The Human-centred Approach — Best Practice in Ship and Equipment Design

Working together for a safer world

Reference: SKU/MTESHCAWP/14 Reporting date: 30th July 2014 Report by: Human Factors section, GTC Southampton

The Human-Centred approach best practice in ship and equipment design

White paper on the LR approach to the human element

Continuous Improvement of the Human Element Public document

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Contents

1. Introduction 3 1.1 Purpose of this document 3

1.2 Scope of this document 3

1.3 Background 3

1.3.1 Lloyds Register programme on the human element 3

1.3.2 The state of human element regulation, guidance and support 4

1.3.3 The state of human-centred practice 5

1.3.4 The Guide for Ship Operators 5

2. The need for a human-centred approach 2 2.1 Increased criticality 2

2.2 Technical focus 2

2.3 Where to start? 2

2.4 Zero tolerance and the human element 3

2.5 Change and the human element 5

2.6 Environmental protection systems 5

2.7 Need for a balanced approach 6

3. Summary of Guides 7 3.1 Guide: Human Centred approach - best practice for ship designers and builders 7

3.2 Guide: Human element - best practice for equipment manufacturers 9

4. FAQs on the Guides 10 4.1 How does a Human-Centred approach affect professional competence? 10

4.2 How do user needs flow from the customer to specific equipment? 11

4.3 How do users make their input? 12

4.4 How do you get started, and then what? 12

4.5 How prescriptive is Human-Centred Design in the guides? 14

4.6 Is Human-Centred Design the only way of achieving usability? 14

4.7 How demanding is all this? 14

4.8 What are the guides based on? 14

4.9 What is in it for me? 15

4.10 What are the main issues to address? 15

5. LR human element activity 16 5.1 LR on risk, regulation and the human element 16

5.2 Lloyd's Register approach to the human element 19

5.3 Past work 19

5.4 The state of standards relating to design for the human element 20

6. Invitation for review and liaison 20

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7. Definitions and abbreviations 21 8. References 21

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1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose of this document

This document outlines Lloyds Registers approach to best practice for the human element in ship and equipment design, documented in two Guides. The Guides are:

The Human Centred approach: A Best Practice Guide for Ship Designers and Builders.

The Human Centred approach: A Best Practice Guide for Equipment Manufacturers.

These are companion guides to The Human Element: Best Practice for Ship Operators [1] published in 2007 and available from the LR Webstore.

The intent of this document is to promote discussion on human element best practice, and the development and use of the Guides. This document hopes to encourage collaboration in a human-centred approach to addressing human element issues.

1.2 Scope of this document The introduction provides some background to how the guides fit into the LR programme on the human element, and some more general background to human element

The need for a human-centred approach to ship and equipment design is set out in Section 2.

Section 3 summarises the structure of the guides.

Section 4 gives some Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs).

Section 5 provides more background to LR human element activity.

Section 6 invites the reader to participate in the use of the guides and their continuing development.

1.3 Background This section describes some relevant background, from the LR programme on the human element, the general state of guidance and regulation on the human element, and the specific background from the Guide for Ship Operators.

1.3.1 Lloyds Register programme on the human element Lloyds Register has had a long-standing programme of work to address the human element. The programme has spanned from Rules development through to longer-term research. The guides fit into this programme.

Rules development: An analysis of LR Rules found a large number of implicit human element requirements. These are unlikely to be knowingly complied with most of the time given the general level of human element competence in the industry. LR has since introduced mandatory human element training for all surveyors, and is engaged in a programme to improve the treatment of human element issues in the Rules.

The guides draw on recent Rule developments e.g. the use of the System Operational Concept document. The approach taken in the guides is compatible with developments such as the Rules for Novel Technology.

Guidance: LR has developed a number of guides relating to the human element, including a general introduction to the human element [2] and to HCD [3] and the companion to the guides discussed here, The Human Element: Best Practice for Ship Operators [1] published in 2007.

Standards development: It was recognised that assessment criteria needed to be demonstrably based on accepted best practice, leading to a sustained contribution to the development of

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relevant International Standards. Where possible, this has been within the context of marine standards. However, it has also been necessary to contribute to general ergonomics standards to take advantage of industrial activity from other sectors. Rejected alternatives were:

Do nothing about the major source of risk.

Work exclusively within marine standards and miss the leverage to be obtained from other sectors that are considerably ahead of marine.

Rely on in-house development unaffordable and lacking in credibility.

It is to be hoped that in the future, shipping either makes greater use of general ergonomics standards, or supports tailored versions.

The guides are firmly based on International Standards that have had considerable industrial input from a number of sectors, and have proved their worth in use.

Awareness: The LR Foundation (LRF) (formerly the LR Educational Trust), working with the Nautical Institute, has supported the Alert! Bulletin as a means of awareness raising and education. The series of the Bulletin have addressed the following topics:

1. A holistic overview of the human element.

2. The top issues or concerns (discussed further at Section 4.7).

3. Competence requirements for key stakeholders (discussed further at Section 4.1).

The guides draw on the material published in Alert! and the articles available from the Alert! database (www.he-alert.org).

Consultancy: LR Consulting has assisted clients in addressing human element concerns, particularly competence management, and exemplar designs.

Research: LR has conducted a programme of in-house activity and collaborative research to address human element issues from a Class perspective, including European research projects. LRF has sponsored longer-term research at SIRC Cardiff.

The LR programme is discussed further in Section 5.

1.3.2 The state of human element regulation, guidance and support The overarching human element document is the IMO vision for the human element [4], given in the Frontispiece below. It recognizes the need for all stakeholders to address human element issues effectively.

The IMO Secretary General has recently called for a 50% reduction in the lives lost annually at sea by 2015 [5]. Achieving this goal will require a wide range of human element issues to be addressed. Operational changes and modifications can, of course, be implemented more quickly than major design modifications, but longer-term solutions may well turn out to be changes to design.

There is a long history of guidance on ergonomics and the human element from a wide range of stakeholders including Class Societies, P&I Clubs, professional societies, Flag States and IMO. The first maritime Human Factors conference was in 1977 [6]. The result of all this work is that there are good ergonomic criteria for most topics of importance.

The problem is one of usage. It could be considered that much of the design community needs to move from a compliance culture to taking a human-centred approach.

