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The Importance of Wetlands to Waterbirdsin the Boreal Forest of Ontario

Fergus I. Nicoll and 1. Ryan Zimmerling

IntroductionThe Boreal Forest is the largestbiome in Canada and covers 35%of the total land area and 77% ofthe total forested area in the coun­try (NRC 2004a). In Ontario, theBoreal Forest is the largest forestregion, covering 59% of theprovince's land area (OMNR 2002).Within these northern forests ofBlack Spruce (Picea mariana) andJack Pine (Pinus banksiana), count­less wetlands form an integral com­ponent of the forested landscape.On average, 20% of the Borealregion is covered with wetlands(NRC 2004b). These wetlands areimportant breeding grounds formany species of waterbirds, definedin this paper as including shore­birds, herons, rails, gulls, terns,cranes, waterfowl and their allies.Being naturally dynamic, theBoreal Forest has evolved withlarge disturbances such as fire andinsect outbreaks (McCarthy 2001).In recent decades, however, anthro­pogenic disturbances such as timberharvesting have increased through­out the Boreal Forest. The OntarioMinistry of Natural Resources(OMNR) policy statements,"Direction '90s" (OMNR 1991a),"Direction '90s - Moving Ahead1995" (OMNR 1995), and "Beyond

2000" (OMNR 2000) called for anecosystem-based approach to natu­ral resource management (e.g., for­est management). Given that wet­lands in Canada's Boreal Forest arethe biggest wetland area of anyecosystem in the world (Song andHannah 2004), they clearly are animportant, if not critical, segment ofthe forest's flora and fauna and,ultimately, its ecology. The bound­aries between forests and wetlandsare not always easily discernable.Furthermore, these two habitats areoften synonymous, with sections ofwetlands having forest cover.Therefore, effects of forest manage­ment activities on wetland ecosys­tems and waterbirds are an impor­tant consideration when managingforests using an ecosystemapproach. Indeed, although severalresearch projects have focused onthe effects of forest management onBoreal Forest landbirds in Ontario(e.g., Thompson et al. 2003,Zimmerling 2005), none, to ourknowledge, have focused on water­birds and their wetland habitats.

Wetlands in Boreal OntarioWetlands cover nearly one third ofthe province's total land area, rep­resenting 6% of the world's totalwetland area (Jones et al. 2000). The

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Figure 1: Fens and other wetlands cover nearly one­third of the province's land area and are importanthabitat for many species of waterbirds. Photo byMichael Runtz.

majority of these wetlands arefound in the Boreal and HudsonBay Transitional Forests of north­ern Ontario (NRC 2004b). BorealForest wetlands are primarily treedbogs, open bogs, and fens (OMNR1999) and are also referred to aspeatlands. To a lesser degree,swamps (particularly in the south),shallow open water (e.g., beaverponds, river edges) and marshes

ONTARIO BIRDS APRIL 2006

are also an importantcomponent of thesenorthern forests (NRC2004b). The formation ofbogs and fens is con­trolled by topography,hydrology, climate, andthe chemistry of the soil.Open or treeless bogshave very low levels ofmineral or salt nutrientsand favour plants such asthe sphagnum mosses. Asmineral levels increase,trees and shrubs becomeestablished, and someherbaceous plants movein (Hains and Telford2004). In the BorealForest, these bogs oftenhave summits of forest(Moore 2001), which aregenerally dominated byBlack Spruce.

Waterbirds in BorealWetlandsBlancher and Wells(2005) demonstrated theimportance of the BorealForest region of Canada

as nesting habitat for many speciesof birds, including waterbirds. Thisreport showed that the BorealForest encompasses more than 25 %of the breeding population of 55waterbird species, including 11species with over 80% of their pop­ulation breeding in the BorealForest. Of the 55 species listed inthe report, 44 breed in Ontario(OFO 2006).

