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8/4/2019 The Evolution of Basic Color Terms in Chinese
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE
Jianshe Wu
Beijing International Studies University
ABSTRACT
This paper makes an attempt to construct a framework of how Chinese basic color
terms evolve over the past 4000 years, which is divided into several periods, by an
analysis of the relevant literature in history on the basis of word frequency counts.
Then we discuss what stage each period should be classified into under Berlin &
Kays framework and its recent developments. Against these findings, the similarities
and differences between our corpus and Berlin & Kays assumptions are analyzed
and presented. In addition, the replacement of Chi by Hong is also discussed with
reference to the Lexical Diffusion theory.
SUBJECT KEYWORDS
Basic Color Terms Diachronic Study Lexical Diffusion Color Category
1. INTRODUCTION
In 1969, Berlin & Kay advanced the following two hypotheses: [1] the referents
for the basic color terms of all languages appear to be drawn from a set of eleven
universal perceptual categories, and [2] these categories become encoded in the
history of a given language in a partially fixed order (Berlin & Kay 1969: 4-5).
Accordingly, they formulated a temporal-evolutionary ordering as follows:
Figure 1: The Berlin & Kays hierarchy of basic color terms (1969: 4)
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 77
Their theory of color universals runs counter to then standard Whorfian doctrineand marks a phase-shift in our understanding of the color categories. Before their
work the prevailing view was that color categories were culturally relative. Since 1969,
the dominant view has shifted toward a belief in color universals.
Following Berlin & Kays (1969) study, a large amount of cross-linguistic data
concerning the basic color terms have been collected. This has led to four substantial
theoretical revisions (Kay & McDaniel 1978; Kay, Berlin & Merrifield 1991; Kay,
Berlin, Maffi & Merrifield 1997; Kay & Maffi 1999).
First, according to Kay & McDaniel (1978), the idea of exactly eleven universal
perceptual categories has been replaced with the six Hering (1964) primaries (black,
white, red, green, yellow, blue) along with a restricted subset of their possible unions
(i.e. Composite categories such as [red or yellow],[blue or green]) and intersections
(i.e., Derived categories such as [orange], [purple], [pink], [gray], [brown]). In this
formulation, sets of color categories below Stage V must include at least one
composite category and any composite categories should have dissolved into the two
primary categories before the appearance of any derived categories; all languages
with more than six basic color terms should have at least one derived color category;
and grey has been listed as Less predictable (as shown in Figure 2).
Figure 2: The evolution of basic color categories (Kay & McDaniel, 1978: 639)
Second, based on the findings of the World Color Survey (WCS), Kay,
Berlin & Merrifield (1991) propose some relaxations to the constraints of Kay &
McDaniels (1978) version. The composite category grue (green or blue) could be
accompanied by the derived categories brown or purple and either brown or
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)78
purple or both not infrequently appear before the green/blue composite is dissolved;and a scheme (see Figure 3), allowing nine of the logically possibly 63 composite
categories to occur, has been proposed to include the composite categories so far
observed; at the same time, they present five evolutionary possibilities at Stage III
and three at Stage IV.
Figure 3: Permissible composite categories: Observed composite categories (Kay et al. 1991)
Third, Kay, Berlin, Maffi & Merrifield (1997) classify the 110 basic color
terminology systems of the WCS into eleven basic types, based on the combinations of
Herings primary terms they contain (Figure 4 [This is an adapted version consisting
only of nine types]). Their theory now concern only those basic color terms and derived
color categories are not incorporated in those types, where every stage contains one
more basic color term than the preceding stage and an arrow indicates the transitions
from the type occurring on its left to the type toward which it points.
Figure 4: Types and evolutionary stages of basic color term systems (Kay, Berlin,
Maffi & Merrifield 1997, as cited in Kay & Maffi 1999: 748)
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 79
Fourth, Kay & Maffi (1999) place 83% (91 out of 110 languages, see numbersin Figure 5) of the languages somewhere on the main line of five evolutionary
trajectories of basic color term systems. And a model of one language-based
principle [Part ition] and three color-appearance-based principles [Black & White,
Warm & Cool and Red] has been presented to account for the data in WCS. In this
model, they claim an order of application of those principles as 0) Partition Principle:
languages tend to assign significata to lexical items in such a way as to partition the
denotata of the domain; 1) Black & White Principle: black and white should be
distinguished; 2) Warm & Cool Principle: the warm primaries (red and yellow)
should be distinguished from the cool primaries (green and blue); and 3) Red
Principle: red should be distinguished.
