovery : " In the early 1900's, the Charities Aid Society of New York operated both a wood yard and a laundry that charged fees for their services and generated income for the organization"(1989 : 20).

I think that such wedding(between marketing and philanthropy) must be understood with the meaning of a "realistic marketing" who stays away from the political background to concentrate his efforts on the methodological aspects of fundraising (preparing a campaign, recruting volunteers, establishing the campaign structure, concluding the campaign...).

This kind of "realistic marketing" sounds a little bit Storman Norman,with a military accent,but many books about fundraising(the quasi majority) have the same color. Instead of a "realistic marketing", could it be possible to speak of a "humanistic marketing" ?

THE VALUE CHALLENGE AND THE FISCAL TRUTH

Is philanthropy a problem of values? In the USA, people have not a large discussion about what is a public good, underlining the fact that the overwhelming majority of funds for nonprofit organizations is given to the development of health care sector(The Bori syndrome).The society is moving to a two parts system(a well equipped welfare system for the rich and a bad equipped system for the poor). The breakdown of the government played a major role.

The situation is very bad because the churches and the voluntary organizations can not solve it. There is a lot of mythology and mystique in thinking about nonprofit sector can be the way to solve it and that doing intensive fundraising is going to solve the problems in this country .

So,fundraising could be a way to avoid a discussion on values ?

Is this a wrong way implemented and intensified by the public bodies involving nonprofit organizations in a devolution process to avoid a more radical way of advocacy or complaint ?

In this sense, fundraising could be seen as a political placebo.And, at this point of analysis, it is interesting to view Salamon's advice concerning the future of fundraising when he puts the stress on " the tendency of voluntary organizations and their benefactors to focus on particular subgroups of the population " and the fact that such subgroups (ethnic,religious, neighborhood...)can join for common purposes(1987 :40); this view is not so far from Perlmutter's approach of federated fundraising(1988).

Is it a tendance of voluntary organizations, a political marketing strategy or nonprofit organizations addicted to this mirage of networking in the name of the state interests?

This implies to change the state mark from "welfare state" to "desintegrated state".

Speaking of values, S.Wenocur wrote that " charity as a value has been demeaned in this society with the ascendance of the concept of legal entitlement. The loss of a charitable base for welfare has resulted in corresponding loss of flexibility in the provision of social protection"(1980: 500).

Speaking of philanthropy includes now more inferences on marketing, disclosure, accountability and taxes. We came from a "charitable charity" to a "controlled charity". It gives a full sense to Gross and Warshaver's approach of financial and accounting measures for nonprofit organizations(1979)when they put the stress on the "safeguard of the organization's assets' and the "internal control" as defined by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants(1983 : 359). This remark is

not only linked to specific NPOs (as universities, hospitals...)but well to all kind of NPOs,included the charitable societies and others. In this view, it is not surprising to find the more precise definition of fundraising,not in a book concerning humanistic values or purposes, but well in the publications of the Department of the Treasury : "Special fundraising events are activities,such as dinners,dances, carnivals, raffles, bingo game,and door-to-door sales of merchandise.(...) Their sole or primary purpose is to raise funds (other than contributions) to finance the organization's exempt activities. This is done by offering goods or services of more than nominal value (compared to the price charged) in charge for a payment higher than the direct cost of goods or services provided"(1989 : 8).

Fundraising is a market place occupied by special fundraising events,but also by grants,bequest,fees and government support. The expression "charitable organization" has not really a philanthropic sense but well a fiscal meaning: "one of the byproducts of the fiscal stress and uncertainty of the 1980s has been a pervasive preoccupation with fundraising among nonprofit organizations. Two-third of Baltimore's nonprofit indicated (in a survey) that they were having to devote a "much larger share" of their resources to fundraising than previously.Inevitably, other aspects of agency management have consequently have to suffer" (Salamon/Altschuler/Myllyluoma,1990:13). The answer to this "fiscal stress" could come from other paths as, for example, a partnership between the corporate sector and the third sector to create a complementary synergy between the different private sources of income(commercial and non commercial) and a public support in regards to the fact that fundraising is " often described as the most sophisticated of all forms of public relations" (Broce,1986:27).

However, I would prefer to understand that fundraising is at the moment the mark of an intermediary period before to enter the challenge of a post industrialized society with the joint issue of the basic needs and new unmaterial needs that money could not completely fulfilled. It still remains an heritage of the industrial age pattern and the main question could be how to forecast the kind of dominant pattern in the next period.

SPECIAL EVENTS

In a general sense,"a special event recognizes a unique moment in time with ceremony and ritual to satisfy specific people"(Goldblatt,1990:2).

The National Society of Fund Raising Executives gives the following definition of "special events" : "a fundraising function designed to attract and involve large number of people for the purpose of raising money and / or cultivating prospective donors"(1986:93-94).

Before the Gulf War, there was the beginning of a movement to try to talk about peace dividend. With the changes in Eastern Europe and the good relations with

Soviet Union, it was the time to pay attention to the needs at home...less in weapons and army. Organizations began to talk about the transformation into a peace time economy,changing jobs moving from the Defense to more productive tasks. But the federal deficit is increased and there is no place any more for the peace dividend.There will be an increasing federal deficit and an increased pressure to cut social programs. That may generate a social movement more responsible for a much more progressive tax system and to create jobs.

