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The Fourier Series
1
The Fourier series is a mathematical tool used for analyzing periodic functionsby decomposing such a function into a weighted sum of much simpler sinusoidalcomponent functions.
The Fourier series is named after the French scientist and mathematician Joseph Fourier, who used them in his influential work on heat conduction.
2
)2()(
22)()(
πωω
ππω
+=
==
+=
tgtg
fT
Ttgtg
A Periodic Function
Review: Periodic Functions
0 p 2p 3p … t
Review: Series
• Sequence
• Partial summation of a sequence
• Convergence / divergence
Trigonometric Series
• Form a basis – linearly independent
• Orthogonal
Fourier Series: p=2
• Fourier Series may not converge to f(x)
Fourier Series: p=2L
Even & Odd Functions
• Even function:
• Odd function:
Key facts
• Even
• Odd
• Product of even and odd is odd
Theorem 1
• Fourier cosine series
– f(x) is an even function
– p=2L
• Fourier sine series
– f(x) is an odd function
– p=2L
Theorem 2
• Fourier coefficients of f1+f2 are the sums of the
corresponding Fourier coefficients of f1 and f2
• Fourier coefficients if cf are c times the
corresponding Fourier coefficients of f
Half-range Expansions
0 L
3
E(-x) = E(x)
O(-x) = -O(x)
Even and Odd Functions
Before looking at further examples of Fourier series it is useful
to distinguish two classes of functions for which the Euler-
Fourier formulas for the coefficients can be simplified.
The two classes are even and odd functions, which are
characterized geometrically by the property of symmetry with
respect to the y-axis and the origin, respectively.
Definition of Even and Odd Functions
Analytically, f is an even function if its domain contains the
point –x whenever it contains x, and if f (-x) = f (x) for each x
in the domain of f. See figure (a) below.
The function f is an odd function if its domain contains the
point –x whenever it contains x, and if f (-x) = - f (x) for each x
in the domain of f. See figure (b) below.
Note that f (0) = 0 for an odd function.
Examples of even functions
are 1, x2, cos x, |x|.
Examples of odd functions
are x, x3, sin x.
Arithmetic Properties
The following arithmetic properties hold:
The sum (difference) of two even functions is even.
The product (quotient) of two even functions is even.
The sum (difference) of two odd functions is odd.
The product (quotient) of two odd functions is even.
The product (quotient) of an odd and an even function is odd.
These properties can be verified directly from the definitions,
see text for details.
Integral Properties
If f is an even function, then
If f is an odd function, then
These properties can be verified directly from the definitions,
see text for details.
Cosine Series
Suppose that f and f ' are piecewise continuous on [-L, L) and
that f is an even periodic function with period 2L.
Then f(x) cos(n x/L) is even and f(x) sin(n x/L) is odd. Thus
It follows that the Fourier series of f is
Thus the Fourier series of an even function consists only of the
cosine terms (and constant term), and is called a Fourier
cosine series.
Sine Series
Suppose that f and f ' are piecewise continuous on [-L, L) and
that f is an odd periodic function with period 2L.
Then f(x) cos(n x/L) is odd and f(x) sin(n x/L) is even. Thus
It follows that the Fourier series of f is
Thus the Fourier series of an odd function consists only of the
sine terms, and is called a Fourier sine series.
Example 1: Sawtooth Wave (1 of 3)
Consider the function below.
This function represents a sawtooth wave, and is periodic with
period T = 2L. See graph of f below.
Find the Fourier series representation for this function.
Example 1: Coefficients (2 of 3)
Since f is an odd periodic function with period 2L, we have
It follows that the Fourier series of f is
Example 1: Graph of Partial Sum (3 of 3)
The graphs of the partial sum s9(x) and f are given below.
Observe that f is discontinuous at x = ±(2n +1)L, and at these
points the series converges to the average of the left and right
limits (as given by Theorem 10.3.1), which is zero.
The Gibbs phenomenon again occurs near the discontinuities.
Even Extensions
It is often useful to expand in a Fourier series of period 2L a
function f originally defined only on [0, L], as follows.
Define a function g of period 2L so that
The function g is the even periodic extension of f. Its Fourier
series, which is a cosine series, represents f on [0, L].
For example, the even periodic extension of f (x) = x on [0, 2]
is the triangular wave g(x) given below.