Although shorebirds are gener­ally considered birds of coastal mud­flats, prairie ponds, and remote tun­dra (Johnston 2003), some shore­birds use the Boreal Forest forbreeding. Huge areas of fens andbogs are scattered throughout theBoreal Forest of Ontario, which pro­vides extensive habitat for certainshorebird species (Ross et al. 2003).In Ontario, some shorebirds areBoreal Forest obligates: GreaterYellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) ,Lesser Yellowlegs (T. flavipes) ,Solitary Sandpiper (T. solitaria), andShort-billed Dowitcher (Limnodro­mus griseus), all of which are amongthe least known shorebirds on thecontinent (Johnston 2003). Anotherwidespread Boreal nester is theWilson's Snipe (Gallinago delicata).This cryptic species breeds in a vari­ety of wet habitats throughout theBoreal Forest region. The CanadianShorebird Conservation Plan(Donaldson et al. 2000) categorizedthese five shorebird species as highpriority in the Boreal region. Inaddition, two gull species,Bonaparte's Gull (Larus philadel­phia) and Herring Gull (L. argenta­00), have over 80% of their breed­ing population in Canada's BorealForest (Blancher and Wells 2005).Herring Gulls usually breed onrocky islands in open water (Pierottiand Good 1994), but theBonaparte's has the unusual habit ofnesting in trees in or adjacent toBoreal wetlands (Burger andGochfeld 2002).

Other Boreal wetland breeders

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include rails and herons, which areusually thought of as components oflarge marsh ecosystems. A few ofthese species, such as AmericanBittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) ,Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias)and Sora (Porzana carolina), arefound throughout Boreal wetlands(Cadman et al. 1987). The YellowRail (Cotumicops noveboracensis) islisted as a "species of special con­cern" under the Canadian Species atRisk Act (DJC 2002). Its breedingrange includes all of the BorealForest of Ontario (Godfrey 1986).Robert et al. (2004) and the secondOntario Breeding Bird Atlas(unpubl. data) showed that this birdis common along the James andHudson Bay Coasts, and found to alesser extent in northern GreatLakes marshes. Although the pres­ence ofYellow Rails within its breed­ing range is localized (Bookhout1995), there is suitable habitatthroughout the Boreal Forest regionof Ontario where this elusive speciescould potentially be found.

The importance of the BorealForest to waterfowl in the westernprovinces has been well document­ed (e.g., Portman 2005). More than50% of North American waterfowlhave at least part of their breedingrange in the Boreal Forest region(Blancher and Wells 2005). InOntario, Ducks Unlimited Canada(DUC 2005) estimated that 50% ofOntario's fall flight, or about 4 mil­lion birds, is produced in theprovince's Boreal Forest. Ontario'sBoreal Forest is particularly impor-

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tant as breeding habitat for theAmerican Black Duck (Anasrubripes; CWS 2005). Species suchas Common Goldeneye (Bucephalaclangula) , and Ring-necked Duck(Aythya collaris) commonly nest inthe Eastern Boreal Forest also.

Undoubtedly, many waterbirdspecies are dependent upon bothforested and non-forested Borealwetlands. In contrast to southernOntario, where 70% of all wetlandshave been lost (Wiken et al. 2003,FON 2004), Boreal Forest wetlandsare relatively intact (Wilkinson2004). This provides an excellentopportunity to examine and under­stand these ecosystems. James(1985) suggested that in northernOntario there was relatively littlehuman activity that could threatenthe habitats of wetland bird species,with the exception of forestry.Although forest management hasthe potential to have large scaleimpact on wetlands, other anthro­pogenic activities could also affectwetlands in Boreal Ontario, includ­ing mining, hydroelectric produc­tion (CWS 2005), and peat harvest­ing (Hains and Telford 2004).