SPECIAL EVENT AND SPECIAL EVENTS : THE INTEGRATED TWINS

A "special event" can be defined as an extraordinary item producing data which " explain or predict pattern interruptions in the time series data of an organization's performance measures"(Gorr,1986 : 532). It is the case,for example, of a flood, a strike,a demographic change(rate of birth),heavy competition coming from another organization,to take as examples large or extented size special events.

A special event is generally speaking unforeseen and can create some troubles the organization.

Speaking of "fundraising special events" has another meaning as underlined by Joan Flanagan : "special events are simply occasions that allow your members to ask other people for money"(1982:141).

In the global sense, a special event is the most part of the time unwanted and negative (but it can also be happy and constructive). In the restricted sense, special events are organized on a voluntary basis and are planned to create a positive impact.

I have to put the stress on the fact that special events organized by third sector groups are an integrated process of both meaning(an unforseen "special" activity for the public and a planified "event" for the organizers). According to Brian O'Connell, " special events are probably the most ubiquitous of America's fund raising efforts. Special events are going on almost all the time and almost everywhere. Those events involve balls, bake sales, golf tournaments, walk-a-thons, an almost endless list of projects" (1987 : 14).This view can be completed by Seltzer's approach : "A special event is a specific occasion that a nonprofit organization plans and carries to attract publicity, to gain new members,to educate the public, and to make money " (1987:147).

After this first approach, let us try to understand the role of fundraising events under three points of view : the global sense of the rupture of the daily continuum (putting the stress on the word "special"), the methodological approach (the "event") and the impact of special events (fundraising and so on) .

THE RUPTURE

The global sense of the rupture of the daily continuum gives special event a full meaning for the target group.A special event is something unusual, a kind of rupture of time and/or space.It is the case, for example, of a dance-a-thon (rupture of time) or a walk-a-thon(rupture of space).

This dimension could be reviewed under operators proposed by Henry Lefebvre or Marcuse (the unidimensional man facing a multisided event)or even by Levi-Strauss(1984) analysis of relation between the event and the society structures. But I prefer to focus on the specific sense of those special events as seen through the study of Roger Caillois on games and people(1958). It gives me an opportunity to introduce an attempt typology of special events, to rate and rank them under the four patterns presented by Caillois to classify the games : the alea, the agon, the mimicry and the ilinx.

According to Caillois, the "agon" means the competition and the capability; the "alea" defines chance and hazard ; the "mimicry" is an open window on illusion and the "ilinx" is the sign of vertigo and delight(1958:66).

It is possible to classify a sample of various fundraising special event(...) in linkage with those four categories, underlining the fact that sometimes one event can be seen as belonging to more than one category(...).

This is an attempt to overstimulate the senses by the representation of collective consumption leading to a quasi religious,symbolic and Freudian consummation with the idea structuring the event and to the sacrificial gift (to give money to fulfill the fundraising objective of the event).The money given is a way to recover the purity after the impure act (in the case of fundraising special events, the social gaps)as demonstrated by Mary Douglas(1970).

The barbecue is seen in the same view of collective consumption leading to the vertigo or induction of collective values by the way of overstimulation (the fire, the meat, the noise,the colors...). This idea have been studied not only by ethnologists as Bastide (the Haitian vaudou) but also by sociologists as Roland Barthes(1957) and Elias Canetti(1962)trying to understand collective behaviors in the modern world as the follow-up of old rituals and classic patterns. All the events linked to music, theater and movie are classified in the mimicry category because they bring their weight of illusion and fiction. This sorting is also linked to the conference, as special event, as a one-man(or woman)-show opened on "activity,imagination, interpretation" (Caillois, 1958:48).

This analysis leads to the idea that the best possible event could be the one classified in the same time in the four categories. This is the case,for example, of a

three-days fair with various activities (auction, bingo,walk-a-thon and ball). It can be the more complete (in the framework of creation a rupture in the day-to-day continuum) but may be not the more appropriate to the expected results of the fundraising objective.

It is not always easy to classify special events because many types of activities can be defined by the organizations as "special events".101 activities are described by Sterret(1979) and 104 by Pearson(1982).It can be,for example, car wash, dog wash, Daffodil Day, trout fishing contest and so on (Desoto,1983 :66-74). It is also useful to indicate that other typologies have been proposed as the time-length typology with a short,medium or long time of preparation (Flanagan,1981) or the distinction made by Brody and Goodman between the communitywide events ( fairs , shows and exhibits ) , the competition event (contests,games,pledge events,sport competition...),entertainment events(special performances, professional sponsorship,local production as variety shows,musical and plays),gala events (auction, benefits, dinner) and gambling events (bingo games,casino nights,night at the races...) (1988).

This last typology is not so far from Caillois games approach.

