THE FIRE EXTINGUISHER

Introduction

Fire statistics published by the Fire Protection Association of South Africa show that 376 South Africans

died in the more than 40 000 fires that occurred in the country during 2007. As many as 9 746 fires were reported to have occurred in private homes during the same period, resulting in losses of more than R573bn. In addition, a total number of 1 675 industrial fires occurred, resulting in losses of more than R314bn. Considering that the estimated population of South Africa is more than 48.6 million strong, such statistics represent a 1 in 1 200 chance of suffering the devastating impact of a fire. There are time-tested ways in which to prevent and survive a fire. Rather than being a mere question of luck, such prevention and survival requires practicing and planning ahead of time. Many people buy a fire extinguisher hoping that they will never need to use it, yet the possibility that one might have to deal with a fire in the home is sufficient enough reason to keep fire-fighting equipment at hand. This information brochure is intended to serve as a guide to those who live in South Africa. The brochure is aimed at assisting them in planning their fire protection strategy and requirements, be they in the home or elsewhere, keeping in mind that a fire might break out at any time.

Historical facts

In 1723, the well-known chemist Ambrose Godfrey patented the first fire extinguisher in England in

response to the urgent need for fire-fighting equipment that existed at the time. Godfrey‟s fire extinguisher consisted of a cask of fire-extinguishing liquid, containing a pewter chamber of gunpowder, which was connected to fuses which, when ignited, exploded the gunpowder and scattered the solution. The modern-day fire extinguisher, which was first invented by the British inventor George Manby in 1818, consisted of a copper vessel containing potassium carbonate, which was surrounded by compressed air. Following on such an invention, Francois Carlier patented the soda-acid extinguisher, which mixed a solution of water and sodium bicarbonate with tartaric acid, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas. The soda-acid extinguisher, which was later patented by Almon Granger in the United States in 1881, operated by expelling water as a product of the reaction between sodium bicarbonate and sulphuric acid. The pressurized water was forced out of the canister through a nozzle or short length of hose. A typical copper building-type soda-acid fire extinguisher is shown in Fig. 1 below.

Figure 1:

Typical copper building-type

soda-acid fire extinguisher

The cartridge-type fire extinguisher, which used water or a water-based solution, was invented in 1881. In 1905, the Russian Alexander Laurant invented the chemical foam fire extinguisher, which resembled the soda-acid type of fire extinguisher. In 1910, the Pyrene Manufacturing Company of Delaware patented a carbon tetra-chloride (CTC) fire extinguisher. One year later, they produced a small, portable 0.6-litre extinguisher (see Fig. 2 below), which worked by expelling a jet of liquid towards the fire. The container was unpressurised, and was operated by means of an integrated hand pump. In 1928, Du Gas produced a cartridge-operated dry chemical extinguisher, which consisted of a copper cylinder, fitted with an internal CO2 cartridge. The extinguisher dominated the market until 1950, when the ABC dry-chemical fire extinguisher was introduced into Europe. Fig. 3 below shows such an early dry chemical extinguisher. Up to the present, fire extinguishers have come to play a vital role in the community. As responsible adults, we are all required to take reasonable steps to ensure that we do not endanger the lives of others by ignoring potentially hazardous situations.

Figure 2:

Portable CTC fire extinguisher.

Figure 3:

An early dry chemical extinguisher.

Causes of fire

Before discussing possible ways of preventing fires, we need to look into the different causes of the most

commonly occurring fires. The list of causes is not exhaustive, as it merely indicates the key risk areas that are likely to be encountered.

1. Open flames are the reason for 43% of the fires that break out in South Africa on a yearly basis. The high cost of, and lack of access to, electrical appliances result in many South Africans having to make use of wood-burning alternatives. Though camping is a popular pastime in summer-time, many campers do not take the appropriate precautions when lighting and extinguishing campfires.

2. Electrical fires, which constitute 8% of all fires, are a special concern during the winter months, during which time people tend to be more active indoors and to use more electrical appliances. In addition, safe cooking procedures are not always followed. Most electrical fires result from the use of faulty extensions and appliance cords and plugs. Quite often, electrical fires result from the misuse of electric cords, such as due to the overloading of circuits, the poor maintenance of equipment, and the running of cords under rugs, or across high traffic areas. The home appliances that are most often involved in electrical fires are electric stoves, ovens, dryers, central heating units, televisions, radios and record-players. The misuse of electrical apparatus and the carelessness and negligence of the user are the primary reasons for electrical faults.

3. Cigarette misuse and careless smoking are the number one cause of fatal home fires in the United States. In South Africa, 6% of fires are caused in this way. Cigarette-related fires also kill people who do not smoke. Many fires are also caused by children playing with ignitable materials, such as lighters and matches.