The hope for the guides is that by concentrating on activity within design and manufacturing organizations, they can simplify and promote usage and uptake of good practice. Given this

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background, the aim of the Guides is to offer some scale of benefit to the user (e.g. yard) and to provide assistance with making simple improvements from a basic starting position.

1.3.3 The state of human-centred practice Some manufacturers of integrated control systems apply systematic HCD. However, in general, the maritime sector has little professionally-conducted HCD less than comparable sectors. However, ease of operation and ease of use are frequently considered to be important and valuable in marketing by equipment manufacturers, by ship design services and by yards. A recent development is that Ballast Water Treatment suppliers cite ease of operation and maintenance in response to IMO Guidelines [7]. The e-navigation community is discussing options for addressing usability in future regulation and practice.

The current approaches to claims of ease of use, operation, maintenance seem to include the following:

Ease of operation through incorporation of operating experience into the design.

Ease of operation through the design concept (skid-mounted equipment say).

Ease of use through good design. Examples include:

- coatings and adhesives that are easy to apply;

- strength of construction and use of quality materials;

- use of computer control, automation;

- design features such as self-cleaning filters;

- removable components to improve ease of maintenance;

- user interface features such as back-lit displays.

All of the above claims could have considerable merit. They are unsupported however, but could be substantiated. The use of operating experience could be made more effective by adopting a more managed human-centred approach. Claims of ease of operation could be supported by usability test results in a standardised open format. Features-based claims could be substantiated by supported test results and/or claims of a human-centred approach. In software intensive systems it has long been recognised (Landauer [8]) that creeping featuritis detracts from operability rather than enhances it.

1.3.4 The Guide for Ship Operators The Best Practice Guide for Ship Operators [1] provides a reference of best practice to support an examination of the extent to which human element issues are considered in eleven areas of management practice. It also describes best practice for human resources and human-centred design.

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Figure 1 Activities in the Human element best practice guide for ship operators

Figure 1 above shows the eleven areas of management practice in addressing human element issues in ship operation.

Each area is set out at four levels, which allows ship operators to take a continuous improvement approach to revising the orientation and scope of their management practices with respect to the human element. The levels are:

Reactive;

Proactive;

Managed;

Optimised.

Associated with the Guide was a Human Element Gap Analysis (HEGA) review service, conducted by appropriately authorised auditors. A gap analysis assessment conducted over a few days gives a picture of organizational capability.

Use of the new guides could give similar picture of organizational capability to build usable ships and systems.

The Human-Centred Approach The LR approach to the human element

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IMO Resolution A.947(23):

HUMAN ELEMENT VISION, PRINCIPLES AND GOALS FOR THE ORGANIZATION

Adopted on 27 November 2003

ANNEX VISION To significantly enhance maritime safety, security and the quality of the marine environment by addressing human element issues to improve performance. PRINCIPLES a) The human element is a complex multi-dimensional issue that affects maritime safety, security and marine environmental protection. It involves the entire spectrum of human activities performed by ships crews, shore-based management, regulatory bodies, recognized organizations, shipyards, legislators, and other relevant parties, all of whom need to co-operate to address human element issues effectively.

b) The Organization, when developing regulations, should honour the seafarer by seeking and respecting the opinions of those that do the work at sea.

c) Effective remedial action following maritime casualties requires a sound understanding of human element involvement in accident causation. This is gained by thorough investigation and systematic analysis of casualties for the contributory factors and the causal chain of events.

d) In the process of developing regulations, it should be recognized that adequate safeguards must be in place to ensure that a single human or organizational error will not cause an accident through the application of these regulations.

e) Rules and regulations which address seafarers directly should be simple, clear and comprehensive.

f) Crew endurance, defined as the ability to maintain performance within safety limits, is a function of many complex and interacting variables including individual capabilities, management policies, cultural factors, experience, training, job skills, and work environment.

g) Dissemination of information through effective communication is essential to sound management and operational decisions.

h) Consideration of human element matters should aim at decreasing the possibility of human and organizational error as far as possible.

GOALS a) To have in place a structured approach for the proper consideration of human element issues for use in the development of regulations and guidelines by all committees and sub-committees.

b) To conduct a comprehensive review of selected existing IMO instruments from the human element perspective.

c) To promote and communicate, through human element principles, a maritime safety culture, security consciousness and heightened marine environment awareness.

d) To provide a framework to encourage the development of non-regulatory solutions and their assessment, on the basis of human element principles.

e) To have in place a system for identifying and disseminating maritime interests studies, research and other relevant information on the human element, including the findings of marine and non-marine incident investigations.

f) To provide educational material for seafarers designed to increase their knowledge and awareness of the impact of human element issues on safe ship operations, and help them do the right thing.

g) To provide a framework for understanding the very complex system of interrelated human element factors, incorporating operational objectives, personal endurance concerns, organizational policies and practices, and environmental factors, in order to facilitate the identification and management of risk factors in a holistic and systematic manner.

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2. The need for a human-centred approach 2.1 Increased criticality

Human element issues need attention across the maritime industry, as they are becoming critical for the following reasons:

The norms of past experience amongst the seafaring population are not immediately transferable to computer-based control systems and other new technologies;

Competition in shipping services has reduced manning levels so that back up may not be available in critical situations;

Ships are operating to tighter schedules and to more critical tolerances;

Ships are becoming more integrated into transport chains, thus the consequences of failure are greater;

There is growing international public pressure to protect the marine environment;

The majority of crews are employed from supplier countries which have different cultures and languages and differing attitudes towards lifestyle, training and education;

2.2 Technical focus

Marine management tends to have a technical focus;

Shipyards and equipment manufacturers are concerned with optimising their production methods separately and do not always develop integrated, operator-focused systems;

Ships trials do not adequately test all the ship systems;

Competence requirements are not keeping pace with changes in regulation and technology;

International regulation lags behind the operational needs of modern ship systems; and

There are a variety of ship types (container, passenger, gas etc.) that are getting larger, such that the consequences of a single failure are more significant.

2.3 Where to start? The key to improvement is in the close involvement of all stakeholders. Lack of attention to the human/system interface, in terms of the design, layout and integration of systems, and training in their use, is the root cause of many accidents today.

The guides presented in this note aim to help shipyards, equipment manufacturers and Class to address human element issues by taking a human-centred approach.

It is easy to see when a system is hard to use when it is in operation. There are well-established measures that can be used that go beyond common-sense.


