The Great WarThe Great War

World War I

Causes of the War

The rise of Germany as a great power changed the balance of power in Europe, the alliance systems that developed attempted to deal with this but turned Europe into two armed camps.

Nationalist unrest caused conflict and internal divisions.

Arms race contributed to tensions.

The Alliance Systems

The Three Emperors League– The key to German preeminence

was keeping France isolated.– Bismarck negotiated an alliance

in 1872 (Dreikaiserbund).– The alliance joined Germany,

Austria, and Russia to cooperate to maintain peace and the status quo.

Franz Josef

The Russo-Turkish War

After revolt in Turkish controlled Bulgaria in 1876, Russia went to war with the Ottomans.

The Treaty of San Stefano (1878) established Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania as states and autonomy to Bulgaria.

The increased influence of Russia in the Balkans and the Mediterranean threatened Austrian and British interests.

Congress of Berlin

Powers met to avoid war in Berlin in 1878.

The Treaty of Berlin reduced Russian influence in the region by giving Austria domination of Bosnia and the British control of Cyprus.

The compromise avoided war, but angered the Russians by reducing their war gains.

The Alliance Systems

The Dual Alliance– The Austro-Russian conflict ended the Three

Emperors’ League.– Bismarck created an alliance with Austria in

1879.

Revival of the Three Emperors– Bismarck continued negotiations and revived

the league in 1881, this again ended in 1887.

The Alliance Systems The Triple Alliance (1882)

– Italian anger over French control over Tunisia made them ally with Germany and Austria.

– Germany’s alliances with Austria, Russia, Italy and good relations with UK isolated France.

Franco-Russian Alliance– With the dismissal of Bismarck, Germany did not

renew its alliance with Russia.– In 1894, France negotiated and secret alliance with

Russia, primarily aimed at Britain in the Med.

Anglo-German Relations In the 1890s, relations between Germany

and Britain began to deteriorate. Germany’s support for the Boers in South

Africa angered the British. The development of a high seas fleet by

Germans threatened British naval dominance.

The Alliance Systems

Anglo-French Entente– The French and British determined they each

needed allies, especially in dealing with colonial matter (Fashoda Crisis, Boer War)

– The Entente Cordiale was negotiated in 1904, leading to increased cooperation.

Italian-French Agreement– Italy and France came to an secret agreement

on colonial policy in North Africa.– This further weakened Germany’s position.

The First Moroccan Crisis

Germany provoked a crisis with France over French protectorate in Morocco.

German calls for Moroccan independence were denied by Britain, Russia, and Italy at the Algeciras Conference in 1906.

Germany’s belligerent attitude brought France, Britain and Russia closer together.

The Alliance Systems Anglo-Russian Entente

– Britain and Russia came to an agreement on their spheres of control in Central Asia in 1907

Triple Entente– The agreement between Britain and Russia

completed the process of alliances between the two nations and France.

– The Triple Alliance now faced the Triple Entente, with the Entente being the more powerful.

The Bosnian Crisis

Austria wished to annex Bosnia and came to an agreement with Russia that gave them control of the Turkish straits in 1908.

The Austrians moved too fast and angered the Russians and the Serbians who hoped to annex Bosnia themselves.

Germany pledged to support Austria and Russia backed down in the spring of 1909.

The Second Moroccan Crisis

In 1911, Germany again opposed the creation of a French Moroccan protectorate.

The French and Germans came to a territorial agreement which eased tensions.

In 1912, the British began concentrating their navy in the North Sea and the French in the Mediterranean to deal with the German threat.

The First Balkan War

Italy’s defeat of Turkey in war in 1912 gave encouragement to Balkan states.

Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece formed the Balkan League and went to war with Turkey in 1912.

The 1913 Treaty of London had Turkey lose all of its European territory (except on the straits) and the creation of Albania (against Russian and Serbian objections).

The Second Balkan War

Arguments over territory led to war that had Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Rumania, and Turkey defeating Bulgaria.

The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 1913) had Bulgaria cede territory.

Russia continued to be frustrated at the situation and supported Serbia, while Germany supported Austria,

The Sarajevo Crisis On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo

Princip, a member of the Serbian nationalist group The Black Hand, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austrian throne) and his wife in Sarajevo.