Currently, there is little infor­mation that documents how forestmanagement in the province mayaffect Boreal waterbirds, but anyeffect will likely be linked tochanges in their wetland breedinghabitats. The development andfunctioning of wetlands is directlyrelated to the dynamics of watersupply and loss (Maltby 1991). Thephysical and chemical characteris-

ONTARIO BIRDS APRIL 2006

tics of wetlands are influenced byhydrology, and changes in theseparameters can have major implica­tions for ecosystem dynamics, aswell as local wildlife (Maltby 1991),including waterbirds. According toMoore (2001), fragmentationaround Boreal Forest bogs is not animportant consideration since bogsare, by their very nature, "island"habitats. Research in the BorealForest has shown that basin streamflow can be altered by forest man­agement activities, with total runoffincreasing directly with the magni­tude of disturbance (Buttle andMetcalfe 2000). This can result inchanges in wetland water levels far­ther down the watershed, and infact, a rise in the water table isreported to be a common hydrolog­ical change after timber harvesting(OMNR 1997a, Brooks andStoneman 1997). In addition toincreased water flows, silt and nutri­ent inputs also occur following for­est harvesting activities (Nicolson1975). These physical changes havethe potential to alter the structureof wetlands, thus changing the avail­ability of suitable habitat for somewaterbirds. For example, a bog withscattered small ponds and hum­mocky moss-covered ground pro­vides ideal habitat for nestingGreater Yellowlegs (Elphick andTibbitts 1998). With rising waterlevels, these areas may becomecompletely submerged. Higherwater combined with a significantincrease in available nutrients fromerosion and sedimentation could

17

Figure 2: Greater YeUowlegs commonly nest on hummocks in bogs in the BorealForest of Ontario. Photo by Michael Runtz.

lead to the increased growth ofemergent plants such as cattails(Typha spp.). The resulting marsh­like conditions will no longer pro­vide suitable nesting sites for peat­land ground-nesters such asGreater Yellowlegs. On the otherhand, the Sora, which builds its nestin emergent vegetation above water(Melvin and Gibbs 1996), may uti­lize this newly created habitat.James (1985) suggested that, giventhe dynamic nature of wetlands,waterbirds may be particularlyadapted to fluctuations in waterlevels (natural or otherwise).Further research in Boreal wetlandecosystems is needed, however, totest this hypothesis.

Another possible effect of forestmanagement on hydrology is the rut-

ting, trenching, and soil compactioncaused by the equipment used, whichin turn can lead to "ponding", andwater-logging (OMNR 1997a). Thiscan initiate wetland succession(Moore 2001), consequently creatingnew wetlands or altering alreadyexisting wetlands. For instance,unpublished data from Zimmerling(2005) showed that timber harvest­ing in lowland spruce forests oftenresults in the creation of open wetareas and standing water whereSpeckled Alder (Alnus rugosa) andother wetland plants thrive.Moreover, species such as theWilson's Snipe commonly nest inthese newly formed open wetlands.While evidence suggests that har­vested forested wetlands will eventu­ally return to Black Spruce domi-

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nance, it may take decades depend­ing on the magnitude of the distur­bance (Carleton 2000).

Although changes in wetlandstructure, chemistry, and hydrologymay have the greatest effects onwaterbirds, some species such asAmerican Black Duck, Bufflehead(Bucephala albeola), and CommonGoldeneye (Hickie 1985), as well asSolitary Sandpiper (Moskoff 1995),and Bonaparte's Gull (Burger andGochfeld 2002), use forested areasadjacent to wetlands for nesting.These species often nest in uplandhabitats, but use wetlands to feed andto raise their broods. Given that littleresearch exists, there is a possibilitythat harvesting forested wetlands orupland forests adjacent to open wet­lands could affect these species, atleast in the short-term, through a lossof suitable nesting habitat.

Forest Management GuidelinesTo achieve the goal of ecologicalsustainability through forest man­agement, the OMNR developedseveral policies and guidelines,some of which relate to wetlandprotection. The "Code of Practicefor Timber Management inRiparian Areas" (OMNR 1991b)was developed to minimize soil andsite disturbance, and protect waterquality. In accordance with thiscode (page 7), forest managers arerequired to leave a minimum three­metre strip of undisturbed vegeta­tion in riparian areas (OMNR1991b). This 3-m buffer is applied tonon-permanent water courses/bod-

ONTARIO BIRDS APRIL 2006

ies (Derrick Romain, pers. comm.).Larger, more permanent, bodies ofwater are covered under the"Timber Management Guidelinesfor the Protection of Fish Habitat"(OMNR 1988), which was devel­oped to protect fish habitat andwater quality. Buffers requiredunder this guideline vary from 30 to90 m, depending on slope. Forestrycompanies such as Abitibi­Consolidated Company of Canadaoften leave from 30 m to 120 mintact around water bodies such asrivers and lakes, depending uponthe slope and the value that needsto be protected (Derrick Romain,pers. comm., 9 January 2006).