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By this time, it is too late to make changes. So what is it about an organization that builds usable systems that is different to one that builds unusable equipment? We know the answer to this - it is Human Centred Design (HCD). HCD is well-understood and captured in International Standards.

The Principles of Human-Centred Design [9] are as follows:

A clear and explicit understanding of users, tasks and environments

The involvement of users throughout design and development

Iteration

Designing for the user experience

User centred evaluation

Multi- disciplinary skills and perspectives

A useful starting point for an organization wishing to deliver usable systems would be to conduct an informal simple self-assessment against these principles, perhaps by a series of workshops.

It is simple, but not necessarily easy for an organization to do HCD. Indeed, some organizations are actively hostile to the idea of addressing seafarer needs, and their first encounter with usability can be emotionally laden; this encounter might be a video of someone failing to use their equipment, criticism on a web site, some simple usability testing, or an incident report.

As discussed at Section 1.3, there are organizations that use ease of operation/use as a marketing claim. Where such claims are supportable, it will be because the organization uses HCD at some level of maturity, and a fuller assessment would enable the organization to a) substantiate the claim and b) make further improvements.

The introduction of goal-based standards and regulations is likely to increase the need to substantiate such claims e.g. the IMO Guideline [7] requiring ease of operation and maintenance.

Goal-based regulation does not specify how to achieve compliance. It sets goals that allow alternative ways to comply. For example: People shall be prevented from falling over the edge of a cliff, is an example of goal-based regulation. In prescriptive regulation, the guidance would read: You shall install a one-metre high rail at the edge of the cliff. [10]

2.4 Zero tolerance and the human element

Modern commercial maritime transport is, in overall terms, highly reliable and safe. Nevertheless, the industry is still seeking to improve (Figure 1), and it faces increased external pressures to reduce the number of casualties. The record of safety improvement over the recent past is impressive, despite the increasing age of the fleet. At the time of writing, there are conflicting numbers on whether the loss rate is continuing to decline or not. However, the number of casualties is not decreasing (Figure 2).

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Figure 1: Actual total loss rate has decreased

Figure 2: Lives lost as a result of total losses (LR/Fairplay & IMO world casualty statistics)

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The introduction of improved technical standards, including more demanding survey regimes and stronger regulation enforced through a rigorous Port State Control system, has had a strong positive influence on safety. However there is a limit to how much additional improvement is possible if attention is only focused on the structural, mechanical, electrical and electronic components. Further improvements will require a focus on the way that a ship is used; in other words, considering the overall ship system. This cannot ignore the people operating it, often known as the human element.

2.5 Change and the human element There is no accepted international definition of the term the human element. In the maritime context, the US Coast Guard defines it as human and organizational influences on marine safety and maritime system performance. It can be taken to embrace anything that influences the interaction between a human and any other human, system or machine onboard ship. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has been addressing these issues since 1991.

Today, all insurers are aware that the biggest obstacle to a lasting improvement in casualty rates is human error; statistics collated by International Union of Marine Insurance show that human failure is a leading cause of lost lives, vessels and the valuable cargoes they carry.

Moreover, IUMIs Deidre Littlefield said last year that it was fully committed to improving maritime safety by improving the understanding of the role people play in safe operations.

Despite this, most regulation continues to focus on assets and their control systems.

Another accident? Add another micro-switch or control system, adding to the complexity of the operation and probably increasing unknown risks. [10]

The people, systems and machines have changed, and will continue to change. Changes to date include:

More complicated systems, with greater use of automation and remote technology;

Reduced manning scales, multi-cultural crews, evolving training standards;

Changing operating and commercial conditions;

A more demanding and complex regulatory environment.

Although human error is frequently mentioned in incident reports, it is increasingly recognised in other sectors that such errors are the result of latent errors in design offices.

The MLC places a number of prescriptive requirements on ship and equipment design. Compliance to clear and bounded prescriptive requirements may not require a human-centred approach. However, the MLC also contains requirements relating to risk assessment and safe working and these would benefit from a human-centred approach.

The regulatory environment reflects the zero risk tolerance of society. Considerable efforts have been made to reduce the risk from the design of ship structures, the design of ship machinery, and human error is the major risk remaining to be addressed.

It is necessary to minimise the risk of incidents associated with human error - perhaps particularly with regard to environmental stewardship. Human variability and adaptability pose challenges to both prescriptive and goal-based regulation.

2.6 Environmental protection systems The increasing range of environmental regulation poses a particular challenge to a HCD approach. Environmental equipment fits are a grudge purchase that does not benefit the operators bottom line, and

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it is hard to find a champion for the operability of environmental control or monitoring systems. The problems for Oily Water Separators were well-documented eight years ago [11] and are still continuing. A HCD approach is needed to address these operability issues, and it is to be hoped that offering assurance that such an approach has been adopted is to be valued.

In closing, I would like to remind everyone here about who takes the most risk in shipping. It is the seafarer.

We all have an obligation to make sure we never gamble with the lives of our seafarers. If we take commercial or regulatory risks that endanger seafarers lives, we are letting ourselves, our industry and our society down. [10]

2.7 Need for a balanced approach

Figure 3 - The need for a balanced approach to the human element

The popular impression of the human element may be that it is about competence and leadership e.g. Human Element Leadership & Management (HELM), Bridge Resource Management (BRM), or the recent re-structuring of IMO Sub-Committees that put the human element with training and watchkeeping (HTW). Class, as a technical organization, needs to provide a balance with a focus on usable systems, as illustrated in Figure 3.

Whilst it is necessary to address competence, this alone is not sufficient. A balanced approach means also addressing the need for usable systems.

Centrespread 11 of the Alert! Bulletin [12] has identified human element issues under the headings of:

Human Resources Considerations: Manning, Personnel, Training considerations.

General Considerations.

Competent people Usable systems


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Human Factors Engineering Considerations: Habitability, Maintainability, Workability, Controllability, Manoeuvrability, System Safety, Survivability, Occupational Health & Safety.

The usable systems half of the balanced approach focuses on Human Factors considerations and brings the following benefits:

Getting the design right is a one-time activity1, while training and competence requirements are a continuing commitment;

An ergonomic design provides support when it is most needed, e.g. when fatigued or under stress;

An ergonomically-designed equipment can dramatically reduce training requirements - potentially to walk up and use;

The state of the art is such that cheap, simple design changes can have a significant reduction in human error potential.