Figure 5: Main line (Trajectory A) of evolutionary development of basic color
lexicons (Kay & Maffi 1999: 750)
By adopting the above-mentioned revisions, it is believed that the theory of
universality and evolutionary emergence of basic color terms moves gradually out of
anthropological linguistics into color science (Saunders 2000). In the wake of this
process, revolving around two questions ([1] Is color naming across languages
largely a matter of arbitrary linguistic convention? [2] Do cross-language differences
in color naming cause corresponding differences in color cognition? [Kay & Regier
2006]), a number of empirical studies (Heider 1971, 1972; Heider & Olivier 1972;
Rosch 1973; Berlin & Berlin 1975; Kay 1975; Kay & Kempton 1984; Ratliff 1976;
De Valois & De Valois 1993; MacLaury 1997; Davies & Corbett 1998; Regier, Kay
& Cook 2005), computer modeling and simulations (Belpaeme 2002; Steels &
Belpaeme 2005; Belpaeme & Bleys 2005; Dowman 2002, 2007, 2008) and disputes
(Wierzbicka 1990; Saunders 1992, 1999,2000; Saunders & Brakel 1997, Lucy 1997a,
1997b; Lyons 1997; Roberson, Davies & Davidoff 2000, Roberson, Davidoff, Davies
& Shapiro 2005) ensue.
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)80
Nonetheless, among all those inspiring works, it is very rare to locate adiachronic study of basic color terms, whether in English or in any other languages,
based on the relevant literature in history available now. It is believed that the
relationship between language and society could be understood in a more
comprehensive way through such diachronic study and it will reveal to us additional
information more reliable and interesting. And it is for this purpose that the present
paper will turn to Chinese basic color terms. In the following parts, after a general
review of contemporary works concerning the studies of basic color terms in Chinese,
we attempt to conduct a corpus-based diachronic study of basic color terms in
Chinese. We argue that the evolution of Chinese basic color terms might not fully
match the main-line trajectory of Berlin & Kays hypothesis as illustrated above.
Meanwhile, how words and naming are progressing with the development of society
has been discussed in view of our findings. In so doing, we expect that such a
diachronic perspective could provide a supplementary look at other synchronic
studies and simulation studies.
2. BASIC COLOR TERMS RESEARCH IN CHINA
There exist a number of researches on Chinese basic color terms (henceforth
CBCT). In general, synchronic studies prevail. Some ground their studies solely on
Oracle bone inscriptions ( , hereinafter called OBI), Bronze Inscriptions (
), Shijing ( , or The Book of Songs), or Shuowen jiezi ( , the
etymological dictionary compiled by Xu Shen [][c. A.D. 58-148] in the second
century.)(Hu 1941, Zhang 1991, Xu 1995, Baxter 1983, Wang 1993); some review
CBCTs development from a lexical and / or grammatical point of view (Zhang 2001,
Xu 2003, Li 2003); some attempt to explicate the cultural and social significance
underlying CBCT; whereas, at the same time, a diachronic analysis of CBCTs
evolution could also be found.
After analyzing each hieroglyph form of Bai ( , white), Chi ( ,
red)(including Dan [, red] and Zhu [, vermillion]),Huang(, yellow),
Hei (, black) and Qing(, black or grue [blue or green]) in OBI, Hu (1941)
deduces its respective process of being generated.
Zhang (1991) bases his study on OBI, Bronze Inscriptions, Erya ( orNear
Corretness), Shuowen jiezi, in which the semantic constituents of those color terms
are introduced and the cultural connotations in Chi, Hei, Huang, Bai are revealed.
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 81
Xu (1995) relies his study more on Shuowen jiezi. All the color terms arecounted and their frequencies are listed so as to determine which should be classified
as CBCT (in China, the distinction between Zheng se [ , Pure Color] and Jian
se [, Secondary Color] is more or less equal to the BCT and non-BCT ) while
which not.
Viewing from grammatical angle, Zhang (2001) lays more emphasis on the
adjectives in OBI and his suggestion of the color terms used at that time areBai, Hei,
You ( or, bright black), Chi , Huang,Li ( or , multi-colored or black).
Xu (2003) also analyzes the adjectives in OBI. The color terms listed includes
Chi, Huang, Zhi ( , red or clayey), Bai, You, Hei, Wu ( or ,
multi-colored) .