THE METHODOLOGY

Organizations are learning more and more fundraising technologies which are using space advertising (direct mail, telemarketing, face-to-face,...).More and more organizations are doing phone-a-thon . The direct mail comes to the same issue. What organizations intend to do from a marketing perspective is to distinguish their fundraising appeals from other organizations. Special events are in the same time included in the comprehensive methodology of fundraising and linked to specific technics at the border of marketing, show business and animation and networking(a special event can be organized in a joint venture project)(Pritchard,1984:13).

The most part of the literature concerning fundraising special events presents the methodological background and the techniques. It is the case,for example, of Grub's checklist presenting tasks to be performed when preparing, for example, a walk-a-thon type event(1977 :39). This list is a good example of the organizational framework of a fundraising special event. However, two steps are weakly represented : a comprehensive feasibility study and the evaluation process (post evaluation). The fact to estimate time requirements, manpower and finances does not imply that the special event is the good or the best answer to the pursued objectives. It could be useful to include in the pre-event analysis the definition of objectives and the feasibility study.

At this point of view, the meeting organized by the Maryland Chapter of the National Society of Fundraising Executives on February 21,1991 in Baltimore is very indicative of this failure in the field of assessment and impact study.

Starr Clay, consultant associated with the Sheridan Group (fund raising strategies for non profit organizations), asked, in the opening of her lecture, how many organizations had used a feasibility study : seven hands raised (on forty representatives of organizations,with an important representation of development directors). Presenting the potential benefit of a feasibility study, she underlined the following advantages : market assessment, good look at the image of the institution, funding priorities, regards to public opinion, estimation of the achievable goals, assessment of the appropriate timing, potential of volunteers motivations and preliminary organizational plan. However, the feasibility study of fundraising special events do not cover all the risks as indicated on the leaflet of the Sheridan Foundation : "Organizations frequently expect more from a study than is possible or even relevant(...) However, the study (as some organizations expect) cannot delivered a carved-in-stone campaign calendar, because events and circumstances often recommend changes as the campaign progresses" (Cover,1991:1).

THE IMPACT

This open door on impact assessment is fostered by Brian O'Connell approach taking in account the fact that the nonprofit organizations " can learn a great deal from business about management, bottom-line discipline, people development, evaluation of results,and much more"(1988:10), but,quoting Cecily Selby, that "in using the term nonprofit, which refers to a financial balance sheet only, perhaps we obscure the essence of this sector of our society, which is indeed to be profitable to citizens, business and government-to benefit its constituents, its clients, and its employees"(1988:13). Here we are...in the middle of the problematic : the reference to "nonprofit" is not only an utopia(in regard,for example, to the social profit),but also a twilight zone covering a broad range of organizations' aims. Ad absurdo, it is possible to say that all the results of fundraising activities are "profit focussed". If it is not, all the results are forbidden or illegal effects because the organization can not make any profit at all.

This quasi semantic problem could be erased by the following exposition : third sector organizations are not lucre orientated(to "make money") but well profit orientated (material and immaterial advantages collected, for example,by fundraising special events but not focussed on a financial redistribution of dividends to the members). The view of Drotning is similar :"In theory,and in the eyes of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), your group is a nonprofit organization but that's only because none of your members receive personal financial benefit from any of the funds you collect.In practice your fund-raising events must be for-profit all the way"(1971:90).

In fact, the financial input of fundraising special events is weak in regard to the other nonprofit revenues as shown by the Salamon/Altschuler and Myllyluoma figure concerning the Baltimore area (...)(1990:5).

The fundraising special events are not mainly (or ever organized) to collect directly money ,not because of the "non profit" profile, but well for strategic purposes.The fundraising special event helps to occupy some public space ,where you can speak about your issue and your cause and you can connect people together. It is also possible to loose money with a special event as Kim Klein observes : "Raising money is the last goal for a special event because there are many more effective ways simply to raise money than this one. In many cases special events can loose money or barely break even and still be successful because of the publicity and visibility they produced"(1985:146).

Some unwanted effects of fundraising special events can be the results of a twilight zone concerning the "non profit" status and the role of money as soil or indirect objective of such events : it can be also the results of different "mistakes" as reviewed by Schneiter and Nelson. They have listed the thirteen most common mistakes concerning special events : doing everything but asking ; thinking that fundraising is for fund raisers only ; plunging in with one foot ; disregarding prospect research and record keeping ; forgetting to concentrate on individual prospects; overlooking past donors ; putting too much faith-and money-into brochures, folders,pamphlets..;promising "the world" by Friday at the latest(defensive position); refusing to recognize factors beyond your control ; ignoring sophisticated tax-saving incentives ; keeping too many secrets ; looking upon your work as a job rather than a cause (1982).