Odd Extensions
As before, let f be a function defined only on (0, L).
Define a function h of period 2L so that
The function h is the odd periodic extension of f. Its Fourier
series, which is a sine series, represents f on (0, L).
For example, the odd periodic extension of f (x) = x on [0, L) is
the sawtooth wave h(x) given below.
General Extensions
As before, let f be a function defined only on [0, L].
Define a function k of period 2L so that
where m(x) is a function defined in any way consistent with
Theorem 10.3.1. For example, we may define m(x) = 0.
The Fourier series for k involves both sine and cosine terms,
and represents f on [0, L], regardless of how m(x) is defined.
Thus there are infinitely many such series, all of which
converge to f on [0, L].
Example 2
Consider the function below.
As indicated previously, we can represent f either by a cosine
series or a sine series on [0, 2]. Here, L = 2.
The cosine series for f converges to the even periodic
extension of f of period 4, and this graph is given below left.
The sine series for f converges to the odd periodic extension of
f of period 4, and this graph is given below right.
4
( )0
1,2,3,...( ) cos sin
2 n nn
ag t a n t b n tω ω∞
=
= + +∑
Fourier series expression of g(t)
5
∫∫
∫∫
∫∫
==
==
==
π
π
π
ωωωπ
ω
ωωωπ
ω
ωωπ
2
00
2
00
2
000
)(.sin)(1.sin)(2
)(.cos)(1.cos)(2
)()(1)(2
tdtntgdttntgT
b
tdtntgdttntgT
a
tdtgdttgT
a
T
n
T
n
T
Fourier Constants
A Fourier series is an expansion of a
periodic function f (t) in terms of an infinite sum
of cosines and sines
Introduction
In other words, any periodic function can be
resolved as a summation of
constant value and cosine and sine functions:
The computation and study of Fourier
series is known as harmonic analysis and
is extremely useful as a way to break up
an arbitrary periodic function into a set of
simple terms that can be plugged in,
solved individually, and then recombined
to obtain the solution to the original
problem or an approximation to it to
whatever accuracy is desired or practical.
=
+ +
+ + + …
Periodic Function f(t)
t
where
*we can also use the integrals limit .
EE-2027 SaS, L8 3/16
Example 1: Fourier Series sin( 0t)
The fundamental period of sin( 0t) is 0
By inspection we can write:
So a1 = 1/2j, a-1 = -1/2j and ak = 0 otherwise
The magnitude and angle of the Fourier coefficients are:
EE-2027 SaS, L8 4/16
Example 1a: Fourier Series sin( 0t)
The Fourier coefficients can also be explicitly evaluated
When k = +1 or –1, the integrals evaluate to T and –T,
respectively. Otherwise the coefficients are zero.
Therefore a1 = 1/2j, a-1 = -1/2j
EE-2027 SaS, L8 5/16
Example 2: Additive Sinusoids
Consider the additive sinusoidal series which has a fundamental
frequency 0:
Again, the signal can be directly written as:
The Fourier series coefficients can then be visualised as:
EE-2027 SaS, L8 6/16
Example 3: Periodic Step Signal
Consider the periodic square wave, illustrated by:
and is defined over one period as:
Fourier coefficients:
NB, these
coefficients
are real
EE-2027 SaS, L8 7/16
Example 3a: Periodic Step Signal
Instead of plotting both the magnitude and the angle of
the complex coefficients, we only need to plot the value
of the coefficients.
Note we have an infinite series of non-zero coefficients
T=4T1
T=8T1
T=16T1
EE-2027 SaS, L8 8/16
Convergence of Fourier Series
Not every periodic signal can be represented as an infinite Fourier series, however just about all interesting signals can be (note that the step signal is discontinuous)
The Dirichlet conditions are necessary and sufficient conditions on the signal.
Condition 1. Over any period, x(t) must be absolutely integrable
Condition 2. In any finite interval, x(t) is of bounded variation; that is there is no more than a finite number of maxima and minima during any single period of the signal
Condition 3. In any finite interval of time, there are only a finite number of discontinuities. Further, each of these discontinuities are finite.
EE-2027 SaS, L8 9/16
Fourier Series to Fourier Transform
For periodic signals, we can represent them as linear combinations of harmonically related complex exponentials
To extend this to non-periodic signals, we need to consider aperiodic signals as periodic signals with infinite period.