4. Alcohol is quite often the cause of fatalities resulting from fire, with the victims of such fires being under the influence of alcohol at the time of the fire. Alcohol abuse often impairs judgment, and can hamper evacuation efforts. Be aware of such causes, making sure to prevent fires. Fires erupt as a result of a chemical reaction, which is called combustion (and which usually involves oxidation). Combustion results in the release of heat and light. For a fire to break out and to continue burning, which involves initiating and maintaining such a chemical reaction, the following three elements are required, the removal of any one of which will extinguish the fire:

A. Fuel: Fuel consists of any combustible substance, no matter whether it is a

solid, a liquid or a gas. Starving a fire of fuel will serve to extinguish it.

B. Heat: A fire can only start when a certain temperature (the ignition point) is

reached. Once a fire has started, it normally maintains its own heat supply. Cooling a fire down will extinguish it.

C. Oxygen: Oxygen is usually in plentiful supply on our planet, as it makes up one-

fifth of the air that we breathe. Blanketing or smothering a fire will serve to extinguish it. If the rate of heat generation is less than the rate of heat dissipation or loss, combustion cannot continue. For instance, if a match is applied to a block of wood, the heat from the flame will be absorbed by the mass of the wood, and the amount of heat will be insufficient to raise the whole block to its ignition temperature. If the block is reduced to shavings, the surface area of a single shaving is high in relation to its weight, and it will easily catch fire. Gases and flammable vapors are extremely dangerous, due to their large surface areas. Water is normally used for cooling down a fire, as it has the capacity to absorb a great deal of heat, and it is cheap and tends to be readily available.

The spread of fires Fires spread by means of convection, radiation and conduction, in particular.

1. Convection: Convection is the transport of heat by movement of the heated substance. Over four-fifths of the heat of a fire is dispersed by air and other gases in this way. When heated, air becomes less dense than the surrounding atmosphere, and, when it is mixed with gases produced by the fire, moves upwards, forming convection currents which carry heat and smoke away with them. The rising air is likely to be very hot indeed.

2. Radiation: Objects in the neighborhood of a fire are exposed directly to the radiant heat from its flames and burning fuel. The closer these are to the fire, the greater is the intensity of the radiated heat reaching them, and the more likely they are of heating to ignition point. Heat radiation sometimes causes clothes that have been placed to dry in front of a fire to ignite.

3. Conduction: Although some metals, such as steel, can resist high temperatures without igniting, their presence in different components, such as in girders or partitions, of a larger burning structure will not necessarily check the spread of a fire. Metal is an excellent conductor of heat throughout its length, and might cause combustible materials at the end that is opposite the fire to smolder until they reach their ignition point. A metal door, once heated, may ignite those materials that are in contact with the side which is not facing the fire. Other factors that might influence the spread of fire are climatic conditions, such as strong winds, and the nature of the material involved. The quantity of combustible materials that is present, any delay in intervention and the inadequacy of fire-fighting measures can also facilitate the spread of a fire.

Fire prevention

Minimizing the risk of fires breaking out needlessly should be the number one priority in any fire safety

strategy. Good housekeeping, including such simple actions as: avoiding smoking indoors, regularly testing electrical appliances, removing electrical heaters, and training staff can help to reduce the risk of such fires breaking out. Safety precautions like these should also be taken in the home. As a home owner, you should always have an appropriate fire safety and evacuation plan in place. As an employer, you should first undertake a fire risk assessment of your company. By taking a few simple steps to reduce fire risks, you can prevent fires breaking out. When you consider that 70% of businesses in South Africa that experience fire damage either fail to reopen, or close within three years, after a fire, taking the time to do a fire risk assessment makes sense. Apart from the financial benefits to be gained from preventing the breaking out of fires, doing so is a legal requirement. Though you are not legally bound to undertake a fire risk assessment at home, you, nevertheless, should take the necessary precautions in order to secure the safety of your family and any guests who visit your home. Secondly, you should ensure that you have a well-defined and communicated fire evacuation plan in place. Thirdly, you should take precautions to ensure that fires do not break out. You can prevent fires from starting by doing the following:

1. Always keep a fire extinguisher close by. 2. Keep matches and lighters locked up and away from children. Check under beds and in closets for

burnt matches, which might show that your child is playing with matches. 3. Teach your child that fire is a tool to respect, and not a toy with which to play. 4. Take great care when using portable heaters. Keep bedding, clothes, curtains and other combustible

items at least one meter away from all heaters. 5. Do NOT smoke indoors. 6. Close a matchbox before striking a match. Hold the matchbox away from your body while striking a

match. Set your cigarette lighter on „low‟ flame. 7. Use deep, sturdy ashtrays placed on substantial furniture that is hard to ignite, such as on a solid-

end table. 8. Do NOT leave cigarettes, cigars or pipes unattended. Properly extinguish all materials that you use

for smoking after you have finished with them. 9. Before you throw out butts and ashes, make sure they are fully out by dowsing them in either water

or sand. 10. On visitors who have smoked leaving your home, check under the furniture and furnishings for any

cigarette butts that might have fallen out of sight. 11. Do NOT smoke if you are sleepy, have been drinking, or have taken medicine or other drugs. 12. Do NOT smoke in bed. 13. Do NOT smoke in a home in which oxygen is supplied to a patient.