Usability is particularly important when introducing new technology and functions e.g. for environmental control or e-navigation. It provides support to the seafarer performing an unfamiliar task, particularly in situations where operational use precedes training delivery. The LRF report on the introduction of AIS [13] illustrates this.

It is recognised that the shipyard or manufacturer does not benefit directly from usable equipment, in the way that a ship operator does. One of the hopes for the Guides is to help to reward efforts made, and to provide incentives to those who are in the early stages of addressing usability.

3. Summary of Guides 3.1 Guide: Human Centred approach - best practice for ship designers and builders

The guide Human Element - Best Practice for Ship Designers and Builders is intended to help yards to improve ship and equipment design from the seafarer point of view. It enables them to plan and implement an achievable improvement programme. Using HCD can identify low-cost changes to design that can bring significant improvements.

The contractual environment in the past has not favoured consideration of human element issues. The potential gains from business model innovation are leading to changes in the contractual environment, and it is likely that a good understanding of the context of use will be important to these business changes, such as changes to the structure of the supply chain, and the integration process.

The technical environment is changing rapidly. Installed systems are becoming more complex. Operation and diagnostics will continue to become more demanding. Improved usability is becoming a more important aspect of system design. Poor user interface design can mean that the increased power and flexibility of modern systems is not exploited. The combination of increased automation and remote operation/support/management has impacts that extend beyond the user interface into job and organizational design. The Job To Be Done [14] onboard and ashore needs to be clear if operation that is safe, protects the environment and is operationally effective is to be assured, with an immediate impact on the design of ships and onboard equipment, and the associated design process.

The problems of advanced automation, supervisory control, mode errors etc. are well-known, as are the means of addressing the human element issues involved. For the equipment manufacturer, the Guide

1 Although there is only one opportunity to design in usability, once it is addressed the benefits last through the life of the ship or system. However, if

this opportunity is not fully grasped it is still possible to incrementally improve usability through modification and when systems are replaced.

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offers a proven way of providing assurance that these issues have been addressed. For the yard that wants to build a usable ship, it is important to be able to select equipment that is usable, and some means of providing assurance are necessary. The Guides will help with this process.

The rapid pace of technical change is likely to lead to more frequent updates, refits and possibly shorter ship life. The context of use will be continually evolving. A HCD approach will help to track this and to use it to inform design.

The combined pace of change means that at-sea experience becomes out of date even more quickly and that new strategies for seafarer input are required. The Guides support such approaches.

The regulatory environment is moving to a goal-based approach, as discussed by Richard Sadler in Section 5.1. Perhaps the first area to be affected is access. In the longer term, the need to show that a design meets operability-related goals will require evidence that a human-centred approach has been followed.

The operational environment is changing, and an understanding of changes to user needs is necessary if ship design is to be cost-effective. More operation in harsh environments will require ergonomically-designed living and working arrangements, and changing business priorities and metrics will need to be reflected in the design.

Using the Guide will help yards to:

Produce designs with supportable claims for improved flexibility and error-resistance, and so improved safety and environmental protection.

Produce designs that are in tune with real-world operating requirements and constraints, and underpinning a demonstrable focus on the customer, offering better effectiveness.

Achieve compliance with the letter and the spirit of the Maritime Labour Convention (MLC).

Make the ship a better place to live and work.

Provide assurance of operability with specified crewing.

Demonstrate efforts to make seafaring more attractive.


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Figure 4 - Activities in the Ship Design Guide

The activities set out in the Guide are shown above in Figure 4.

Corporate strategy has activities that align HCD and corporate objectives, and provide the high-level support that will enable a human-centred approach to succeed. The next level down is concerned with business management, and these activities are grouped under well-known functions. At a technical level, the integration of HCD into a project is shown as a single set of activities, since it is likely to be resourced by very small numbers of people. The technical implementation of HCD is split up by technical specialist disciplines.

3.2 Guide: Human element - best practice for equipment manufacturers

Figure 5 - Activities in the Equipment Design Guide

The activities set out in the Guide are shown in Figure 5.

The structure of the model is basically the same as that for yards. The differences at a management level reflect the following differences:

The need for product support beyond a guarantee period, with a more extended lifecycle, and less organizational partitioning between stages.

The likelihood of a greater emphasis on risk management.

At a technical level, the differences reflect the technical specialisms involved.

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4. FAQs on the Guides 4.1 How does a Human-Centred approach affect professional competence?

As noted above, the IMO Vision for the human element requires co-operation from all stakeholders.

Understanding the human element in shipping operations and its impact on risk is critical. We all know the proper training and experience are the keys to producing reliable mariners, of course. But this also applies to the underwriters, loss-control professionals and surveyors who assume and manage the risks associated with international trade.

Clearly, the ability to assess if a ship is well-operated requires a different skillset to assessing if it is well designed and maintained.

The qualifications of surveyors and regulators are often discussed. But, if the influence of the human element on safe operations is going to be fully understood, it will require our entire industry to acquire a new skillset. [10]

Achieving high levels of HCD requires additional competences for a range of marine professionals. Series 3 of the Alert! Bulletin has defined the responsibilities and drafted the competences needed to address the human element for a range of disciplines, including naval architects and project managers (Issue 24).

Figure 6 - the roles of professional competence and organizational capability

Figure 6, above, shows how professional competence and organizational capability come together to produce business excellence. The Guides are principally concerned with improving the organizational


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capability to carry out business processes related to HCD, but may also help companies and individuals to improve their competence informally.

4.2 How do user needs flow from the customer to specific equipment? The current approach to ship purchase and design is heavily focused on technical aspects of the asset. To ensure that human element issues are addressed, the process needs to change. This may mean additional documentation, regrettably. Fortunately, Human Centred Design (HCD) has lightweight tools, methods and documentation, so the burden can be minimised.

A human-centred approach needs to translate an understanding of the context of use into design requirements at various levels of system design and acquisition.

Figure 7 - The process of translating a business case to technical specifications.

Figure 7 above shows the flow of information from the owners business case to technical system requirements documents. The changes required include:

Customer requirements includes a statement on the Concept of Operations (from a business point of view), including crewing and support requirements and constraints, design drivers.

The initial design response includes a statement on the operational concept (from a design point of view), demonstrating how the operational design works.

The cascading requirements to specific design teams and suppliers include requirements derived from the operational concept and Human Factors (HF) good practice design requirements.