A FIELD ASSESSMENT

I have participated to THE EVENT (for the Hungry,the Cold and the Homeless) organized on March the 7th 1991 at the Baltimore Grand.The proceeds of this event benefit to Our Daily Bread,At Jacob's Well(an organization with a small budget) and Action For the Homeless.I would like to scan this event at the organizational and at the life appearance point of view with different informations given by Debra Hettleman,The Event's President.The Event is a four years old organization busy with an annual event.This year event has been organized by an event specialist, Barbara Harris and an advisory board with an important amount of donations coming from the corporate sector(Baltimore Gas & Electric,Johnson & Higgins,Marsh & McLennan,Pepsi-Cola Company,the Porter Group, Struever Brothers Eccles & Rouse and Townson town Rotary Club),from foundations(The Fullwood Foundation,Loyola Federal Foundation and Morris A.Mechanic Foundation),for catering(The Grand Cateriers-a division of Fiske Catering),for food donations (Barron's,Buffalo Bill's,Chi Chi's,Farm Fresh Produce,Foell's Brothers Meats,Garden Produce,Herlings Grocery,Hubers,H&S Bakery,Heavenly Ham,Hoopers Island Seafood,Horn & Horn Cafeterias,Kaspar Classic Desserts,Lefty's Produce,Mars Supermarkets, Muhly's bakery,Oven Door,Safeway,Utz Potato Chips and Waskey's Meats)and other donations(Armstrongs Signs,Associated Printers,Baltimore Color Plate,Central Delivery Service,Distribution Postal Consultants,Mr. & Mrs.Gary Howe,Mary

Mervis,Richard Ophre Auctioneering,The Paper Warehouse,Ed Early Printing Company,Brian Sweeney,Taylor Rental and The Weant Press)with the support of various other organizations (The Baltimore Junior Association of Commerce,Lori Milecki, Progressive Networks,The Lexington Market and Splastix Comedy Club).This long and comprehensive list of groups gives an idea of the time to be spent to obtain their participation to the event.

THE EVENT has been going from 6.00 PM to 10.00 PM with the following programme:

6.00 PM-7.00 PM : dance music-GAZZE

7.00 PM-7.30 PM : Splastix Comedians

7.30 PM-7.45 PM : slide show & Unity Song

7.45 PM-8.00 PM : Live auction

8.00 PM-9.00 PM : dance music-GAZZE

Off stage,other activities were running all the evening long : a palm reader,a Tarot Card Reader,Mae West-Jennifer Middaugh,a juggler,a Banjo Man and a silent auction.The most important object of the evening was a metal bowl located on a table in front of the main entrance.Each participant to the event had to fill out a paper with his name and address and to put it in the bowl to get a chance to be the winner of a free of charge lottery.This is the key object of the evening because it gives the organizers a list of participants,or in a strategic perspective,a list of actual and potential donors.

The direct revenue comes from the tickets($25 in advance and $30 at the door),from the silent auction and from the live auction.

The live auction items and final offers were :

-a brunch with Governor Schaffer at Harvey's($150);

-dinner with Brooks Robinson at Sisson's and an autographed picture($140);

-Blast soccer ball($100);

-"The Grand" T-shirt & poster signed by the cast from the Mechanic Theatre($20);

-Pam Shriver-autographed tournament picture($25);

-U.S.,airline tickets($650);

-Florida-West Palm Beach-4 days,3 nights($400);

-Capital Hill U.S.Flag($110).

It gives a total of $1595.

I have not the results of silent auction but I can spell out examples of items: dinner for two at Bertha's Mussels and two movie passes;Gloria Brennan's salon-hair cut an styling;Maryland Science Center and movie passes for two;Baltimore Symphony Orchestra/Dinner at Brass Elephant for two;Center Stage/City Lights-theatre tickets and dinner for four;secure parking-1 year of covered parking at all locations,etc.With the money collected,The Event can help three small-income organizations with a grant of $ 500 or 700 to be sure that this gift will really impact the organisation's activities.

This fundraising special event is a good example to be ranked in the typology I have exposed in figure 2 (agon,alea,ilinx and mimicry) because we can see this specific event as sharing the qualities of different categories: AGON(competitions,capability): auction and silent auction;ALEA (chance, hazard) : lottery; ILINX(delight,vertigo): dance(reinforced by a collective dance managed by the entertainer to accompany the Unity Song,and,later,by a collective Slide dance giving a vertigo through the harmony of the same gesture); MIMICRY(illusion,interpretation): fancy dress(Mae West and Banjo Man)and a giant red bird(the Orioles'mascot).The special event goes across the four different categories and appears,in this sense, to be the more complete (but may be not the more powerful in regards to the objectives of the event)to procure the participants a potential overstimulation reinforced,for example, by the slide show focussed on poor, homeless and hungry adults and children(a good example of halo effect). It is clear that this fundraising special event is supported by communication and information technics : leaflets,slides,Unity Song,a Governor Schaeffer short but incisive appearance and speech on the problems linked to the cuts of the social budgets,but also with a certain number of lacks. For example,no document concerning the beneficiaries(Daily Bread,At Jacobs'Well and Action for the Homeless)was available on the location of the event.No member of the organizing team was taking photos of the event(one volunteer came to me and asked me my adress-I was taking a lot of photos- because she remarked that nobody from the organization was in charge of this task).It was also possible to stay there all the evening long without to hear about those organizations,no volunteers or full paied workers seeming to go from one table to one another to speak with the participants . But,in a way,this behavior may be a strategy from the event advisory board only putting the stress on the collected addresses.