Li (2003) has studied the grammar of OBI and at last produced a list of
adjectives of the following color terms:Bai, Hei, You, Xuan, Chi, Zhi, Huang, Li.
In Zhang (2003), he presents a general review of the studies on vocabulary and
grammar of OBI. Therein Wang Shaoxin ( ) has mentioned: Bai, Chi, Huang,
L (, green) as the color terms; Xiang Xi () has included Bai, Chi, Huang,
L, You in his list of adjectives; and Guan Xiechu ( ) presentsBai, Huang, You
while Cheng Mengjia () claims Bai, Huang, Hei, You, Chi instead. Liang
Yinfeng () identifies seven color terms: Wu, You, Hei, Bai, Chi, Huang, Zhi
and at the same time, Yang Fengbin ( ) reviews all the adjectives claimed by
each scholar and at last figures out a list of You, Huang, Hei, Bai, Chi.
Based on his study on the culture of the Shang () dynasty, Zhao (2000) works
out a list ofChi, Huang, Hei, You, Bai. Moreover he points out the wider connotation
as shown in each color terms.
These studies are mainly concerned with the development of ancient Chinese.
In contrast, a modern study of color terms could be found in Xies unpublished
doctoral dissertation, in which each basic color terms are analyzed in terms of
semantic field and codability. Consequently a list of contemporary color terms is
given (Xie 2004).
A more comprehensive work has been done by Yao (1988), who reviews the
history of color studies and in view of Berlin & Kays theory of Basic Color Terms,
divides the Chinese history into five stages: the Late Shang dynasty (ca. 1500-1122
B.C.), the Western and Eastern Zhou () through Qin () dynasties (ca.
1121-207 B.C.), the Han () through Jin () to Southern & Northern dynasties
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( ) (ca. 206 B.C. 589 A.D.), the Tang () through Song () to Qing ()dynasties (ca. 581-1911 A.D.) and Modern China () (ca. 1911-present) so
as to present an evolutionary pattern of basic color terms in Chinese. He concludes
that the evolution of CBCT from the Late Shang to Tang Dynasty does not comply
with Berlin & Kays theory, and he is expecting a more elaborated explanation.
Three additional researches concerning Chinese basic color terms are carried
out respectively by Baxter, a famous American sinologist, Wang Tao, a British
citizen of Chinese origin, and Cheung Sauying ( ). Baxter has compared the
CBCT in the Earlier Period (referring to the Shang and Western Zhou [ ]
dynasties [ca. 1500-771 B.C.], having recourse to Shijing and the reconstruction of
Old Chinese) with those in the Late Period (extending from the Eastern Zhou []
through the Han [] dynasty [ca. 770 B.C. -220 A.D], with the help ofShuowen jiezi
and Shijing) in relation to Berlin & Kays evolution theory of basic color terms. He
proposes two stages of the Chinese languages: a later period, perhaps ending with
the Han dynasty, which had five basic color terms (a stage IV system: Bai, Huang,
Hei, Chi and Qing), and an earlier period, probably ending with the end of the
Western Zhou dynasty or somewhat earlier, which had four basic color terms (a stage
IIIb system: Bai, Huang, Xuan [, reddish black], Chi)(Baxter 1983: 21). The
study conducted by Wang Tao complements Baxters. By his particular review of the
use of Chi, Xing (, red-yellow), Bai, Wu, Zhi, Huang, Hei, You, Xuanin the
Late Shang OBI, he asserts that Baxters conclusion is overall correct, but subject to
some minor modifications (Wang 1996). Cheungs study on Chi andHong(, red)
provides us both synchronic and diachronic analysis on their usages in the corpora,
focusing on semantic extensions of color terms towards non-physical color senses.
As a result, the replacement of Chi by Hong is discussed against the framework of
lexical diffusion theory and prototype theory and an Object-Process-Quality process
in semantic change of color terms is highlighted (Cheung 2004).
In summary, the above studies, except Yaos review and Cheungs corpus-based
study, could be classified as some synchronic then-descriptions about Chinese color
terms (not necessarily basic color terms). Even though some have touched on its
evolution, it is either not so comprehensive or confined to a short time span. Among
them, Yaos work is really pioneering and more related to our research here
(Cheungs study is also closely connected to our analysis on semantic extensions of
basic color terms here) . However, the sequential appearance of CBCT in his
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 83
framework is questioned by many scholars (see Xie 2004), and such doubt should beclarified; moreover, his division of Chinese history into five stages could be further
delineated in hopes of locating the specific dynasty in which each CBCT turns up as
the basic color term; and furthermore, in Yaos review, all the relevant evidence are
omitted due to the limits of space length. Admittedly, it is of great regret to see those
necessary supporting details missing.