14. Be careful when using lighter fluid. Do NOT add lighter fluid to an already lit fire, because the flames that may be produced in this way can flash back up into the container and cause it to explode.

15. Keep all matches and lighters away from children. Teach your children to report any stray matches or lighters to an adult immediately. Supervise the behaviour of children who are in the vicinity of outdoor grills.

16. Do NOT keep gasoline in the house. 17. Keep curtains, towels and pot-holders away from hot surfaces. 18. Store solvents and flammable cleaners away from heat sources. 19. Do NOT leave any cooking unattended. 20. When children are old enough to cook without supervision, teach them how to cook safely. 21. Clean cooking surfaces to prevent food and grease build-up. 22. Turn pan handles inward to prevent food spillage. 23. Keep a fire extinguisher in the kitchen. Make sure that you have the right type of extinguisher, and

that you know how to use it. 24. Fit your home with a smoke alarm, and test it monthly to see that it still works. 25. Do NOT light fireworks indoors or near dry grass. 26. Do NOT wear loose clothing while you are using fireworks. 27. Stand several feet away from lit fireworks. If a device does not go off, do NOT stand over it to

investigate it. Dispose of it, after dousing it with water. 28. Always read the directions and warning labels on fireworks. If a device is not marked with the

contents, instructions on how to use it, and a warning label, do NOT light it. 29. Continuously supervise the behaviour of children who are in the vicinity of fireworks. 30. Before using a grill, check that the connection between the propane tank and the fuel line are in

proper working order. Make sure that the Venturi tubes — in which air and gas are mixed — are not blocked.

31. Dispose of hot coals properly — douse them with plenty of water, and stir them to ensure that the fire is out. Do NOT place them in plastic, paper or wooden containers.

32. Do NOT grill or barbecue in enclosed areas that are not fitted with the appropriate filtering devices, otherwise harmful carbon monoxide gas might be produced.

33. Make sure that all family members know that they must „stop, drop and roll‟ whenever a piece of their clothing catches on fire.

34. Build campfires in a secure area, where they will not spread. Avoid lighting a fire near dry grass and leaves, which might easily catch alight.

35. Keep campfires small, and do NOT let them get out of hand. 36. Keep plenty of water and a shovel at hand with which to douse the fire when you have finished with

it. Stir the ashes once more, and then douse them for a second time with water. 37. Do NOT leave campfires unattended. 38. Routinely check your electrical appliances and wiring to make sure that it is in proper working order. 39. Frayed wires can cause fires. Replace all worn, old or damaged appliance cords as soon as you

detect that they are not in proper working order. 40. Use electrical extension cords wisely and do NOT overload them. 41. Keep electrical appliances away from wet floors and counters; pay special care to the regular

maintenance of any electrical appliances that you use in your bathroom and kitchen. 42. Do NOT allow children to play with or around electrical appliances, such as heaters, irons and hair-

dryers. 43. If an appliance is fitted with a three-prong plug, use the plug only in a three-slot outlet. Do NOT try to

force it to fit into a two-slot outlet or extension cord. 44. Do NOT overload extension cords or wall sockets. Light switches that are hot to the touch and lights

that flicker must be turned off at once and professionally replaced. Use safety closures to „child-proof‟ electrical outlets.

45. Check your electrical tools regularly for signs of wear. If the cords are frayed or cracked, replace them. Replace any tool if it causes even minor electrical shocks, as well as if it overheats, shorts or emits smoke or sparks.

46. Do NOT lock fire exits, doorways, halls or stairways. Fire doors provide a way out during a fire, as well as slowing down the spread of a fire and of smoke.

47. Become thoroughly familiar with your building evacuation plan. Make sure that everyone knows what to do if the fire alarm sounds. Plan and practice your escape plan together.

48. Be sure that your building manager posts evacuation plans in high traffic areas, such as in lobbies. Know who is responsible for maintaining the fire safety systems concerned. Make sure that nothing blocks such devices, and promptly report any sign of damage or malfunctioning of equipment to the building management.

Different classes of fire

The most common types of fires have been internationally classified into five main types, each of which

has been designated with a letter of the alphabet. The reason for such classification is to ensure that the appropriate fire-extinguishing agent is used to combat a fire. The different classes of fire can be seen below:

Class A fires involve wood, cloth, paper, rubber, plastic and other

ordinary combustibles.