A Concept of Operations report provides information with regard to describes the ships intended service in terms of purpose and function. It includes information on crewing, operational situations, temperatures, motions, arrangements under reasonably foreseeable, normal and abnormal conditions, and other information pertinent to the design of the ship.

The human-centred approach bridges design and operation. The divide between design and operation is much deeper in shipping than in other sectors. The Operational Concept is intended to form the bridge between the owner/operators needs and the design of the ship and its systems.

Devisenew build

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Ship operator environment Ship Operator Guide

Yard design environment Ship Des ign and Build Guide

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A System Operational Concept report demonstrates that the systems architecture, configuration and criticality meet the requirements defined by the concept of operations and the designers assumptions or intent in regard to the operation of a system comprising multiple items of equipment and sub-systems. It details the intended configuration for different operations and modes of operation and conveys intent regarding the criticality of system features and/or equipment.

A System Design Description report details the systems capability and functionality under all normal and reasonably foreseeable abnormal operating and fault conditions, defined operating and emergency conditions.

There are established standards for HCD documents that can be used as a resource to develop documents that are useful without being burdensome.

4.3 How do users make their input? Obtaining user input and feedback is vital to the human-centred approach, and is never easy.

A crew standing by has become much rarer. Having a crew standing by may have been seen as a commercial risk to the yard, but the loss of user input is seen by the marine community as part of a deterioration in the design of standard design ships. Tools and methods exist for gaining user input in a managed manner, with or without standing-by. Other possible routes include:

Owners involving their crews or representative users in the preparation of the specification;

Manufactures user panels, expert users, trial ships;

Seafarers interest groups or professional bodies engaging with manufactures or in standards development, e.g. the Nautical Institute;

Marine ergonomics experts (with up-to-date experience).

4.4 How do you get started, and then what? Having identified the need to address usability, the roadmap for improvement is simple to determine using the Guides. The approach to Process Improvement will be familiar to organizations accustomed to quality management or safety management. See Figure 8 below.


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Review need to improve

Suitable changesto improve activities- training- procedures- structure

Reference modelof best practice

Business driver

Business need

Perform gap analysis

Define action plan

Improvemanagement

practices

Figure 8 - Continuous Improvement cycle

Focusing on the process lends itself to guidance for assessment (whether self-assessment or third-party), for self-improvement, for vendor selection (e.g. by capability evaluation), or for demonstrating compliance with good practice. A staged process model simplifies the presentation of guidance on implementation e.g. by offering 4 Cent solutions to organizations starting HCD, and more advanced resources to organizations capable of using them to advantage.

Figure 9 Levels of process improvement

Figure 9 illustrates the levels used in the guides to indicate process improvement.

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L ev el 2P roactiv e

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R ais e awarenes sHuman E lementNot Cons idered

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4.5 How prescriptive is Human-Centred Design in the guides? There is a strong consensus across sectors as to what needs to be done to do HCD. In Europe, this has been mandatory in many sectors for nearly two decades. Some HCD standards are prescriptive, and have demanding conformance statements. It is recognised that most of the maritime industry is not in a state to adopt such regulations or standards easily.

The key HCD standards are not in fact very prescriptive; they set out principles to adopt and activities to perform but do not prescribe methods, life cycles, start and end points, dependencies, deliverables.

The approach taken in the guides supports a general human-centred approach e.g. getting started in the life at the levels and it would be possible to give a company credit for this. However, from the point of view of capability evaluation, the target is level 3 managed HCD.

4.6 Is Human-Centred Design the only way of achieving usability? The answer is best considered in terms of risk. The closer to good HCD practice, the lower the risk of building an unusable product or service. There are single activities that can reduce the risk on their own, but there is still a significant residual risk.

For example, bringing in a usability expert is likely to bring benefits in terms of generic good design practice. However, even with maritime experience, such an expert is going to miss important aspects of the context of use that will be obvious to a seafarer with relevant experience.

Following ergonomic guidance is a quick way of improving the chance of building a usable system. However, such guidance can only address static product characteristics, and cannot help with the task-fit. For example, using ergonomic guidance to design a galley would provide worktops at the right height, appropriate lighting etc. but would not help with the flow of work for food preparation. A quick walkthrough using a very crude mock-up and some experienced users is likely to pick up work flow issues.

Regular informal contact with users is established practice among good equipment manufacturers. However, this may not be enough to help with significant technical innovation, with operation in a different context of use, and is likely to miss shortfalls that users have got accustomed to, leaving the seafarer to do the integration work [15].

4.7 How demanding is all this? In Europe, many sectors have had comprehensive statutory obligations to address ergonomics for nearly two decades. Companies that have embraced the spirit as well as the letter of such obligations will find the material in the guides familiar and not placing any novel or excessive demands. However, since the human-centred approach has only very limited underpinning in the maritime sector, companies without such experience may find it novel hence the use of a Continuous Improvement approach.

4.8 What are the guides based on? The guides are a marinised tailoring of ISO standards. In tailoring the standards, there has been a focus on getting started and transferring learning paths from other sectors.

The relevant ISO standards are:

ISO 9241-210 [9]. This standard sets out HCD from a project managers point of view.

ISO 9241-220 [16]. This standard is under development and will provide the main process-based model of HCD. It is a progression from ISO TR 18529 [17]. As such, it is the main input to the Guides.

ISO TS 18152 [18]. This is a process model for HCD on large systems, and has also been used as input to the Guides.


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For communities that are familiar with software-intensive systems, the process standards and the Guides can be summarised as CMM for usability. The standard for writing and using process models is ISO 155042 [19].

4.9 What is in it for me? Taking a human-centred approach will give a company a supportable claim to ease of operation or ease of use, and to mitigating human error. More directly, engaging the user community is an aid to technical innovation. Many major companies in other sectors find that their best ideas come from their users (rather than their own labs).

4.10 What are the main issues to address? David Squire [20] reported that the causes of maritime incidents can be linked to a number of contributory factors:

Poor ship or system design;

Equipment failure through poor maintenance;

Fatigue;

Ineffective communication;

Lack of attention to rules, regulations and procedures;

Inadequate training in the operation of equipments;

Unawareness of the vulnerabilities of electronic systems;

Complacency.

Topics examined in the Alert! Bulletin (on the basis of industry consultation) included:

Fatigue;

Automation; information management;

Education & training; Recruitment and retention; Communications;

Slips, trips, falls; Health, safety & wellbeing;

Trust; Rogue behaviour.