3. METHODS
In view of both the status quo of basic color term studies lacking in a
diachronic study and these discreet literature found in Chinese studies, we attempt to
reveal the evolution process of Chinese basic color terms by statistic counting on a
continuum of 25 history books1 from Western Han Dynasty (206B.C.25A.D.) to
Qing Dynasty(1644A.D.-1911A.D.). In dosing, we also wish to establish a
comparison between our findings and Berlin & Kay (1969), Kay & McDaniel (1978),
Kay et al. (1991), Kay, Berlin, Maffi & Merrifield (1997), Kay & Maffi (1999). It is
specified as follows:
1 The corpus is based on The Twenty-Five Histories (, Dynastichistories from remote antiquity till the Qing Dynasty) and its special editing
tradition makes this diachronic study possible. And for the dynasties which have not
been covered by these books, i.e., before Western Han and after Qing Dynasty, we
complement these 25 volumes of history books with Oracle Bone Inscriptions in the
Late Shang dynasty () (ca. 1500-1122 B.C.), Bronze Inscriptions in the
Western Zhou dynasty () (ca. 1121-771 B.C.), and Zhu zi bai jia (,
The classics from all schools in ancient China) in the Spring & Autumn and
Warring States Periods () (ca. 770-221 B.C.) for the former (there is
no any other book available today for these periods), and with Modern Novel
Collections in modern times for the latter.
2 To ensure the corpus is not biased by the official documenting system, wefurther add those books written in vernacular Chinese into our corpus for comparison
purpose (see each section below for details). And such relevant etymological
dictionaries as Shuowen jiezi, Yu pian (), Lei pian () are also included for
reference purpose.
3 All those books, with a few exceptions (e.g., OBI, the color words arehandpicked by the author), are in electronic version, within which these color words
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have been searched with the help of Acrobat software (Version 7.0).4 To exclude the same words which are not used as color words here, the
author further identifies each color words based on the searching results produced by
Acrobat software.
5 The number of color words for each item is added up and the percentageis calculated within each table.
6 Whether a color word belongs to basic color terms or not is judged withthe guidelines provided by Berlin & Kay (1969), i.e.,
These color terms are known by all speakers; These color terms are highly salient; These color terms do not denote a subset of colors denoted by
another word;
The meaning of these color terms is not predictable from themeaning of their parts.
And their four complementing features are also considered.
4. FINDINGS CONCERNING THE EVOLUTION OF CBCT
Referring to Wang (1958), L (1985) and Xiang (1993), we group the Chinese
history into eight periods, for the purpose of our analysis. They are: the Late Shang
dynasty () (ca. 1500-1122 B.C.), the Western Zhou dynasty () (ca.
1121-771 B.C.), the Spring & Autumn and Warring States Periods ()
(ca. 770-221 B.C.), the Qin and Han dynasties () (ca. 221 B.C.-220 A.D.),
the Three Kingdoms, through Jin to Southern & Northern dynasties (
) (ca. 220 589 A.D.), the Sui through Tang, Five Dynasties & Ten Kingdoms
to Song dynasties () (ca. 581-1279 A.D.), the Yuan through
Ming to Qing dynasties () (ca. 1271-1911 A.D.), Modern China (
) (ca. 1911-present). We will introduce each stage as follows:
4.1 The Late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1500-1122 B.C.)
Basic Color Terms:
Bai (white), Huang (yellow), You (black), Chi (red)
We have searched The Dictionary of OBI(Xu 1988), The Concise Dictionary of
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 85
OBI (Cui 2001) and The Collected Papers on OBI(Li 1965), and it is found that inthe Late Shang dynasty, the basic color terms could be:
Bai, Emerging at Period I, II, III, IV and V2
Cui 786: (hui / bai-white / sheep / have / big / rain: We should
sacrifice a white sheep, and there will then be heavy rain.)
Huang, Emerging at Period I and V
Cui 545: (hui / huang-yellow / ox: We should sacrifice a yellow ox.)