The forest industry tends toavoid harvesting in the more char­acteristic wetland areas such asopen bogs and fens because treesare often stunted and not mer­chantable, and the terrain is haz­ardous to machinery and workers(i.e., deep peat deposits and sink­holes; Derrick Romain, pers.comm.). When managing a mer­chantable lowland spruce forest(including treed peatlands), someforest managers have adapted dif­ferent silvicultural techniques suchas Harvest with RegenerationProtection (HARP). Such tech­niques were developed to best emu­late the natural processes in wetforested areas (OMNR 1997b).Under the Crown ForestSustainability Act, forest managersare required to emulate natural dis­turbances such as fire (OMNR2001). Given the complex nature of

Boreal fire regimes, this is not easilyaccomplished, particularly in relationto wetlands. For instance, wetlandsthat are part of pyrophilic ecosys­tems such as Jack Pine dominatedforests will burn more often thansimilar wetlands embedded withinmesophilic aspen (Populus spp.)and birch (Betula spp.) forests(Dickmann and Cleland 2002). Inaddition, there is considerable vari­ation in the disturbance by firesaround water bodies; some willburn up to the water's edge, where­as others may leap over these barri­ers (Hunter 1992). Thus, if emulat­ing natural disturbances such asfires, it may be necessary to leavebuffers of variable sizes, includingno buffers at all, depending on thecharacteristics of the wetland. Thecurrent policies and guidelinesdeveloped by the OMNR and indi­vidual companies do offer someprotection to wetlands in theBoreal Forest, but they do not applyto all wetlands, nor do they neces­sarily take into consideration theneeds of waterbirds.

Documents Cited[CWS] Canadian Wildlife Service. 2005.

Eastern Habitat Joint Venture: PriorityLandscapes. <http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/wildlife/ehjv/priority_landscapes-e.html>

Dickmann, D.I. and D.T. Cleland. 2002. FireReturn Intervals and Fire Cycles for HistoricFire Regimes in the Great Lakes Region: ASynthesis of the Literature. -Draft- USDAForest Service. <http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/gla/reports/LSFireCycles.pdf>

[DJC] Department of Justice Canada. 2002.Species at Risk Act. <http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/S-iS.3/rext.html>

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ConclusionThere is very limited publishedresearch on the effects of forestmanagement on wetlands in theBoreal Forest and very little, if any,has documented the impact onwaterbirds in Ontario. Some forestmanagement practices have thepotential to alter the structure ofBoreal wetlands and, therefore, willpositively affect some species andnegatively impact others that relyupon these ecosystems. We believethat more specific research isrequired to better understand howpresent day forest managementpractices affect Boreal Forestwaterbirds and their wetland habi­tats, as well as to test if currentguidelines are sufficiently protect­ing this diverse and under-studiedgroup of birds.

AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank DerrickRomain for reviewing earlier draftsof this manuscript. Special thanksgoes to the Ontario Breeding BirdAtlas for use of unpublished data.

[DUC] Ducks Unlimited Canada. 2005.Wetland and Wildlife Conservation inOntario. <http://www.ducks.ca/province/on/index.html>

[FON] Federation of Ontario Naturalists.2004. Community Involvement in WetlandProtection: Ontario. <http://www.greatlakesdirectory.org/GLAHNF_wetlands_packet/wetlandsjacCsheets/ONjacCsheet.htm>

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Hains, D. and P. Telford. 2004. Technical reporton the peat fuel project, northwesternOntario (NTS 52G/1, 52G/2, 52B/15,52B/16) for Peat Resources Limited. Watts,Griffis and McOuat Limited. Toronto.