THE UTOPIA PROFILE

Somewhere,each fundraising special event has a utopia profile: it is in the same time a place characterized by the overstimulation,as in the example of the Event organized for the Hungry,the Poor and the Homeless but also an utopia in the sense given by Erasmus ("nusquama"=nowhere). The Event is no more located in center Baltimore,but well in a medieval fair as yet quoted from Flanagan's analysis(1982: 217). But,in the same time,the event is organized for the Hungry,the Poor and the Homeless.Its sounds like the "Miracle court"in medieval Paris(with the ghosts of Esmeralda-acted in the Event by Mae West-and Quasimodo-acted in the Event by the juggler or tumbler,not round-shouldered but well short-sighted...and very sympathetic).

An utopia also because the Hungry,the Poor and the Homeless were not the actors of the Event(it was for them and not with or by them).The utopia is a kind of "true solidarity between people", but also a "perpetual renewal" because the people at the event are different from the people at another event.The common denominator is the will to "reach a common goal" as specified by Martin Buber in Pfade in Utopia(Misrahi,1968 : 179). It is no more the Beggars Banquet but well a banquet for the "beggars". It is an utopia because the objectives of the fundraising event are not the goals underlined by the event.

There is a kind of distortion between the objectives and the goals : the objectives are to be reached by the organizers (to collect money, for example) and,in the same time,the goals are addressed to the participants(for example,to struggle against hunger,poverty and homelesness)with the drinks and the food used as a system of communication(Douglas,1982:82-124). This process is not so far from the Muhlman effect quoted by Authier and Hess(1981): this effect leads people to build a social product(for example,an organization or a social movement ) on the basis of the failure of a prophecy. This kind of process has been acted in medieval times between the 5th and the 15teen centuries as explained in Norman Cohn's book on the pursuit of millennium(1957).It has led,for example,to the creation of anarcho-communism in Bohemia,to the egalitarian millennium of Anabaptists and to the Taborite movement.

 

Those utopia(and many others...)were appearing in countries affected by important socio-economic problems: "In all the over-populated, highly urbanized and industrialized areas there were multitudes of people living on the margin of society,in a state of chronic insecurity"(Cohn,1957: 28)."When population was increasing, industrialization was getting under way, traditional social bonds were being weakened or shattered and the gap between rich and poor was becoming a chasm"(Cohn,1957: 31-32).This socio-economic situation was an open door to

messianic movements with the appearance of public health catastrophes,for example the Black Death in Europe in 1348. History is a never-ending story and we know at the moment a socio-economic situation and a public health event(AIDS) creating the same kind of framework in which many nonprofit organizations(and,it is not a surprize by the light of history,many churches)are playing the same game as various medieval messianic movements bringing in the USA a part of the philantropy pattern (Wuthnow/ Hodgkinson,1990)putting the stress on an "egalitarian millenium" through fundraising special events. Their message is,in a global view,the will to suppress the hunger,the poverty and homelessness.But this goal remains the unreachable Don Quichotte's star and the result is the focussing on philanthropy (Muhlman effect), or,in other words, to help people without to act to suppress the social gaps.

THROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS OF THE NONPROFIT SECTOR

An alternative way to assess nonprofit organizations is the search for bad or good serendipitous effects (unforeseen effects) as being a part of the twilight zone of the organization profile because they are marked by a certain invisibility of evaluation: they are a part of the organization life and results but they are not or less assessed or sometimes unknown or unperceived (a kind of phenotypic lag effect)(King,1978 : 221). Each organization could be charachterized by a twilight code being in the same time a mark of the results of his own life (the effect of strategies) and the impact of contextual variables.

According to Grasty and Sheinkopf,"why do some (special events) succeed and others fail ? In most instances, it is simply a matter of ignoring a number of important factors that are essential to success"(1982 : 157).

It is an analogy with the RNA (ribonucleic acid) code of human being.Each person has his own genetic constitution but the influence of the environment creates symbiotic positive or negative results. The genetic code written in the RNA is the result of the interlinkages between amino-acids(alanine,valine,cysteine...).

Let us imagine that each organization owns his "RNA code" made of different inner dynamic items : the strategies. Serendipitous effects could be the result of an interlinkage or crash between this inner code and contextual variables(or ecofactors). Those effects are a part of the twilight process (the unforeseen and/or the unconscious) and the "symptoms" of a grey dynamic in the organization life impacted by a serendipity process.

SERENDIPITY

Christoforo Armeno,in his book "Peregrinaggio di tre giovani, figliuoli del Re di Serendippo", told us the story of three princes discovering things they were not in quest for(1557). For instance,the three princes,by use of a magic mirror,helped the

Queen of India prevent further destruction by a mysterious "hand" that daily appeared in the sky and grasped a man,repeating this action day after day.When the mirror approached the Hand,a steer or a horse was grasped instead of a man. Horace Walpole,the eighteenth-century English author,had read this story and created the word "serendipity" in a letter to Horace Mann of January,28,1754.

Other new words are also attributed as Walpole inventiveness as "triptology" (the habit of repeating the same thing thrice) and "sharawadgi" (the beauty to be found in an unintentionally picturesque arrangement of apparently irreconcilable features) (Remer,T.G.1965:25).