As the period becomes infinite, the corresponding frequency components form a continuum and the Fourier series sum becomes an integral (like the derivation of CT convolution)
Instead of looking at the coefficients a harmonically –related Fourier series, we’ll now look at the Fourier transform which is a complex valued function in the frequency domain
EE-2027 SaS, L8 10/16
Definition of the Fourier Transform
We will be referring to functions of time and their Fourier transforms. A signal x(t) and its Fourier transform X(j ) are related by the Fourier transform synthesis and analysis equations
and
We will refer to x(t) and X(j ) as a Fourier transform pair with the notation
As previously mentioned, the transform function X() can roughly be thought of as a continuum of the previous coefficients
A similar set of Dirichlet convergence conditions exist for the Fourier transform, as for the Fourier series (T=(- , ))
EE-2027 SaS, L8 11/16
Example 1: Decaying Exponential
Consider the (non-periodic) signal
Then the Fourier transform is:
a = 1
EE-2027 SaS, L8 12/16
Example 2: Single Rectangular Pulse
Consider the non-periodic rectangular pulse at zero
The Fourier transform is:
Note, the values are real
T1 = 1
EE-2027 SaS, L8 13/16
Example 3: Impulse Signal
The Fourier transform of the impulse signal can be
calculated as follows:
Therefore, the Fourier transform of the impulse function
has a constant contribution for all frequencies
X(j )
EE-2027 SaS, L8 14/16
Example 4: Periodic Signals
A periodic signal violates condition 1 of the Dirichlet conditions for the
Fourier transform to exist
However, lets consider a Fourier transform which is a single impulse of
area 2 at a particular (harmonic) frequency = 0.
The corresponding signal can be obtained by:
which is a (complex) sinusoidal signal of frequency 0. More generally,
when
Then the corresponding (periodic) signal is
The Fourier transform of a periodic signal is a train of impulses at the
harmonic frequencies with amplitude 2 ak
EE-2027 SaS, L8 15/16
Lecture 8: Summary
Fourier series and Fourier transform is used to represent
periodic and non-periodic signals in the frequency
domain, respectively.
Looking at signals in the Fourier domain allows us to
understand the frequency response of a system and also
to design systems with a particular frequency response,
such as filtering out high frequency signals.
You’ll need to complete the exercises to work out how to
calculate the Fourier transform (and its inverse) and
evaluate the frequency content of a signal
16/16
Properties of Discrete Fourier Series • Linearity
• Shift of a Sequence
• Duality
Symmetry Properties
Symmetry Properties Cont’d
Example 1
Determine the Fourier series representation of the
following waveform.
Solution
First, determine the period & describe the one period
of the function:
T = 2
Then, obtain the coefficients a0, an and bn:
Or, since
y = f(t) over the interval [a,b], hence
is the total area below graph
Notice that n is integer which leads ,
since
Therefore, .
Notice that
Therefore,
or
Finally,
Some helpful identities
For n integers,
[Supplementary]
The sum of the Fourier series terms can
evolve (progress) into the original
waveform
From Example 1, we obtain
It can be demonstrated that the sum will
lead to the square wave:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
(f)
Example 2
Given
Sketch the graph of f (t) such that
Then compute the Fourier series expansion of f (t).
Solution
The function is described by the following graph:
T = 2
We find that
Then we compute the coefficients:
since
Finally,
Example 3
Given
Sketch the graph of v (t) such that
Then compute the Fourier series expansion of v (t).
Solution
The function is described by the following graph:
T = 4
We find that
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 t
v (t)
2
Then we compute the coefficients:
since
Finally,
Symmetry Considerations
Symmetry functions:
(i) even symmetry
(ii) odd symmetry
Even symmetry
Any function f (t) is even if its plot is
symmetrical about the vertical axis, i.e.
Even symmetry (cont.)
The examples of even functions are:
Even symmetry (cont.)
The integral of an even function from A to
+A is twice the integral from 0 to +A
A +A
Odd symmetry
Any function f (t) is odd if its plot is
antisymmetrical about the vertical axis, i.e.
Odd symmetry (cont.)
The examples of odd functions are:
Odd symmetry (cont.)