Some of these are more obviously technical issues than others, but all have design implications. Some design implications are specific e.g. to prevent slips, trips, falls, some have a number of varied specific implications e.g. design to reduce fatigue, and some require a look at the ship as a whole as a place to live and work.

It is worth examining incident reports for the type of ship or trade being considered to spot possible design improvements. For example, collisions are the major type of casualty in European waters, but foundering is most prominent elsewhere.

In terms of finding places to start, perhaps the most straightforward issues for ship design are slips, trips, falls, automation and control systems, and information management e.g. manuals. Design to reduce fatigue includes some straightforward measures such as avoiding intermittent noise (e.g. doors that might bang or pumps that start intermittently) near accommodation. Seafarer input is the best way to finding

2 This series of standards is currently being revised and renumbered as ISO/IEC 33000 series.

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cost-effective improvements in all of these topics, of course. For automation design, alarms, mode errors, and mitigating single person error might be issues to start with, but again, user input is the deciding factor.

5. LR human element activity 5.1 LR on risk, regulation and the human element

Figure 10 below is an extract from Shipping risk knowing the odds the Keynote speech delivered by Richard Sadler, CEO Lloyds Register, at the annual Donaldson Lecture to the Lloyds Market Association, in London, October 25, 2012 [10].

Do our current maritime regulations adequately control the financial and insurance risks of operation?

Prescriptive regulation was in place when the Deepwater Horizon Rig met its demise in the Gulf of Mexico. If it had been operating in the North Sea, it would have been subject to risk-based regulation. So, as insurers, you may want to ask yourself if there is a difference.

Risk-based regulation in the North Sea puts the responsibility on the operator to identify the risks, mitigate them, get an independent party to ensure that the solution is appropriate, and then present the safety case to the authorities.

As our assets get bigger, as we enter more hostile environments to search for new stores of energy, as we use more advanced materials and systems, the technology challenges increase. The pace of development increases in line with the speed of implementation. In our modern world, we simply do not have the luxury of time-based testing and the incremental change regimes upon which prescriptive regulation depends.

Goal-based regulation does not specify how to achieve compliance. It sets goals that allow alternative ways to comply. For example: People shall be prevented from falling over the edge of a cliff, is an example of goal-based regulation. In prescriptive regulation, the guidance would read: You shall install a one-metre high rail at the edge of the cliff.

There are acknowledged shortcomings of prescriptive regulation. The parties applying such regulations are only required to carry out the mandated actions to discharge their legal responsibilities. If these actions do not prevent an accident, it is the regulations and regulators who are seen to be deficient, not the parties applying them, who, by the way, the law holds clearly responsible.

There has always been a contradiction, if not inherent conflict, in prescriptive regulation.

Prescriptive regulation tends to be a distillation of past experience and, as such, while still having a value as a corporate or state memory, it can become less and less relevant over time. At worst, it creates unnecessary dangers in industries that are technically innovative. It is the innovators that are best placed to ensure the safety of their designs, not the regulator. Clearly, prescriptive regulations cannot cope with a wide diversity of design solutions.

Also, prescriptive regulation encodes the best engineering practices at the time they were written and rapidly become deficient when best practice changes, for example, with evolving technology. In fact, it is likely that prescriptive regulation eventually prevents industry from adopting new best practices.

There are clear benefits from adopting a goal-based approach, which gives greater freedom to develop technical solutions and accommodate different standards.

The trend toward a risk-based approach does, however, raise questions about how insurers will assess risk if the methods by which goals are achieved vary according to designer and operator. I will leave that question unanswered for those in the room far more qualified than I to consider. But it is fair to say that the people who most understand the risks of a specific asset are those who designed it, and will operate it.


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Assessing asset risk involves a number of factors, including: design, the operating environment, duty factor, the operators experience and ability, the appetite for risk embedded in the operators management system and maintenance regime.

This is why I am often concerned about the tendency of insurers and financiers to tightly focus on asset value and type when they assess whether to accept any risk. I will return to this later when I look at the role of human element.

So, if risk-based regulation is seen as superior in countries such as the UK and Norway, why arent the US authorities wholeheartedly accepting it?

Perhaps the biggest hurdle is found in the courtroom. In a litigious society where any incident is likely to end up in court, operational actions have to be rigorously defended.

Prescriptive regulation says you must do A, B and C before you can operate. Once you prove you have done A, B and C -- regardless if it is known to be appropriate -- you are free to operate, and can hide behind adherence to the regulation in your defence should something go wrong.

Risk-based regulation is more subjective. Engineers and operators assess the co-components of risk -- people, plant and process -- agree on the severity of the individual risks, and put design or operating processes in place to minimise it. This flexibility is much more difficult to defend in court, especially after an event when an unexpected sequence of events caused a failure.

Secondly, transitioning from a prescriptive to a risk-based regulatory regime requires a different approach from designers and regulators. To some degree, it requires retraining. You are asking people to take a wider view of the risks to ensure that the people, plant and process issues have been properly considered. It is a different skill set than simply having to check compliance with a prescription. The transition takes time and, during any transition, there is risk.

So, as insurers, when the ships and other assets you cover move from prescriptive to risk-based regulatory regimes, you may ask yourself if those entrusted with risk mitigation in the new system fully understand the new challenge.

I strongly believe that goal-based regulations provide the best risk mitigation in a technical environment that is evolving quickly. It is a shame when the priorities of the legal environment override our mandate to make assets safer and more sustainable. So we have covered the risks of getting a shipping strategy wrong, we have covered the risks of the wrong regulatory regime, so what else? Simple. We must now address risks posed by the workforce: the human element. Because, as I said earlier, if the social side of progress is ignored, we greatly limit our potential.

It is widely accepted that the cause of most accidents is human error, yet the focus of most regulation is squarely on the asset.

If you look at the original Lloyds Register of Ships from 1760, there are two columns that no longer appear: One is the detail of the fitted guns and cannons, and the other is the name of the Captain.

The Captain was recorded when ships were assessed for risk in the days of Edward Lloyds original coffee shop because the right Captain with the right experience went a long way to mitigating the risks of a long voyage. How have we lost sight of that?

Today, all insurers are aware that the biggest obstacle to a lasting improvement in casualty rates is human error; statistics collated by International Union of Marine Insurance show that human failure is a leading cause of lost lives, vessels and the valuable cargoes they carry.