Class B fires involve flammable liquids, such as gasoline, oil, lacquers,

paint, and oil-based products.

Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment, such as wiring,

fuse boxes, circuit-breakers, data-processing panels and appliances.

Class D fires involve combustible materials, such as magnesium,

titanium, potassium and sodium, which burn at high temperatures. They emit enough oxygen to support burning. There is no picture designator for Class D extinguishers, and they generally lack a rating, being given a multi - purpose rating that is used for other types of fires.

Class K fires involve commercial restaurant cooking oils.

The fires most likely to be encountered fall into classes A, B, AC, BC or ABC, the latter three of which represent combinations of different types of fire.

Different types of fire-extinguishing appliances

Numerous different fire-extinguishing appliances are available, including, though not limited to, the

following types of appliance: 1. Hand-held fire extinguishers; 2. Water extinguishers; 3. Foam extinguishers; 4. CO2 extinguishers; 5. Dry chemical powder extinguishers; 6. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers / argonite extinguishers; 7. Fire hose reels; 8. Fire blankets; 9. Fire buckets; and 10. Fire suppression systems.

Let‟s look at each of the appliances in turn.

1. Hand-held fire extinguishers

A hand-held fire extinguisher is a portable appliance which is suited to handling by a normal person of average physical strength. Such a fire extinguisher usually ranges from a total mass of as little as 1kg to about 23kg. A fire extinguisher like this must be considered as „first-aid‟ fire-fighting equipment, due to the limited duration of discharge of such equipment. A portable fire extinguisher consists of a metal cylinder, which is surmounted by a handle and a discharge lever. Most such fire extinguishers come with brackets for mounting against a solid surface, such as a wall or the inside of a car. The larger units come mounted on a trolley. By removing the safety pin and pressing the discharge lever, the fire extinguishing agent, called the „charge‟, is released. Hand-held fire extinguishers include the basic types of fire extinguishers. Keep in mind that you can put yourself in danger, or even increase the intensity of a fire, if you use the incorrect type of extinguisher on it.

2. Water extinguishers

Water extinguishers have better cooling properties than do other fire extinguishers and can readily penetrate to reach a deep-seated fire. A deep-seated fire is a fire which usually burns far below the surface in a duff, mulch, peat or other combustible as contrasted with a surface fire. Water extinguishers are identifiable by their red instruction label, and are considered effective for dealing with Class A fires, as they cool down a fire. Do NOT use them on electrical equipment. To use a water extinguisher, follow the PASS steps in the following order:

a. Remove the safety pin (Pull). b. Direct the jet of water at the base of the flames (Aim). c. Squeeze the trigger of the discharge lever (Squeeze). d. Keep moving the jet across the area in a sweeping motion (Sweep). e. Only try to combat small, minor fires.

The disadvantage in using a water extinguisher is that it can cause some fires, such as a petrol fire, to spread rapidly. The water that is used in such extinguishers is also a ready conductor of electricity, and can be extremely dangerous in the case of Class C fires, where there is a live electric current present.

3. Foam extinguishers

Foam extinguishers are well suited for use on small Class B fires to combat the spreading of burning liquid. Such fire extinguishers can be identified by the cream-coloured label that they bear, and should be used on fires involving flammable liquids, such as grease, gasoline and oil. The foam serves to cool the fire down, to prevent the release of vapour from the fire, to prevent reigniting of the fire, and to smother the fire. Such extinguishers are not suitable for use on flowing flammable liquid spillages. Care must be taken with their use, as the foam that they use conducts electricity. To use a foam extinguisher, follow the instructions that are given under water extinguishers above. The disadvantage in using a foam extinguisher is that it contains foam, which is a ready conductor of electricity. Its use can, therefore, be hazardous in the case of Class C fires, when there is an electric current present.

4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers

CO2 extinguishers are well suited for use on small Class B fires, as well as on Class C fires, since CO2 is a non-conductor of electricity. Such extinguishers can be identified by means of the black instruction label that they bear. They are considered best suited for fighting those fires which involve electrical equipment, but also effectively cope with flammable liquids, so that they are the best type of fire extinguisher to use on Class BC fires. Such extinguishers deliver a high concentration of CO2 gas under pressure, producing inert vapour, which excludes oxygen and smothers the fire. To use a CO2 extinguisher, follow the instructions that are given under water extinguishers above. CO2 extinguishers have limited cooling properties; hence, they provide no protection against re-ignition and are, consequently, considered to be ineffective in outdoor applications.