ZhiEmerging at Period I, II, III, IV and V
Heji 35995: (qi / zhi- red or clayey / ox / this / use: We shall
perhaps sacrifice a red ox. This was used.)
Jin,(3) Emerging at Period I and II
Cui 551: (qi / use / jin-? / ox: We shall perhaps use jin-colored ox.)
Chi,Emerging at Period I and III
Tie 10.2: X4 X (guichou / crack / X / divine / left /
chi-red / horse / qi / X / not / wild: Cracking made on guichou [indicating time], X
divining: the red horse on the left side will be tame, not wild.)
Hei, Emerging at Period I, III and V
Ninghu 113: (not / use / hei-black /
sheep / no / rain / hui / bai-white / sheep / use / for / it / have / big / rain: We should
not use black sheep, there will otherwise no rain. We should sacrifice a white sheep
for it, there will then be heavy rain.)
You,Emerging at Period I and III
Yi 7121: (hui / you-bright black / ox / plus / huang-yellow / ox:
We should sacrifice a black ox together with a yellow one.)
Xuan,Emerging at Huayuanzhuang Dongde ()
Heji 33276: (xuan-reddish black / ox: A black ox.)
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)86
Li,Emerging at Period I and VHeji 25020: (li-multi-colored or black / sheep: A multi-colored or black sheep.)
Wu,Emerging at Period I, II and III
Yi 203: (hui / no / wu-multi-colored / horse: We do not sacrifice
multi-colored horses.)
The other words likeXing(then it means a red-horse),Bo (, multi-colored
horse), L (, emerging at Period II, with an unidentified meaning), Zhu (then it is
used as a place name), Dan (also a place name), Qing (it could be a name for
imperial clan) should not be employed as a color term at that time. Among the
above-mentioned color terms, Jin, Li, Xuan is seldom used, while the frequency of
Bai, Huang, You, Hei, Chi used as an adjective is 97/22/11/10/3 respectively (Yang,
as cited in Zhang 2003). Here, You and Hei are both referring to Black, whereas
You could be more possibly used to represent Black (see Guan and Xiang, as cited
in Zhang 2003).
In accordance with the four main and additional features of basic color terms as
proposed by Berlin & Kay (1969), Zhi, Wu, Hei could also be excluded. As for
Chi, in the light of the conclusions held by most of the scholars (see Part 2: Basic
color terms research in China), it should be a basic color term at that time. But with
its low frequency of occurrence, it still calls for a plausible explanation.
4.2 The Western Zhou Dynasty (ca. 1121-771 B.C.)
Basic Color Terms:
Bai (white), Chi (red), Huang (yellow), Xuan (black)
According to Collection of Bronze Inscriptions (Volume I: The Late Shang and
Western Zhou dynasties)5(CRC of ECNU 2002), in Western Zhou Period, Bai,
Huang, Chi, You, Zhi, Hei could still be found in Bronze inscriptions of
the Western Zhou dynasty with the exception of Li and Wu. Moreover, Xuan
starts to emerge as a color word in large quantities. Among other things, we could
observe such color terms as:
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 87
Emerging in the Early Western Zhou:
Zhe(, reddish brown)
Jicheng 11.6015: () (Nobleman / be-granted / Zhe /
slaves / two / hundred / family: A nobleman has been granted reddish brown cloth
and two hundred servants.)
Emerging in the Mid Western Zhou:
Su (, white)
Jicheng 15.9702: (White / silk / bundle: A bundle of white silk.)
Zhu(, vermilion)
Jicheng 16.9898: (Be-granted / apron-like clothes /Zhu / jade worn as
a pendant: An apron-like clothes and vermilion jade pendant have been granted.)
Tong(, red)
Jicheng 5.2780: (Be-granted / / Tong/ arrow: Red arrows are granted.)
Xun ( or , light crimson)
Jicheng 8.4343: (Xun / liner: Light crimson liner.)
Xing(, red)
Jicheng 8.4165: (Be-granted /Xing/ bull: A red bull has been granted.)
Emerging in the Late Western Zhou:
Cong( or, turquoise)
Jicheng 5.2841: (Vermilion / apron-like clothes / Cong / jade worn
as a pendant: Vermilion apron-like clothes and turquoise jade pendant.)
Furthermore, we could have recourse to the report on the frequency of those
characters being used in Bronze Inscriptions of the Western Zhou dynasty (Zhang 2004).