The definition of "serendipity" as prescribed by Walpole is : "a gift for discovery by accident and sagacity of things not sought for" (1965:6/29). The definition of this term vary in dictionaries using terms as "ability","valuable","happy accident","accidental discovery".According to Walople's definition of "serendipity", they do not cover the full meaning of the term including six items:the gift,the discovery,the accident,the sagacity,the things and the non search. For example,Robert K.Merton's approach of the serendipity pattern is incomplete and defective,because "new but "unwanted" inventions" or "new unanticipated facts" just take in account some of the six items.He put the stress more on the results and the discovery than on the gift(1973:44). This lack is also underlined by T.G.Remer(1965:31). Robert K.Merton's approach is influenced in a way by Znaniecki's analysis of the potential explorer role of the researcher looking for discovering "unexpected new facts"(1940:172). A good example of this meaning of serendipitous effect is Marie Curie's discovery of radium. A recent presentation of social research partly creates a link between the serendipity pattern (the accidental root) and the Hawthorne effect (Roethlisberger/ Dickson,1939)to give an introducing way to the awareness of the experimenter effect affecting "the results" of the research "in many ways that are not unique to experimentation " (Mc Allister,1988 :189). Roberts extends the use of the term by speaking of " pseudoserendipity to describe accidental discoveries of ways to achieve an end sought for"(1989:X).

In the framework of this research, I define "serendipity" as the appearance by strategies and / or ecofactors impact of unforeseen results.

THE SERENDIPITOUS EFFECTS OF FUNDRAISING SPECIAL EVENTS

Regarding to fundraising special events, Brody's approach of objectives will lead my analysis.He takes in account one financial objective (income) and four nonfinancial objectives(to increase the quantity and quality of volunteers participation ; to increase membership ; to increase the visibility of the organization in the medias and to increase goodwill towards the organization from the community)(1988:30-32). All the other results obtained by an organization through special events are serendipitous effects.

Let us take four examples to illustrate this topic (those examples are just abstracts of a wider impact assessment study I have operated in Baltimore from February to May 1991) .

Southeast Community Organization, an agency of United Way community services focussed on community organization, has stopped to do very grassroots fundraising. In that framework, they have also reinforced their efforts more on professionalized people in their own organization and not on unskilled volunteers. This is a serendipitous effect (a negative unwanted result).More precisely, this is a Basaglia effect (Authier/Hess,1981:59) : the fundraising special event has rejected or at least marginalized different persons or groups of persons.

Meals On Wheels of Central Maryland provides a daily contact to homebound persons. They have organized a balloon ascension to collect money.A group of volunteers, who were environmentalist, were upset because the environmental impact of balloon ascension. This is a serendipitous effect. More precisely, this is an aggressive effect (the fundraising event has created an aggressive reaction from different persons).

The Maryland Food Committee is a nonprofit advocacy organization helping to feed people in crisis in communities throughout the State. Some persons promised to give them the prizes obtained in radio and TV-contests. One year,under that process, this association received a car and a trip for the Bahamas. This is a unhoped positive serendipitous effect.More precisely, this is a Wheel of Fortune effect (the fundraising efforts of the organization have been impacted by an unusual an unpredictible factor).

Action for the Homeless is doing advocacy efforts concentrated on needed public policy changes and local and state support for emergency and traditionnal services for homeless citizens. They have a staff person who travels around the State to organize local coalitions on the issue of homelessness. They have recently remarked that the success of various fundraising special events have facilitated that birth process. This is a serendipitous effect. More precisely, this is a snowball effect(De Landsheere,1979) : the fundraising special events are successfull and give the birth to other entities or branches of the organization.

Those different happy or unhappy serendipitous results have to be taken in account in impact assessment studies to foster therafter in the feasibility studies the quest for "missed opportunities"(Kohn,1989:1)and to try to avoid the growth of bad unwanted effects. It is possible to consider that unhoped good serendipitous effects are a happy result of a bad planning and that unwanted bad serendipitous effects are a bad result of a difficult planning (the incertitude of action process and society).

Some of the serendipitous effects are produced by the inter-impact of strategies and contextual factors(or ecofactors) with a problem of analysis linked to a possible causal loop between those different features(Weick,1979:77).

THE SERENDIPITY PRINCIPLES

Different principles help to understand the way serendipitous effects appear.All of them are linked to the impact, at least, of one of those serendipity principles or different serendipity principles, sometimes with a domino effect when one serendipity principle pushes one or various others serendipity principles impacts.

Those serendipity principles are the ecosystemic principle (the results of one organization activity are impacted by external factors as the time, the space, the actors, the economy...), the neguentropy principle(each event carries a lot of non expressed values sometimes in linkage with the long-term goals of the organization or meets a lot of disturbances linked to some communication dysfunctions in the association), the synergy principle(the contacts between a nonprofit organization and another association, a private firm or public services create serendipitous effects by the meeting and the crossing of complementary or opposite objectives) and the idiosyncrasic principle(each person has his own cultural patterns and free spaces translated in non expressed strategies impacting the results of the activity). The analysis of different serendipitous effects shows the following trends : the ecosystemic principle plays the main role when external factors(contextual factors or ecofactors) are dominant, the neguentropy principle when internal factors are prevalent, the synergy principle when the action is the fact of various groups and the idiosyncrasic principle when individual behaviours and strategies are determinant.