Jones, L., L. Griggs, and L. Fredickson. 2000.Environmental Indicators, 4th Edition.Section 4- Land. The Fraser Institute.<http://oldfraser.lexi.net/publicationslcri tical_is s ue s/20001 en v_in di clsection_06.html>

[NRC] Natural Resources Canada. 2004a.The Atlas of Canada. Boreal Forest.< http://atlas .g c. c a I s it e len g lis h IIe arningre so urce s/theme_m 0 dule slborealforest/index.html#what>

[NRC] Natural Resources Canada. 2004b.The Atlas of Canada. Wetlands and Forests.<http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environmen t/fores t/fores tcanadalwetlandsforests/l>

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 2002. Ontario Forests. Overviewof Ontario's Forests-Forest Regions.<http://ontariosforests.mnr.gov.on.calforestoverview.cfm>

Literature CitedBlancher, P. and J. Wells. 2005. The Boreal

Forest Region: North America's BirdNursery. Canadian Boreal Initiative,Ottawa, Ontario, and Boreal SongbirdInitiative, Seattle, Washington.

Bookhout, T.A. 1995. Yellow Rail(Coturnicops noveboracensis.) In TheBirds of North America, No. 139 (A Pooleand F. Gill, editors). Academy of NaturalSciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, andAmerican Ornithologists' Union,Washington, nc.

Brooks, S. and R. Stoneman. 1997. Treeremoval and Langlands Moss. Pages315-322 in Conserving Peatlands (L.Parkyn, R.E. Stoneman, and H.AP.Ingram, editors). CAB International,Wallingford, United Kingdom.

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 2002. Bonaparte'sGull (Larus philadelphia). In The Birds ofNorth America, No. 634 (A Poole and F.Gill, editors). The Birds of North America,Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

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Song, S.J. and K.C Hannah. 2004. Birds inCanada's boreal forest: New paradigms forparadise found. The state of Canada'sforests 2004-2005. Western BorealConservation Initiative, Canadian WildlifeService, Environment Canada. <http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/cfs-scf/na tionallwha tq uoilsof/sof051specia103_e.html>

Wiken, E., J. Cinq-Mars, M. Padilla, H.Moore, and C. Latsch. 2003. The state ofCanadian wetlands. Background paperprepared for the national Conference onCanadian Wetlands. February 3-5, 2003.Wildlife Habitat Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

Wilkinson, C. 2004. Interview from:"International recommendation highlightsCanada's Boreal region". Canadian Parksand Wilderness Society Website. <http://www.cpaws.org/news/archives/2004/111international_r.php >

Zimmerling, J.R. 2005. Evaluating theimpact of forestry on landbirds in Ontario.G. C. Metcalf Charitable FoundationTechnical Report.

Buttle, J.M. and R.A. Metcalfe. 2000. Borealforest disturbance and streamflowresponse, northeastern Ontario. CanadianJournal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences57: 5-18.

Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M.Helleiner (compilers). 1987. Atlas of theBreeding Birds of Ontario. University ofWaterloo Press, Waterloo, Ontario.

Carelton, T.J. 2000. Vegetation responses tothe managed forest landscape of centraland northern Ontario. Pages 179-197 inEcology of a Managed TerrestrialLandscape: Patterns and Processes inForest Landscapes of Ontario (AH.Perera, nL. Euler, and J.D. Thompson,editors). University of British ColumbiaPress, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Donaldson, G.M., C. Hyslop, R.I.G.Morrison, H.L. Dickson, and I. Davidson.2000. Canadian Shorebird ConservationPlan. Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa,Ontario.

Elphick, C.S. and T.L. Tibbits. 1998. GreaterYellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca). In TheBirds of North America, No. 355 (A. Pooleand F. Gill, editors). The Birds of NorthAmerica, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Godfrey, W.E. 1986. The Birds of Canada.National Museum of Canada, Ottawa.

Hickie, J. 1985. Habitat ManagementGuidelines for Waterfowl in Ontario: ForUse in Timber Management. OntarioMinistry of Natural Resources. QueensPrinter for Ontario, Toronto.

Hunter, M.L. 1993. Natural fire regimes asspatial models for managing boreal forests.Biological Conservation 65: 115-120.