In this report, he notes the frequency as follows (here he makes no distinction between
the use as color terms and the use as others):Bai 849, Chi 111,Huang107,Zhu 70,Xuan
55, You 27, Tong18,Zhi 10,Xun 10, Cong8, Qing3,Dan 3, Su 3,Hei 2,Xing1.
In summary, the then basic color terms in Western Zhou Period are still
dominated byBai, Chi, Huang, Xuan. Here, Zhu, You should not be voted as one of
them in accordance with both the stipulations by B&K and its frequency; by
Collection of Bronze Inscriptions, Xuan at this time is used more to represent
Black while Hei fails to be ranked as a basic color term in view of its frequency.
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During this period, Qing and Dan could be found thrice in Bronze inscriptionsbut serves not as basic color terms; whereas Cang ( or , black or grue)
appears in the late Western Zhou only in the name of granary. It is noted that
Cong emerges as a new color word, which significantly reveals the obvious
perception of color Cyan at that time.
4.3 The Spring & Autumn And Warring States Periods (ca. 770-221 B.C.)
Basic Color Terms:
Chi (red), Huang (yellow), Hei (black), Bai (white), Qing/Cang (black or grue)
According to Collection of Bronze Inscriptions (Volume II: the Spring &
Autumn and Warring States Periods)in the Spring & Autumn and Warring States
Periods, BaiHeiHuangChiYou, Xuan, Zhu are used in common as major color
terms while the usage of Cang, Hong (, referring to pink at that time), L (,
green), Zi (, purple), Xun, Cong, Su, Tong, Zhi, Xing, Li, Wu is not found in
Bronze Inscriptions of the Spring & Autumn and Warring States Periods. During this
period, Qing emerges four times and only serves as a color word one time (in the
Spring & Autumn Period, Jicheng 16.10136: [Qing-colored bronze]).
During this period Bronze inscriptions are found increasingly decreasing. In
this view, we refer to other possible books existing at that time like Shang shu (
)6, Shijing7, Yi li ( )8, Zhou yi ( )9, the Analects ( )10, Chunqiu
zuozhuan ()11, the Works of Mencius ()12 and Zhou li ()13. Here
are their respective frequencies of use in each book:
Table 1
Ba Hu Xu Su Qi Ch Zh He Xun Ca L Zi Ho Co
Shang shu 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1
Shijing 25 35 7 13 9 6 5 3 14 10 1
Yi li 12 4 32 11 3 2 7 3 17 1
Zhou y i 8 13 4 2 2 1 1
Analect s 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
zuozhuan 6 6 8 3 2 2 4 5 1 1
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 89
Mencius 20 2 2 1 1 1
Zhou l i 17 10 9 12 14 14 6 11 2 1
Sum 92 72 67 44 29 27 27 24 21 15 11 4 1 1
% 21 17 15 10 7 6 6 6 5 3 3 1 0 0
* Ba- Bai; Hu- Huang; Xu- Xuan; Su Su; Qi-Qing; Ch - Chi; Zh- Zhu; He- Hei;
Xun-Xun; Ca- Cang; L- L; Zi - Zi ; Ho- Hong; Co- Cong.
* Percentages here and below are all in rounding-off numbers.
It could be generalized that Bai, Huang, Xuan, Su, Qing, Chi, Zhu, Hei, at
that time, serve as major color terms while Cang, L, Zi, Hong, could not be
determined. As for Cong, it is rarely used.
In order to ascertain which one of Xuan, Hei could be the basic color term
representing Black and the possible usage of Qing, Cang, L, Zi, Hong
at that time, we further search all the works available14, written at that time, collected
in Si bu cong kan ()15.
Table 216
The Warring States Period Ba He Hu Qi Zi Xu Ca Ho L
Lie zi ( ) (Early) 9 6 4 3 3
Mo zi ( ) (Early) 33 34 10 5 1 3
Wu zi ( ) (Early) 1 2 1
Liu tao ( ) (Early) 6 4 3 2
Shang zi ( ) (Mid) 1 1
Zhuang zi ( )(Mid) 16 4 8 10 1 4 4
Xun zi ( ) (Late) 10 10 2 2 3 3
Han zi ( ) (Late) 31 14 4 2 22 3 2 2
Guan zi ( ) (believed to be) 34 35 51 20 1
Sum 141 107 80 47 26 18 9 2 0
% 33 25 19 11 6 4 2 1 0
* Ba-Bai; He- Hei; Hu-Huang; Qi-Qing; Zi - Zi ; Xu- Xuan; Ca- Cang; Ho- Hong; L-L.