5. Dry chemical powder (DCP) extinguishers

Dry chemical extinguishers are very effective for quelling Class B fires, as they can readily halt the spread of burning liquid. Dry chemical powder extinguishers are identifiable by their blue instruction label, and are best suited to combating larger flammable liquid fires (Class A), though they can also be used on electrical fires (Class C). They are often referred to as ABC dry powder extinguishers, due to their capacity to quell Class A, B and C fires. The extinguisher is filled with powder. Previously, mono-ammonium phosphate, sodium bicarbonate and purple-k were used, but the latest extinguishers are filled with potassium bicarbonate, which is kept under nitrogen pressure. Potassium bicarbonate is the only dry chemical fire suppression agent which is recognized by the National Fire Protection Association for firefighting at airport crash rescue sites. The powder is non-toxic, odourless, has a white colour and is less corrosive than the predecessors. Powder is expelled from the extinguisher by means of the exertion of gas pressure, and is very effective as a knockdown agent for flammable liquid fires. To use a DCP extinguisher, follow the PASS steps (same method as with water extinguishers) in the following order:

a. Remove the safety pin (Pull). b. Direct the jet of water at the base of the flames (Aim). c. Squeeze the trigger of the discharge lever (Squeeze). d. Keep moving the jet across the area in a sweeping motion (Sweep). e. Only try to combat small, minor fires.

Keep in mind that the powder has no cooling properties, so that it does not prevent the re-igniting of Class B fires. The dry chemical powder, which is messy, can damage electrical equipment, such as engines.

6. Vaporizing liquid / argonite extinguishers

Argonite extinguishers are identifiable by means of their green instruction label. They are best suited for use on flammable liquid (Class A) fires and on electrical (Class C) fires. Such extinguishers contain a blend of argon and nitrogen, which is stored in the fire extinguisher under the pressure of nitrogen. When the blend is expelled, it is vaporized by the heat of the fire, producing a smothering effect, by means of reducing the oxygen content. The vaporized liquid also interacts with the chemical combustion that takes place, which helps to extinguish the fire. To use a vaporizing liquid or aragonite extinguisher, follow the instructions given under water extinguishers above.

7. Fire hose reels The fire hose reel is also, by definition, considered to be a portable fire-fighting appliance, due to its extended hose feature. Such reels are often available in a swing-type design, which offers an all-directional flexibility, or which else comes in a static installation. Since the fire hose reel uses water, it is only effective against Class A fires.

8. Fire blankets

Fire blankets are fire-resistant, light and easy to handle. You can use them to extinguish a fire on a person whose clothing has caught on fire, by wrapping the blanket around the body of the person concerned. You can also use a fire blanket to cover a stove in the event of a pan fire, or even use one to cover yourself with in order that you might flee a building through its hot spots, if you have no other way out. Such blankets should be kept nearby any potential fire hazard.

9. Fire buckets

The water or sand in fire buckets can effectively be used to quell small Class A fires that are still in their early stages. However, they are considered to be unreliable as a method of fighting fires.

10. Fire suppression systems In addition to the conventional fire extinguishers that are often seen in red containers, fire extinguishers also come in various other forms, such as in the form of suppression systems, which can vary from sprinklers, gas suppression, foam, and CO2 systems to argonite and FM 200 (halon replacement) systems. Selecting the most appropriate application of fire-fighting equipment is the key to providing your family and/or employees with the best chance of containing a fire before it develops into a major incident, as well as of saving lives and property, and even the future of your enterprise.

Selecting the correct type and size of extinguisher

Your choice of extinguishers is likely to be determined by, among others factors, the character and extent

of the fires that you anticipate, the construction and occupancy of the individual property, the hazards from which you need to be protected, and the ambient temperature conditions. Before buying your portable fire extinguisher, make sure that it carries the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) mark. When in doubt, contact the SABS for verification. In addition, always keep in mind that the larger the appliance, the more cumbersome it will be for the elderly, women and children to use when it is required for them to do so. In a business, your choice of extinguisher will also be determined by the type of goods that you keep in the area concerned. Table 1 below provides an overview of which fire-extinguishing medium is best suited to quelling a particular class of fire. Keep in mind that it can be dangerous to use some types of fire extinguishers on certain classes of fire. Table 1: Overview of which fire-extinguishing medium is best suited to quelling a particular class of fire.

Fire-extinguishing Medium

Class of Fire

A B C Water Most Suitable Dangerous Dangerous

Foam Suitable Most Suitable Dangerous

CO2 Unsuitable Suitable Most Suitable

Dry Chemical Powder Most Suitable Most Suitable Most Suitable

Once you have identified what type of fire extinguisher you need to use for your specific application, make sure of the recommended minimum size that you require. The recommended minimum sizes of fire extinguisher that you need for protecting different types of property are listed in Table 2 below Table 2: Recommended minimum sizes for fire extinguishers for different types of property.