The integral of an odd function from A to
+A is zero
A +A
Even and odd functions
(even) (even) = (even)
(odd) (odd) = (even)
(even) (odd) = (odd)
(odd) (even) = (odd)
The product properties of even and odd
functions are:
Symmetry consideration
From the properties of even and odd
functions, we can show that:
for even periodic function;
for odd periodic function;
How?? [Even function]
(even) (even)
| |
(even)
(even) (odd)
| |
(odd)
How?? [Odd function]
(odd) (odd)
| |
(even)
(odd) (even)
| |
(odd)
(odd)
Example 4
Given
Sketch the graph of f (t) such that
Then compute the Fourier series expansion of f (t).
Solution
The function is described by the following graph:
T = 4
We find that
0 4 6 2 4 6 t
f (t)
2
1
1
Then we compute the coefficients. Since f (t) is
an odd function, then
and
since
Finally,
Example 5
Compute the Fourier series expansion of f (t).
Solution
The function is described by
T = 3
and
T = 3
Then we compute the coefficients.
Or, since f (t) is an even function, then
Or, simply
;
Finally,
and since f (t) is an even function.
Function defines over a finite interval
Fourier series only support periodic functions
In real application, many functions are non-
periodic
The non-periodic functions are often can be
defined over finite intervals, e.g.
y = 1 y = 1
y = 2
Therefore, any non-periodic function must be
extended to a periodic function first, before
computing its Fourier series representation
Normally, we prefer symmetry (even or odd)
periodic extension instead of normal periodic
extension, since symmetry function will provide
zero coefficient of either an or bn
This can provide a simpler Fourier series
expansion
T
T
T
Periodic extension
Even periodic extension
Odd periodic extension
Non-periodic
function
Half-range Fourier series expansion
The Fourier series of the even or odd
periodic extension of a non-periodic
function is called as the half-range Fourier
series
This is due to the non-periodic function is
considered as the half-range before it is
extended as an even or an odd function
If the function is extended as an even
function, then the coefficient bn= 0, hence
which only contains the cosine harmonics.
Therefore, this approach is called as the
half-range Fourier cosine series
If the function is extended as an odd
function, then the coefficient an= 0, hence
which only contains the sine harmonics.
Therefore, this approach is called as the
half-range Fourier sine series
Example 6
Compute the half-range Fourier sine series expansion
of f (t), where
Solution
Since we want to seek the half-range sine series,
the function to is extended to be an odd function:
T = 2
0 t
f (t)
1
1
2 2 0 t
f (t)
1
Hence, the coefficients are
and
Therefore,
Example 7
Determine the half-range cosine series expansion
of the function
Sketch the graphs of both f (t) and the periodic
function represented by the series expansion for
3 < t < 3.
Solution
Since we want to seek the half-range cosine series,
the function to is extended to be an even function:
T = 2
t
f (t)
t
f (t)
Hence, the coefficients are
Therefore,
Parseval’s Theorem
Parserval’s theorem states that the
average power in a periodic signal is equal
to the sum of the average power in its DC
component and the average powers in its
harmonics
=
+ +
+ + + …
f(t)
t
Pavg
Pdc
Pa1 Pb1
Pa2 Pb2
For sinusoidal (cosine or sine) signal,
For simplicity, we often assume R = 1 ,
which yields
For sinusoidal (cosine or sine) signal,
Exponential Fourier series
Recall that, from the Euler’s identity,
yields
and
Then the Fourier series representation becomes
Here, let we name ,
Hence, and .
c0 c n cn
Then, the coefficient cn can be derived from
In fact, in many cases, the complex
Fourier series is easier to obtain rather
than the trigonometrical Fourier series
In summary, the relationship between the
complex and trigonometrical Fourier series
are:
or
Example 8
Obtain the complex Fourier series of the following
function
Since , . Hence
Solution
since
Therefore, the complex Fourier series of f (t) is
*Notes: Even though c0 can be found by substituting
cn with n = 0, sometimes it doesn’t works (as shown
in the next example). Therefore, it is always better to
calculate c0 alone.
cn is a complex term, and it depends on n .
Therefore, we may plot a graph of |cn| vs n .
In other words, we have transformed the function
f (t) in the time domain (t), to the function cn in the
frequency domain (n ).
Example 9
Obtain the complex Fourier series of the function in
Example 1.
Solution
But
Thus,
Therefore,
*Here notice that .
The plot of |cn| vs n is shown below
0.5