Austria blamed Serbia for backing the murder (Serbia did not support it, but they did not stop it either).

Franz Ferdinand

The Outbreak of War

Austria made diplomatic demands that the Serbs could not accept (though they were willing to negotiate).

Austria was determined to deal with Serbia and declared war on July 28, 1914.

Germany had given Austria a “blank check” of support in the matter and appeared ready to go to war.

The Outbreak of War

Russia was not going to let its ally in the Balkans, Serbia, be defeated. So Tsar Nicholas II began mobilizing on July 30.

Germany demanded the Russians halt. When they refused, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1.

The Outbreak of War Germany asked France its intentions. The French

said they would follow their interests. On August 3rd, Germany declared war on France. The Germans, going by the Schlieffen Plan,

invaded neutral Belgium to quickly defeat France before Russia could mobilize.

In response, Britain declared war on Germany on August 4th.

So began the Great War.

Europe on the Eve of World War I

Unexpected yet inevitable

Most early 20th century Europeans believed an all out European war was unlikely.

Economic growth and interdependence in trade and finance brought European states and the entire world closer than ever before.

Communications, advances in travel and tourism allowed people to appreciate other nations and cultures.

Unexpected yet inevitable

Despite growing interdependence, no international organization existed to diffuse crises (each state was sovereign.)

Most European nations increased the size of their armies, navies, and armaments.

Nations planned for war an instituted mandatory service requirements.

With heightened nationalism, most people welcomed war in 1914 in euphoria and the belief in quick victory (and little knowledge of war’s effects).

A War on Two Fronts

The Germans faced a war on two fronts on opposite sides of their nation; against Britain and France in the west and Russia in the East.

The Schlieffen Plan The German plan was developed

by Alfred Graf von Schlieffen in 1905 in the event of a war against France and Russia.

It called for invasion of neutral Belgium and a defeat of France by taking Paris in 6 weeks.

The Russians would be slow to mobilize, so Germany could then move its troops to the east.

War in the West Failure of the Schlieffen Plan

– German General Helmuth von Moltke led his troops through a heavily defended area of Belgium, slowing their advance.

– The British forces sent to help the French further slowed the German advance.

– The Russians mobilized faster than expected, necessitating the move of two German divisions to the Eastern Front.

War in the West

Battle of the Marne (Sept. 1914)– The French reorganized and launched a

counterattack against the Germans.– On Sept. 5, the German and French Armies

met in northern France near the Marne River.

– The French were able to push the Germans back 50 miles and saved Paris from attack.

War in the West

Stalemate– In late 1914, each army tried to outflank the

other to gain ground without success.– Despite heavy losses on both sides there

were no major breakthroughs.– In 1915, the war in the west settled into a

stable front the stretched from the Swiss border to the North Sea coast.

Trench Warfare

With the stability of the front lines, the war moved into trenches dug by armies on both sides, stretching for over 500 miles.

Trench Warfare Soldiers lived in

the trenches for weeks faced with filth, rats, regular artillery attacks, and the danger of poison gas attacks.

Trench Warfare A “no-man’s-land”

existed between the trenches of the two armies.

Soldiers would go “over the top” of their trenches and attempt to storm the other line, often being cut down by machine gun fire.

Impact of New Technology Machine Gun

The introduction of the machine gun forced soldiers into the trenches to avoid being killed.

Many still were however when they attempted to charge enemy lines.

War in the West Battle of Verdun

– In Feb. 1916, Germany attempted an assault on the French stronghold at Verdun.

– They failed, going on the defensive in July, but continuing the battle until December.

– At Verdun, the French lost over 540,000 men, while the Germans lost over 430,000.

War in the West Battle of the Somme

– In July 1916, the British and French launched an assault along 38 miles of the Somme River.

– By November, the Allies had only advanced 7 miles and the British lost 400,000 men while the French lost 200,000 (the Germans lost 650,000)

Impact of New Technology Poison Gas

The French were the first to use gas, but it was not poisonous.

The Germans first used poison gas at the Battle of Ypres in 1915.