James, R.D. 1985. Habitat ManagementGuidelines for Birds of Ontario Wetlands:Including Marshes, Swamps, and Fens orBogs of Various Types. Ontario Ministry ofNatural Resources. Queens Printer forOntario, Toronto.

Johnston, V. 2003. Shorebirds in the borealforest. Bird Conservation (June 2003):12-13.

Maltby, E. 1991. Wetlands and their values.Pages 8-26 in Wetlands (M. Finlayson andM. Moser, editors). International Waterfowland Wetlands Research Bureau. Facts onFile Ltd., Oxford, United Kingdom.

McCarthy, J. 2001. Gap dynamics of foresttrees: A review with particular attention toboreal forests. Environmental Review 9:1-59.

Melvin, S.M. and J.P. Gibbs. 1996. Sora(Porzana carolina). In The Birds of NorthAmerica, No. 250 (A. Poole and F. Gill, edi­tors). Academy of Natural Sciences,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and AmericanOrnithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.

Moore, P.D. 2001. The future of cool temper­ature bogs. Environmental Conservation29: 3-20.

Moskoff, W. 1995. Solitary Sandpiper(Tringa solitaria). In The Birds of NorthAmerica, No. 156 (A. Poole and F. Gill, edi­tors). Academy of Natural Sciences,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and AmericanOrnithologists' Union, Washington, nc.

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Nicolson, J.A. 1975. Water quality andclearcutting in a boreal forest ecosystem.Pages 734-738 in Proceedings of CanadianHydrology Symposium-75, NRCCNumber 15195, 11-14 August, Winnipeg,Manitoba, Canada.

[OFO] Ontario Field Ornithologists. 2006.Ontario Bird Checklist 2006. Ontario FieldOrnithologists, Toronto.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 1988. Timber ManagementGuidelines for the Protection of FishHabitat. Fisheries Branch. Queen's Printerfor Ontario. Toronto.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 1991a. Direction '90s. Queen'sPrinter for Ontario, Toronto.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 1991b. The Code of Practice forTimber Management in Riparian Areas.Queen's Printer for Ontario, Toronto.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 1995. Direction '90s - MovingAhead 1995. Queen's Printer for Ontario,Toronto.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 1997a. Forest ManagementGuidelines for the Protection of thePhysical Environment. Queen's Printer forOntario, Toronto.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 1997b. Silvicultural Guide toManaging for Black Spruce, Jack Pine, andAspen on Boreal Forest Ecosites inOntario. Version 1.1. Queen's Printer forOntario, Toronto.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 1999. Land Cover Database.Natural Resources Management andInformation Branch.

[OMNR] Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources. 2000. Beyond 2000. Queen'sPrinter for Ontario, Toronto.

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Pierotti, R.J. and T.P. Good. 1994. HerringGull (Larus argentatus). In The Birds ofNorth America, No. 124 (A. Poole and F.Gill, editors). Academy of NaturalSciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania andAmerican Ornithologists' Union,Washington D.C.

Portman, T. 2005. Mapping the future.Conservator 26: 32-37.

Robert, M., B. Jobin, F. Shaffer, L. Robillard,and B. Gagnon. 2004. Yellow Rail distribu­tion in southern James Bay, Quebec,Canada. Waterbirds 27: 282-288.

Ross, K., K. Abraham, R. Clay, B. Collins, J.Iron, R. James, D. McLachlin, and R.Weeber. 2003. Ontario ShorebirdConservation Plan. Canadian WildlifeService, Downsview, Ontario.

Thompson, 1.0., J.A. Baker, and M. Ter­Mikaelian. 2003. A review of the long-termeffects of post-harvest silviculture on ver­tebrate wildlife, and predictive models,with an emphasis on boreal forests inOntario, Canada. Forest Ecology andManagement 177: 441-469.

Fergus I. Nicoll, Bird Studies Canada, 115 Front Street, Port Rowan, OntarioNOE IMO

1. Ryan Zimmerling, LGL Limited, 22 Fisher Street, King City, OntarioL7B lA6

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