To illustrate those principles, let us take four example focussed on the former assessed organizations.

In the case of the Maryland Food Committee, different organizations busy with the creation or the management of soup kitchen and pantries are coming those last years to ask for seed money or grants.This fact is due to outside circumstances, mainly the bad economic situation with a tremendous growing of the poor population and the lack of money coming from the public services and institutions.This serendipitous effect is called hypnotic effect because the money given by this organization breaks or cuts the initiative will of action of small associations. The case would be very different in the appearance of very improved economic conditions allowing small associations to organize their own fundraising special events or other ways to collect money. As a matter of fact, the main problem creating this serendipitous effect is not inside the giving organizations or the receiving association, but well at the level of the global society as a mark of the ecosystemic principle. In a sense, the only way to create a weakening of this negative effect would be to advocate and to obtain an global economic change.

In the case of Southeast Community Organization, they have discovered an unknown problem during the preparation of different fundraising special events. The board of directors has realized that there was the need to educate themselves about how to do fundraising. It has lead them to set up an advisory group on fundraising purposes. This serendipitous effect is called analyzer effect: the fundraising special event has revealed unknown problems in the organization.It is well the result of a dysfunction in the association, a lack of education of the directors concerning fundraising : this effect is linked to the neguentropy principle (the best way to correct this negative effect is to bring new informations into the organization).

In the case of Action for the Homeless, they are used to fundraise one time a year with a base-ball team(the Orioles) and a local TV-station. To make on the air the public aware of the problem of homelessness in Maryland, Action for the Homeless has just short spots in-between the base-ball games and commercials.So, it is impossible to give the overall global picture of the problematic of homelessness and poverty. This serendipitous effect is called pan and scan effect : the organizers have stressed the point on a specific theme and the viewers have not a comprehensive presentation of the problematic. This serendipitous effect is the result of a divergence of objectives between Action for the Homeless ans the TV-station.It is an intersystemic process between the philanthropic objective of the first one and the economic objective of the second one(to increase the viability of the TV-station through a wider public audience and, consequentially, new commercials paid by firms of the corporate sectors). The bad effects due to the synergy principle have to be corrected by a complementary information action only driven by the philanthropic association.

In the case of Meals on Wheels of Central Maryland, they were organizing a bowl-a-thon for fundraising purposes. In May 1991, after the failure of such event in Towson, they decided to give up with this variety of special events because the public was overloaded with such activity.

This serendipitous effect is called overdose effect(the special event leads to low results because the public is overloaded by this type of activity).

Maybe another fact has deeply modified the possible results of the bowl-a-thon organized on March 9 at the Towson Fairlanes for an event called "Strike-Out-Hunger". Some weeks before this event, a large advertising board were fixed on one of the main wall over the lanes but this board has disappeared a few days before this event. I do not want to affirm that this disappearance is the main cause of the failure of this event.But this fact has probably had a certain impact on that failure.This action is linked to the private behaviour(or strategy) of one person working in this game hall.It is well the result of a process linked to the idiosyncrasic principle fostered by the individual behaviors of potential but absent players.

AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF SERENDIPITY

This way to asses and to analyze serendipitous effects opens the door to different key questions in regards to the study of the nonprofit sector. This topic of research takes in account fundamental and applied sides by using an innovative process (the quest for serendipitous effects) not yet fully covered by the validity an reliability marks of a well established technic of research. But, in a sense, "sometimes less rigorous evaluation approaches may yield equally satisfactory results as the more scientific ones" (Sumariwalla/Taylor, 1991: 80).

Furthermore, a main question remains unanswered : are serendipitous effects the specific mark of nonprofit organizations ? Certainly not but I can advance the following hypothesis : the nonprofit sector is an important producer of serendipitous effects through this innovative, alternative and experimental sides. In regards to the nonprofit sector, the corporate sector and the public sector know serendipitous effects, but with a better potential assessment of the effects linked to the economic and political purposes to be reached. Forever, the nonprofit sector will remain an experimental field more difficult to scan because of the social purposes(less easy to define and to assess). The nonprofit sector is the main guardian of the civil society as an intermediary place between the "lonely crowd" and well institutionalized bodies as commercial firms or public departments.This postulate reinforces the view of the nonprofit sector as the owner of a Poseidon pattern,not only to regulate the arrival and the distribution of money and services(in a way, this activity and the total amount of money collected is very weak in comparison to the profit and the public sectors)but mainly to regulate the socialization of citizens. The nonprofit sector offers "crossing rituals" through different activities and special events as quoted by Van Gennep(De Heusch,1979:246). Those "crossing rituals" are a path between the unorganized society(the loneliness or the unformal convivial networks, for example, between neighbors)and the formal society(the corporate and the public sectors). An undirect question appears : is really the nonprofit sector and "intermediary social laboratory" or a potential alternative to the public or the corporate sectors ? In a sense, the ideological option aiming to defend the role of the nonprofit sector as a "potential alternative" is really linked to the decreasing of negative serendipitous effects and to the translation in objectives of positive happy and unforeseen serendipitous effects.