All other nations soon followed in using gas in war.

Impact of New Technology Tanks

Tanks were first used by the British in the Battle of the Somme in 1916.

The early tanks were to slow and not well armed, but they foretold how tanks could be used as weapons in the future.

Impact of New Technology Airplane

The introduction of the airplane allowed for reconnaissance of enemy positions, bombing of enemy positions, and the first air-to-air combat known as “dog fighting.”

Air Ace - The Red Baron Captain Manfred

Freiherr von Richthofen was the greatest ace of World War I.

He had over 80 victories. He was killed in combat

on April 21, 1918, only months before the end of the war.

War in the East

Eastern Front – Battle of Tannenberg– On August 13th, Russians invaded East

Prussia (present day Poland) faster that the Germans expected.

– The two armies met at Tannenberg and the Russian successes ended.

– 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed and 92,000 were taken prisoner.

War in the East Russia did have some

success against Austria in taking Galicia.

But the Germans advanced into Russian Poland, taking Warsaw.

Russian offensives against the Austrians remained indecisive and they continued to lose territory to the Germans.

War in the East

Continued failures in the war forced Tsar Nicholas II to take direct command of the army in September 1915.

A Russian advance against Austria in June 1916 was halted with German assistance.

Rumania entered the war against Austria in August, but was defeated and Rumania was occupied by Austria.

War in the East

By the end of 1916, the Russian army began to crumble do to lack of supplies, men and effective leadership.

The revolutions of 1917 eventually ended any possibility of continued Russian fighting.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended the war between Russian and the Central Powers in March 1918.

The Italian Front

Italy stayed out of the war at the beginning. The allies convinced her to join them through the

Treaty of London which promised Italy Austrian and Turkish territory and land in Africa.

In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria. Italy was unsuccessful and Austria defeated her

at Caporetto in 1917. The British and French then rushed in troops to

stabilize the front.

The Gallipoli Campaign Nov. 1914 the Ottomans entered

the war supporting the Central Powers, closing the Turkish Straits to allied shipping.

Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, organized an amphibious campaign against the Gallipoli Peninsula in Feb 1915.

The force of British and ANZACs failed and they withdrew in January 1916.

War in the Middle East Russians succeeded in turning

back a Turkish offensive in the Caucasus in 1915, but the Turks massacred and deported the Armenians.

The British took Baghdad and Jerusalem in 1917, hoping to open a route to Russia.

The British were successful in pushing the Arabs to revolt with the help of British Colonel T.E. Lawrence.

T.E. Lawrence

War at Sea The Battle of Jutland

– British and Germans were wary to use their fleets in battle.

– On May 31, 1916 they finally met at Jutland.

– There was no clear winner in the greatest battleship battle ever.

– British blockade continued and Germany denied access to the Baltic.

War at Sea Submarine Warfare

– In Feb. 1915 Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare to starve out Britain.

– In May, the British liner Lusitania was sunk, killing 139 Americans, protests had the Germans put restrictions on their campaign.

– German loses persuaded them to renew their campaign in Feb. 1917

Changes in Leadership

Britain– PM Herbert Asquith resigned in Dec. 1916

and was replaced by fellow liberal David Lloyd George, aka the “Welsh Wizard.”

France– In Nov. 1917 Georges Clemenceau became

French premier, giving France determined leadership.

Propaganda

As the war came to a stalemate and the casualties piled up, governments had to find ways to keep the support of their people.

They turned to propaganda to do this.

Propaganda

Entry of the United States Tensions between the U.S. and Germany had

grown throughout the war, but most citizens and President Wilson were determined to remain neutral.

In March, 1917 the British intercepted the Zimmerman Telegram.– German foreign minister Zimmerman had proposed to

Mexico to attack the United States, in which in would receive the U.S. Southwest and prevent U.S. entry in the European War.

– This enraged public opinion, and in April, 1917 the U.S. declared war on Germany.

American Entry

With the revelation of the Zimmerman Telegram, the U.S. declared war on Germany in April, 1917.

It took nearly a year for U.S. forces to be assembled and arrive in any great numbers in France under the command of General John J. “Black Jack” Pershing.