Moreover, IUMIs Deidre Littlefield said last year that it was fully committed to improving maritime safety by improving the understanding of the role people play in safe operations.

Despite this, most regulation continues to focus on assets and their control systems.

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Another accident? Add another micro-switch or control system, adding to the complexity of the operation and probably increasing unknown risks.

Understanding the human element in shipping operations and its impact on risk is critical. We all know the proper training and experience are the keys to producing reliable mariners, of course. But this also applies to the underwriters, loss-control professionals and surveyors who assume and manage the risks associated with international trade.

Clearly, the ability to assess if a ship is well-operated requires a different skillset to assessing if it is well designed and maintained.

The qualifications of surveyors and regulators are often discussed. But, if the influence of the human element on safe operations is going to be fully understood, it will require our entire industry to acquire a new skillset.

Crew selection and training, maintenance in terminals and on board ships -- as well as basic operations such as loading and discharge -- can be positively or negatively affected by economic conditions. All marine professionals must be aware of how this potentially impacts the risks on their businesses.

Today's modern ship is a highly complex piece of machinery, largely controlled by computer programmes and systems, from the bridge to the engine room. Making the time for thorough training in these new technologies is vital for all parties, onshore and off.

Language is another big issue when crews from different countries come together with little or no common language skills. Marine insurers and the P&I clubs are largely agreed that, in an ideal world, shipping should take its lead from the aviation industry, where English is the undisputed common language. But, in practice, the lack of a common language remains a risk.

I am convinced that we are not paying enough attention to the human element. Standardising the training and qualifications of seafarer-trading establishments, ensuring a higher level of competency for operating procedures, maintenance and the management of shipboard staff will go a long way to minimising these risks.

As I said at the beginning, properly assessing risk can be as simple as knowing enough to know how big a gamble you are taking. At its core, it can be as simple as knowing the odds.

There was an article in the New Scientist recently that focussed on risk intelligence, essentially described as the ability to accurately estimate probability, or having the right amount of certainty to make educated guesses. Its a simple definition, even if the task is complex.

At its essence, assessing risk is about learning how to act on the basis of limited information and how to cope with an uncertain world; its about knowing your limitations and odds of success and failure.

Expert gamblers have a chance to make money, because they know the odds; careless gamblers simply lose it. There are subtle differences. They both gamble in a manner that appears to be compulsive. But expert gamblers know how much to bet, and they evaluate each opportunity.

Shipping is no place for careless gamblers. The risks are too high; the playing environment changes every day, while political and social demands shift with the tides.

In closing, I would like to remind everyone here about who takes the most risk in shipping. It is the seafarer.

We all have an obligation to make sure we never gamble with the lives of our seafarers. If we take commercial or regulatory risks that endanger seafarers lives, we are letting ourselves, our industry and our society down.


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As members of the London marine cluster, we should all have one simple rule that I tell my staff should govern the risks we take: if your son or daughter worked on or near the asset youre assessing, or insuring in your case, what would be your tolerance for the associated risk?

Would you risk their livelihoods on the spin of a wheel?

Figure 10 - Extract from Richard Sadlers 2012 Donaldson Lecture

5.2 Lloyd's Register approach to the human element

This section provides an outline of how LR addresses the human element from a Class perspective, and provides a summary of past work.

The LR approach considers the human element under two headings:

The ship/industry operating concept. I.e. the interaction between the crew and the ship, its systems and operating procedures, and the context of that interaction. The context is addressed in three "layers" of environment: the physical, the operational (including managerial and organisational), and the social and industrial. The outputs of this work form changes to Rules and inputs to changing Regulations, and related services.

Embedding the human element into the marine industry. Richard Sadlers Donaldson Lecture at Figure 10 illustrates the scale of change that is still to be made if the influence of the human element on safe operations is going to be fully understood, it will require our entire industry to acquire a new skillset. Work here has included the development of training and competence schemes for surveyors, contributions to formal human element competence schemes (SFIA, INUSE), and teaching naval architecture students. The approach to embedding the human element is risk-driven, pointing out the need to address the human element, without using a simplistic 80% of accidents are human error slogan. Work at an industry level has included attendance at IMO, including the Human Element Working Group (now HTW) and contributions to the development of Regulations, Type Approval Standards etc.

5.3 Past work Much of the work has, not surprisingly, focused on people and software. Because of the rapid rate of technological change here, this area lends itself to approaches other than prescriptive design requirements, including the process approach adopted in the Equipment Design Guide. A regulatory trigger for some of the work in this area was SOLAS/V Regulation 15, where a translation between seafarer common-sense language and requirements for design and operation was required.

One of the features has been the development of standards, tools, methods that are practical and usable in marine practice, largely in anticipation of uptake in the sector. This provided a base for the generation of human element services, such as notations, rules, and consultancy.

The examination of the Rules for implicit human element requirements found a large number of such requirements. Recent work has included developing explicit human element requirements for inclusion in the Rules.

Chronologically, human element at LR can be considered as follows:

Establishing a base of methods for human-centred design

Putting human element (and methods) into a systems context

Marinising human element approach

Developing products and dissemination

Institutionalisation, e.g. into Rules.

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LR human element has participated in a number of UK and European collaborative projects, including ADVANCES, ATOMOS, CHSME, CONTESSE, INSTEP, INTUITIVE, INUSE, PRICES. LR has also initiated collaboration on specific topics e.g. HCPIG (on process improvement) and extensive reviews of drafts of ISO 18529 & 18152. Research with other organizations has included MTO-Sea with Kalmar Maritime Academy, and advisory membership of the Lighthouse group at Chalmers University.

5.4 The state of standards relating to design for the human element LR has contributed to the development of International Standards under ISO TC 159 that address design for the human element. There is now a comprehensive set of standards that embody good practice. Relevant standards include:

ISO 26800 Ergonomics - General approach, principles and concepts

ISO/TS 18152:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction -- Specification for the process assessment of human-system issues (2010)

ISO BS EN ISO 11064 Ergonomic design of control centres

ISO/IEC 25060 et seq Systems and software engineering -- Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) -- Common industry Format for Usability Reports

ISO 9241 Ergonomics of human-system interaction, in particular:

ISO 9241-210:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction -- Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems

ISO/WD 9241-220 Ergonomics of human-computer interaction -- Part 220: Processes for enabling, executing and assessing human-centred design within organizations

LR has also contributed to standards that help to situate the human element in technical activity. The body of standards includes the following:

ISO/IEC 15288:2002 System engineering - system lifecycle processes

ISO/IEC 12207:2008 Systems and software engineering -- Software life cycle processes

ISO/IEC 25010: Software engineering Software product Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) Quality model

BS EN 62508 Guidance on human aspects of dependability

Relevant International Standards in the marine sector (ISO TC8) include:

ISO 8468:2007 Ships and marine technology -- Ships bridge layout and associated equipment -- Requirements and guidelines

ISO 17894:2005 Ships and marine technology Computer applications General principles for the development and use of programmable electronic systems in marine applications

This body of standards, supported by a large number of technical design standards, has turned HCD into an assessable, professional, metricated good practice.