This view opens a tremendous issue concerning the nonprofit sector : to become a potential alternative, the nonprofit sector would have to build a better control on the serendipitous effects. But I can suppose that those serendipitous effects are mainly linked to the innovative,alternative and experimental side of those groups.The best way would be to quit this specificity. But, in that process, the nonprofit sector would loose his mark of specificity and positive originality by acquiring an institutional behaviour and management closer, for example, to the corporate sector. A better management of serendipitous effects would not be the

disappearance or a way to fully escape to serendipitous effects because maybe the main function of nonproti organizations is to create (unconsciously) serendipitous effects to explore new ways through the looking glass of society

It is even now possible to distinguish in the nonprofit sector organizations linked to one of the following patterns:

-the Poseidon pattern : it is the case of organizations focussed on the socialization of citizens with different social welfare objectives concerning non members(the unemployed, the poor, the homeless,the inhabitant, the neighbor...). Those organizations are "social laboratories" open to innovative, alternative and experimental paths with the production of a large number of happy or unhappy serendipitous effects.But, in a way, they are trying (unconsciously)to foster the appearance of happy serendipitous effects to the non members(mainly if they are marginalized or underprivileged);

-the Dionysiac pattern : it is the case of organizations focussed on material or unmaterial avantages for their members only without any social welfare objectives for non members.It is the case, for example, of various sportive, leisure and recreative associations.They are "closed laboratories" (inner innovation and experimentation) trying to manage happy serendipitous effects when they touched their members but not interested at all by negative serendipitous effects touching people outside of their organization(even if those bad effects have been produced by their own activities);

-the Apollonian patern : it is the case of organizations focussed on a (conscious or unconscious) monopolistic and/or imperialistic coverage of a certain range of activities or people.They can become old-fashion (closed to innovation and experimentation) and touched by ultra-conservatist behaviours. They are "institutionalized laboratories" and they see negative or positive serendipitous effects as a mean to foster their role. For example, they may use negative serendipitous effects as a reason for expelling too dynamic members or for cutting their relations with one of their branches moving too fast or too far.In the case of happy and positive serendipitous effects, even produced by a branche, by another association receiving subsidiaries or resources from them or by a partner(but smaller) organization, they always try to capture the social and economic benefits of those effects to foster their power and leadership.

Those basics patterns could charachterized many nonprofit organizations, but it could be also possible to find nonprofit organizations touched by two mixed patterns or trends(a Poseidon-Apollonian association or a Dionysiac-Apollonian association) or even to define other secondary patterns as the Hades pattern(nonprofit organizations focussed on lucre despite of the legal requirements), the Athena pattern(nonprofit organizations focussed on cultural or scientific activities), the Hermes pattern(nonprofit organizations focussed on

information),etc. Each of those secundary patterns is linked to the production of specific serendipitous effects.

Without any inferences coming from field surveys trying to demonstrate and/or to reinforce this new anthropological ranking and scaning of nonprofit organizations, I prefer not to quote examples for each pattern but I am sure that the reader aware of the every day life of the nonprofit sector will put very precise names under those different patterns.

CONCLUSION

This anthropological approach of fundraising special events has tried to create a link between evaluation research, impact assessment and the nonprofit sector through applied anthropology(J.Van Willigen,1986). The philanthropic answer qualifies nonprofit organizations such as charities an support networks using fundraising special events and sharing a common denominator appearing as a watermark : the will to replace man in the center of society, to sustain or to give him back his role of social actor within a democratic context and, especially, to enable everyone to exert one's skills within more inter-dependent community.

In this landscape, the anthropological approach of fundraising special events could help to understand that the nonprofit sector is not a "social immuable framework but well a never-ending renewal" as quoted by Martin Buber in his Paths of Utopia(Misrahi,1968:179).

NOTES

1.I thank the following persons for their information support : Stanley Wenocur(associate professor.School of social work.University of Maryland);David Kandel(private consultant); Robert Giloth(executive director.Southeast Community Organization);Fay Carey (development director),Nellie Jones(supervisor) and Nancy Allchin (volunteer) (Meals On Wheels of Central Maryland);Gina Wilson(director of development.Maryland Food Committee);Bill Hearn(development director) and Cathy Lyness (coordinator of special events)(Action for the Homeless);Debra Hettleman( president.The Event);Sue Dagurt(American Hearth Association);Dick Cook(National Institute against prejudice and violence);Tricia Rubacky(fundraising consultant and trainer) and Andrea Krupp(Partners for Giving).

2.This survey on fundraising has been done in Baltimore from February to May 1991(Senior fellowship in philanthropy award.Institute for policy studies.Johns Hopkins University).

3.Cfr.A.Anciaux.1991."The serendipitous effects of fundraising special events.An applied anthropology pilot study".The Johns Hopkins International Fellowship in

philanthropy program.166 p. :this study is focussed on the assessment of forty different special effects.This article only gives a few examples of those open doors to serendipitous effects

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