Type of Property

CO2 DCP Fire Blanket Fire Alarm

Dwelling > 200m² 2 x 2kg 4 x 2,5g or 2 x 4,5kg

Dwelling < 200m² 1 x 2kg 2 x 2,5kg or

1 x 4,5kg

Kitchen 1 x 2kg 1 x 1,5kg X X

Double Garage 1 x 2kg 1 x 2,5kg X X

Passenger Car 1 x 1kg

Caravan 1 x 2,5kg X X

Truck 2 x 4,5kg

Boat 2 x 2,5kg

Fire ratings must be displayed on the label of fire extinguishers, starting with the 1kg capacity appliance. The fire rating is an indication of the capacity of a fire extinguisher to extinguish a fire, and indicates its capacity to extinguish Class A and B fires. Always make sure that the appliance complies with the minimum performance ratings, as prescribed by SABS. The new fire ratings (see Table 3 below), which were introduced in 2009, come into force with effect from June 2010. Table 3: Size and minimum required fire ratings of dry chemical powder (DCP) fire extinguishers.

DRY CHEMICAL POWDER (DCP) FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Size Minimum required fire rating

1kg 5A / 21B

1.5kg 5A / 21B

2.5kg 8A / 34B

4.5kg 13A / 89B

9kg 27A / 144B

Always ensure that your fire extinguisher displays the correct fire rating.

Table 4: Fire extinguisher chart

Where to place extinguishers

The positioning of fire extinguishers is usually subject to various factors, and is subject to the outcome of a

fire risk assessment; however, it is recommended that extinguishers are placed in conspicuous positions, which are not more than approximately 20 meters apart. Extinguishers should be mounted on brackets that are no more than 1.25 meters from the floor, or on low shelves that are no more than 0.75 meters from the floor, as near as possible to exits or doorways and on staircase landings, or along the appropriate escape routes. Ensure that the extinguishers are not positioned in such a way as to cause people to trip over them or to hurt themselves with them. If you live in a large house, you might need more than one fire extinguisher. Every house should be supplied with a garden hose or hose reel, either outside or near the back door (see point 4 in Fig. 4 below), a dry chemical extinguisher near the garage or outbuildings (see point 3 in Fig. 4), a fire alarm, a fire blanket and a fire extinguisher in the kitchen area (see point 2 in Fig. 4). An additional extinguisher could be placed at point 1 in Fig. 4, depending on the size of the property.

Figure 4: Floor plan of a house, indicating recommended positioning of fire extinguishers.

1

2

3

4

Symbolic safety signs

Safety signs are used for informing the occupants of buildings about what and how to avoid hazardous

circumstances, including fires. Though you do not need to erect safety signs in your own home, you should know the basics about safety signs. South Africa is a member of the International Standards Organization (ISO), which has published recommendations for the use of symbolic safety signs. There are well over 100 accepted signs, which are collectively known as symbolic safety signs. The safety signs are said to be symbolic because they each depict a symbol that either portrays a warning or some other safety feature. Symbolic safety signs are split up into five different categories, of which each is recognizable by its colour and shape. The five categories are the following:

1. The prohibition category consists of signs bearing a black symbol on a white circular background surrounded by a red circular border, crossed through with a red diagonal line. Some examples of such signs are those forbidding the use of cigarettes or cell phones.

2. The general information category consists of signs bearing a white symbol on a green rectangular background. Some examples of such signs are those indicating the location of a shower or a clinic.

3. The mandatory category consists of signs bearing a white symbol on a blue circular background. Some examples of such signs are those requiring the wearing of safety goggles or boots.

4. The warning category consists of signs bearing a black symbol on a yellow triangle, with a black border. Some examples of such signs are those warning against fire and radioactivity.

5. The information regarding firefighting category consists of signs bearing a red symbol on a white rectangular background, surrounded by a red border. Some examples of such signs are those that indicate where fire hoses and hydrants are located.

Figure 5 below indicates the type of symbolic safety signage that can be seen in buildings and public places throughout South Africa.

Safety signs must be placed where they can easily be seen, and are generally best placed above eye level, at a height above two meters. All signs that are not self-supporting should be attached to flat-surfaced, or backing, plates. Alternatively, they may be framed, provided that the frame does not dominate the sign and that the sign conforms to the size required. If a sign is not adequately illuminated by means of natural lighting, or the building is occupied after dark, artificial lighting should be provided to illuminate the sign, or the signs should be self-illuminating.