6. Invitation for review and liaison This document has outlined the Guides, and their background. The hope is that the Guides are of interest, and that discussion or participation in their development and use would be of interest. If so, then please contact Jonathan Earthy at the address below.


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Further technical information on the Guides is available if required.

7. Definitions and abbreviations FAQ Frequently Asked Question

HCD Human Centred Design

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

ILO International Labour Organisation

IMO International Maritime Organisation

ISO International Standards Organisation

MLC Maritime Labour Convention

SIRC Seafarers International Research Centre

8. References [1] The Human Element. Best Practice for Ship Operators. Continuous Improvement of the Human

Element. Lloyds Register 2007

[2] The Human Element. An Introduction Lloyds Register, 2008, ISBN 1-900839-31-8

[3] Human-centred development. Putting the principles into practice Lloyds Register, Issue 1, April 2008.

[4] IMO Resolution A.947(23): HUMAN ELEMENT VISION, PRINCIPLES AND GOALS FOR THE ORGANIZATION Adopted on 27 November 2003

[5] Lives lost at sea halved and piracy eradicated should be targets, says Sekimizu http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/Pages/03-new-year-targets.aspx

[6] First International Conference on Human Factors in the Design and Operation of Ships Edited by D. Anderson, H. Istance, J. Spencer, Gothenburg, Sweden, February 1977.

[7] IMO Resolution MEPC.149(55) Guidelines for Ballast Water Exchange Design and Construction Standards (G11) MePC55/23 Annex 1 23 October 2006

[8] Landauer, T.K. The trouble with computers: Usefulness, usability and productivity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.

[9] ISO 9241-210:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction -- Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems

[10] Sadler, R., Shipping Risk - Knowing the Odds, annual Donaldson Lecture to the Lloyds Market Association, in London, October 25, 2012 http://www.lr.org/news_and_events/press-releases/244019-shipping-risk-knowing-the-odds.aspx

[11] Van Hemmen, H. A proposal for a joint industry effort at improving bilge oily water separator design and operation, Joint SMPE, SNAME, IMarEST meeting March 16 2005.

[12] Centrespread 11, Alert! Bulletin http://www.he-alert.org/user/centrespreads11.asp

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[13] Bailey, N., Ellis, N., Sampson, H,, Training and Technology Onboard Ship: How seafarers learned to use the shipboard Automatic Identification System (AIS) (2008) http://www.sirc.cf.ac.uk/uploads/publications/Training%20&%20Technology%20AIS.pdf

[14] Clay Christensens Milkshake Marketing Harvard Business School Working Knowledge 14 Feb 2011 http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/6496.html

[15] Ltzhft. M., and Nyce, J., 2008, Integration work on the ships bridge, Journal of Maritime Research, 2008, (5), 2.

[16] ISO/WD 9241-220 Ergonomics of human-computer interaction -- Part 220: Processes for enabling, executing and assessing human-centred design within organizations

[17] ISO TR 18529:2000 Ergonomics of human system interaction - Human-centred lifecycle process descriptions (2000)

[18] ISO/TS 18152:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction -- Specification for the process assessment of human-system issues (2010)

[19] ISO/IEC 15504:2004 Information technology -- Process assessment

[20] Squire, N.D. The Human Element in Shipping presentation to The Hong Kong Shipowners Association Ltd in association with The Nautical Institute, on 21 October 2004.

Jonathan Earthy Principal Human Factors Coordinator Lloyds Register EMEA, Global Technology Centre, Mountbatten House, 1 Grosvenor Square, Southampton SO15 2JU, United Kingdom T 44 (0)2380 249590 M 44 (0)782 538 6784 E [email protected] W www.he-alert.org www.lr.org This document can be obtained from www.webstore.lr.org (Marine/Technical Guides)

www.lr.org Lloyds Register Group Limited, its subsidiaries and affiliates and their respective officers, employees or agents are, individually and collectively, referred to in this clause as Lloyds Register. Lloyds Register assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss, damage or expense caused by reliance on the information or advice in this document or howsoever provided, unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyds Register entity for the provision of this information or advice and in that case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract. Lloyds Register and variants of it are trading names of Lloyds Register Group Limited, its subsidiaries and affiliates. Copyright LR EMEA. 2014. A member of the Lloyds Register group.

The Human-Centred approach best practice in ship and equipment designWhite paper on the LR approach to the human element

Contents1. Introduction1.1 Purpose of this document1.2 Scope of this document1.3 Background1.3.1 Lloyds Register programme on the human element1.3.2 The state of human element regulation, guidance and support2. The need for a human-centred approach2.1 Increased criticality2.2 Technical focus2.3 Where to start?2.4 Zero tolerance and the human element2.5 Change and the human element2.6 Environmental protection systems2.7 Need for a balanced approach3. Summary of Guides3.1 Guide: Human Centred approach - best practice for ship designers and builders3.2 Guide: Human element - best practice for equipment manufacturers4. FAQs on the Guides4.1 How does a Human-Centred approach affect professional competence?4.2 How do user needs flow from the customer to specific equipment?4.3 How do users make their input?4.4 How do you get started, and then what?4.5 How prescriptive is Human-Centred Design in the guides?4.6 Is Human-Centred Design the only way of achieving usability?4.7 How demanding is all this?4.8 What are the guides based on?4.9 What is in it for me?4.10 What are the main issues to address?5. LR human element activity5.1 LR on risk, regulation and the human element5.2 Lloyd's Register approach to the human element5.3 Past work5.4 The state of standards relating to design for the human element6. Invitation for review and liaison7. Definitions and abbreviations8. References

Documents

The Human-centred Approach — Best Practice in Ship and Equipment Design