The Allied Advance

In March 1918, with peace achieved in the east, the Germans attempted on final offensive in France.

The united command of British, Americans and French under French Gen. Foch counterattacked in July.

A German retreat began, culminating on Aug. 8th when British tanks broke through at Amiens.

The Armistice

On Sept 30, Bulgaria signed an armistice. Turkey capitulated on Oct. 30th

Austria surrendered on Nov. 3rd. Alone and exhausted, Germany signed

armistice at 5am Nov. 11, 1918 – to go into effect at 11am that same day, when the guns of World War I fell silent.

The Paris Peace Conference The peace conference began in Jan.

1919. Delegates representing 32 nations

attended. Meeting dominated by the Big Four:

– Woodrow Wilson of the United States– Georges Clemenceau of France– David Lloyd George of the UK– Vittorio Orlando of Italy

(Germany and Russia were not represented)

The Paris Peace Conference

Wilson’s “Fourteen Points”– Peace plan proposed by Wilson– Called for open diplomacy, open seas, free

trade, arms reduction, national self-determination and the creation of the League of Nations.

– European allies had major reservations for Wilson’s “peace without victory” plan.

The Paris Peace Conference

Allies had plans of their own…– Clemenceau wanted security guarantees and

war reparations to rebuild northern France.– Lloyd George wanted the continental balance

of power restored so Britain could focus on its empire.

– Orlando wanted to gain as much territory for Italy as possible.

The Versailles Treaty

The peace settlement with Germany. The Rhineland

– France wanted the Rhineland to become a separate buffer state, Wilson objected.

– Instead, the Rhineland was occupied by allied troops for a period of 15 years.

– The region would also remain permanently demilitarized.

The Versailles Treaty

Alsace and Lorraine– Alsace and Lorraine was returned to control of

France (had been taken by Germany in 1871) The Saar

– The coal-rich area was placed under control of the League of Nations, with the coal going to France.

– In a plebiscite, people of the Saar voted to return to German control in 1935.

The Versailles Treaty

Poland– Germany lost territory to France, Belgium and

Denmark, but lost the most territory to the new state of Poland.

– East Prussia was separated from the rest of Germany by the Polish Corridor, giving Poland access to the Baltic sea.

The Versailles Treaty

Disarmament and Reparations– The German army was restricted to 100,000 men.– The navy was a coastal defense force.– Germany had no air force, tanks, or submarines.

Clause 231– Germany and its allies were made to accept

responsibility for the war.

The treaty was signed at the Hall of Mirrors on June 28, 1919.

The Mandate System Colonial territories of the Central Powers

fell into the hands of the allies under mandates.– Africa – German territories went to France,

Britain and South Africa– The Pacific – German islands went to Japan,

Australia, and New Zealand.– Middle East – Ottoman territories of Syria,

and Lebanon went to France, Iraq, Palestine an Jordan went to Britain.

Italy’s Claims

Italy’s claims of territories caused conflict at the Paris Peace Conference.

Italy desired territories of Austria that became part of the new Yugoslavia.

This caused resentment among Italian nationalists.

The League of Nations

Wilson’s major push was the creation of a international body to avoid war.

The League consisted of a Council, Assembly and Secretariat headquartered in Geneva, as well as a World Court in the Hague.

The U.S. Senate failed to ratify the treaty and the U.S. never joined the league.

Self Determination One of Wilson’s major principles put into

effect in Eastern Europe.– Austria-Hungary was divided into states of

Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia (joined with Serbia and Montenegro).

– Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania gained independence from Russia.

– Poland was created from German, Austrian and Russian territory (won more in 1920 war)

Effects of the War

The number of World War I casualties (military and civilian) was about 40 million - over 19 million deaths and 21 million wounded. This includes 9.7 million military deaths and about 10.0 million civilian deaths.

Effects of the War European idea of progress was shattered,

culture of pessimism would prevail. European hegemony was broken,

economic and military power on the decline.

The war irrevocably changed European political scene (Russian Rev., Irish Revolt)

The war and the failed peace led to economic depression and the rise of fascism (Mussolini and Hitler.)