What to do in case of fire

No generic action plan exists for dealing with all fires, due to the unique nature and characteristics of

each fire, including where it occurs and its size. However, the basic actions that can be taken in the event of a fire follow:

1. Maintain a range of fire extinguishers for different classes of fire, making sure that they are charged at all times.

2. Raise the alarm and call the fire brigade. 3. Immediately inform all other people who are in the building to evacuate it. 4. Do not try and put out a fire that you cannot control. 5. Obtain the most suitable fire extinguisher for the class of fire, and ensure that it is charged. 6. Use the correct activating procedure, always working in pairs. 7. Make sure that you can escape from a building in which there is a fire. When fighting a fire in a

building, always ensure that you are between the exit and the fire. 8. When fighting a fire in the open, ensure that the wind is blowing onto your back. 9. Never tread in a flammable liquid spillage. 10. Do not go too close to a fire. 11. Remember that each fire extinguisher has its own limitations. 12. When you have put the fire out, make sure that it is completely extinguished. 13. If you are unable to extinguish a fire, leave the building immediately and close all doors on your way

out to help contain the fire. Get out of the building, and stay out of it until the fire has been completely extinguished.

14. Most important of all, never underestimate the severity and extent of a fire! While waiting for the local fire department to arrive, position yourself so that you will not hamper the access of fire fighters to the fire when they arrive. Make sure that an easy, uncluttered and quick retreat is possible, by staying close to a door or window, or windward of the fire. Make sure that the fire is completely extinguished, and that there is no chance that the fire will reignite. Be careful when using the extinguisher on burning fluids, as the high-pressure jet from the extinguisher can result in the splashing of the fluids concerned. If the fluid gets onto your skin, it might cause burning. In the case of electrical fires, caution must be taken first to turn off any electrical current before attempting to spray the charge into an opening in the electrical equipment in order to access its interior components.

In the case of a fire occurring in the engine of a car, get out of the car, taking the extinguisher with you. Open the bonnet of the car carefully, taking care not to be overcome by smoke fumes, and immediately aim the fire extinguisher at the fire to extinguish it. Do not first investigate the cause of the fire, as any delay in dealing with the fire might lead to irreparable damage to the vehicle. In the event of a fire breaking out in the passenger compartment of a car, get out of the vehicle, taking the extinguisher with you. Deal with the fire from the outside of the vehicle. The same procedure should be followed when dealing with a fire that has broken out in a caravan, or any other vehicle. Note that the instructions regarding the correct use of a fire extinguisher are given on the outside of the extinguisher. Make sure that you study the instructions at the time of purchasing the equipment, so that you are fully aware of how to use it if a fire does break out. Take care when dealing with a fire. Be aware that smoke, which is a product of combustion, has the capacity to harm you long before the actual flames from the fire will. It is, therefore, advisable, when moving through a smoke-filled environment, to do the following:

1. Stay as close to the ground as possible, as the meter of air above the ground tends to remain relatively smoke-free.

2. Move towards, and then along, the walls of the building, until you find a window or a door. Use the back of your hand to feel your way along, as doing so will help prevent you touching live electrical sources.

3. If you enter a smoke-filled area with a line of fire hose or a hose reel, use the hose as a guideline to exit the area.

4. Breathe in through your nose and out through your mouth, as the hair follicles in your nasal passages attract soot particles, and so will help prevent your inhaling too much smoke.

5. If you are trapped inside a room in a building, stuff the cracks around the door of the room with towels, rags, bedding or tape, and cover any air vents to keep smoke out. If there is a phone in the room where you are trapped, call the fire department again to tell them exactly where you are located. Do this even if you can see that a fire engine has already arrived to put out the blaze. Wait at a window and signal for help with a flashlight or sheet. If possible, open the window at the top and bottom, but do not break it, as you might need to close the window if smoke pours into your vicinity. Be patient. Rescuing all the occupants of a high-rise building can take several hours. If you do attempt to open the door, brace your body against it while remaining as low to the floor as possible. Slowly open the door a crack to check for the presence of smoke or fire in the hallway. If you encounter smoke or flames on your way out, immediately return to your apartment or office.

6. Always use a stairwell, and never an elevator to get from floor to floor. An elevator might endanger your life still further by stopping at the floor on which the fire is raging.

7. If you occupy a single room in a building, and the fire is not burning in the room in which you are located, leave the room, if it is safe to do so. If you lock your room door, be sure to take your room key with you, in case the fire blocks your escape and you need to re-enter your room.

8. If your room opens onto a hallway, feel the door with the back of your hand to test how hot it is. If the door is cool, crouch low on the floor, brace your shoulder against the door, and open it slowly. However, be prepared to close the door quickly if there are flames on the other side. Then crawl through the smoke to the nearest exit, keeping in mind that the freshest air tends to be near the floor.

9. If your room door is hot, do not open it. Instead, seal the door with wet towels or sheets. Turn off the fans and air conditioners. Call the fire department to give them your location. Signal to them from your window, if possible.

10. If a fire breaks out when you are cooking with grease or oil in a pan, slide the pan lid over the flames to smother them, then turn off the heat and leave the lid in place until the pan cools down. Do NOT try to carry the pan outside.

11. Extinguish other food-related fires with baking soda. Never use water or flour on a fire that you are using for cooking.

12. To smother an oven or broiler fire, keep the oven door shut, and turn the oven off. Where possible, work together in pairs when trying to extinguish a fire. If the fire is too big and/or you are unsure about your own ability to extinguish it, evacuate the building through the closest escape route. Assemble at the assembly point, or outside the property, to ensure that you are all safe and accounted for.

Maintenance and restoration of fire extinguishers

Most countries worldwide have legislation in place to ensure that regular fire extinguisher maintenance is

performed by competent fire safety professionals. Lack of maintenance can lead to a fire extinguisher not discharging its contents when it is required to do so, or might even lead to the extinguisher rupturing under pressure. Deaths still occur due to corroded extinguishers exploding. SABS, in conjunction with all interested parties, was assigned the responsibility for developing the SANS 1475-1 standard, which regulates the production of reconditioned fire-fighting equipment. The first edition of the standard was published in 1989. The Department of Labour became involved with the fire-fighting industry in 1995. The Department stated that, due to fire extinguishers working under pressure, which is hazardous, those regulations pertaining to vessels under pressure should also apply to such equipment. On 4 October 1996, in terms of a notice that was issued in Government Gazette # 17468, the following regulations were incorporated into the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA) No. 85 of 1993:

1. No user shall use, require or permit the use of a hand-held fire extinguisher unless designed, constructed, filled, recharged, reconditioned, modified, repaired, inspected or tested in accordance with a safety standard incorporated into these regulations in terms of section 44 of the Act.”

2. No person shall fill, recharge, recondition, modify, repair, inspect or test any handheld fire extinguisher unless a holder of a permit issued by the South African Bureau of Standards in terms of SABS 1475.”

To satisfy the new development, SABS 1475-1 had to be reworded and amended. Such rewording and emendation was performed to comply with the control measures set by the Department of Labour. The result was the publication of the second edition of SABS 1475-1 in 1998. Both the South African Qualification and Certification Committee (SAQCC) and the first working group, which consisted of volunteers from the fire-fighting industry, were set up during a meeting which was held on 30 January 1997. The establishment of SAQCC led to the once-off registration with the body, of all those who were responsible for the reconditioning of fire extinguishers. The deadline for such registration was 31 October 1999. The applicants for such registration had to be in the employ of a SABS 1475 approved mark-holding company. The loss of the SABS mark by the company concerned could have resulted in SAQCC suspending the registration of the person concerned. SANS 1475-1, which was published in late 2003, replaced SABS 1475-1, as a result of further amendments. SABS then decided to refer to all standards as „national standards‟ changing the titles of the standards accordingly. All reference to SAQCC had to be removed from the standard, leading to the following definition of a „registering authority‟: an “institution recognized by the appropriate government department (Department of Labour) for the registration of technical personnel involved in the reconditioning of fire extinguishers”. The Department of Labour is, therefore, the only body that can currently appoint and recognize the necessary registering authority. SAQCC is, at present, the officially appointed and recognized registering authority. In addition, a person who is declared competent no longer has to be approved by SABS, but has only to be registered with SAQCC. The implementation of such standards and regulation has been to the benefit of the fire-fighting industry as a whole, as both the service provider and the end user are legally obliged to comply with the requirements that have been set for them. If the owner (the end user) uses a service provider other than a SANS 1475 mark-holder to recondition his or her fire extinguishers, both the service provider and the end user are guilty of an offence. They can be fined up to R100k, and be sentenced to two years in prison, in terms of OHSA if they contravene such a requirement. Such legislation requires that all hand-held fire extinguishers be serviced at least once a year. Such a service may also only be undertaken by a SAQCC-certified service technician, who is employed by a SANS 1475 permit-holder. The date of inspection should be recorded on a label, which is securely attached to the fire extinguisher in each case. Periodic pressure testing of extinguishers should be undertaken by specialist Pressure-testing stations. All extinguishers showing signs of internal corrosion or damage should be taken out of service and immediately replaced. All hand-held fire extinguishers, regardless of type and size, must be recharged after use, or must be disposed of. Do NOT undertake the maintenance or recharging of the fire extinguisher yourself.

Conclusion

Many different fire extinguishers are sold in South Africa, some of which fail to meet the safety and

quality standards that have been laid down by ISO and SABS. Make sure that your family and property are safe by only buying extinguishers from a reliable supplier, and by making sure that your product carries the SABS mark of approval.

Bibliography 1. Fire Protection Magazine: June 2009 edition volume 35 no.1 2. http://www.springsgov.com/units/fire/Safety/FireExtinguishers.htm 3. http://www.plymouth.edu/emergency/preventfire.html 4. http://www.firesafety.gov/citizens/firesafety/index.shtm 5. http://en.wikipedia.org 6. SABS Hand — held fire extinguishers guide 7. Safequip: http://www.safequip.co.za

Compiled by: Alwyn Strydom