As is noted in Table 2, Hei is more often used than Xuan in the late Warring
States Period. It is more convincing to claim that during this period, Hei has been
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)90
elevated to be a basic color term to represent Black.As for Qing, its abusive use in the Warring States Period could be observed
easily by the following facts. It has been listed as one of Five Colors ( or
) in Shang shu Yu Gong (.) and Zhou li and ranked as one of Six
Zhang (, Six Colors) in Yi li, and one of Six Colors () (Qing, Bai, Chi,
Hei, Xuan, Huang) in Chunqiu zuozhuan. With reference to the frequency as shown
in Table 1 and 2, Qing should be listed as a basic color term at that time.
Cang, first emerging as a color term in Shijing,Zhou li, i.e., in the Spring and
Autumn Period, grows gradually in quantities. In Yi zhou shu Xiao kai wu (
), it has been mentioned that Wu Xing(, Five Agents)17 includes:
Water inHei, Fire in Chi, Wood in Cang, Metal inBai and Earth inHuang(
). It seems that Cang
at that time is popular as an alternative of Qing and could appear in Qings place.
As for the emergence of Zi, according to Table 1, its appearances in The
Works of Mencius, Chunqiu zuozhuan and the Analects suggest the period of the Mid
Warring States Period, while in the light of Table 2, it fails to present itself in the
Early Warring States Period and its showing up could only be observed in several
works of the Mid or Late Warring States Period. So it is safe to say Zi starts to be
employed as a color term not until the Mid Warring States Period (it could be tightly
bound up with the wearing of purple clothes by Heng Gong ( ) of the Qi State
in the Warring States Period) but it still does not prevail.
As regards L, it could only be found in Shijing(among them, 9 times in Guo
Feng [] and one time in Lu Song []) and Yi li ([vermilion and
green silks]). Besides, we could notice its occurrence once respectively in Xun zi and
Lie zi of the Warring States Period, both in the form of L er (), one of Eight
Fine Horses (). It is self-evident that L has its debut in the Late Spring and
Autumn Period but has not been granted the position of basic color terms.
Hong (it refers to pink at that time) wins its initial performance in The
Analects and Han zi of the Late Warring States Period. However, obviously, it fails to
obtain the status of being a basic color term. At the same time, Zi, L and
Hong could not be located in Bronze inscriptions of the same period, which, on the
other hand, justifies their peripheral status in the then society.
Another important work which we could refer to is Lshi chunqiu (),
since it has been completed just eight years after the founding of the Qin dynasty, i.e.,
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immediately after the Warring States Period. Here the frequencies of color terms areshown as follows:
Bai 55, Chi 23, Hei 20, Huang 18, Xuan 15, Qing 13, Cang 10, Zhu 8, Su 4, L 1.
It should be noted that Zhe, He (, brown), Hong, Zi, Lan (, blue),
Cheng(, orange), Hui (, grey), Dian (, indigo), Cong, Xun, Dan, You
fail to present themselves here. To a large extent, the above data concerning color
terms could serve as an essential proof of the above analysis.
In summary, during this period, the basic color terms are confined to Chi,
Huang, Hei, Bai, Qing/Cang. In this period, You fades out and Five Colors
(including Qing, Chi, Bai, Hei, Huang) or Six Colors (plus Xuan) (see Shang shu
Yu Gongand Zhou li respectively) steps on stage.
4.4 The Qin And Han Dynasties (ca. 221 B.C.-220 A.D.)
Basic Color Terms:
Bai (white), Huang (yellow), Hei (black), Chi (red), Qing (black or grue)
During the Qin and Han dynasties, the earliest classics we could refer to is Erya,
Li ji ()18, Shi ji () and Han shu ()19. Accordingly, the frequencies of
their usage are listed as follows:
Table 3
Ba Hu Ch Qi He Xu Zi Ca L Xu Zh Da Ho
Erya 49 21 6 6 12 7 2 2
Li ji 38 19 14 17 22 52 1 1 5 12 4
Shi ji 180 133 38 49 40 24 10 16 2 1 2 1 2
Han 252 275 114 91 82 35 30 16 15 1 14 7 7
Sum 519 448 172 163 156 118 41 35 22 16 16 12 9
% 30 26 10 9 9 7 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
* Ba- Bai; Hu- Huang; Ch - Chi; Qi-Qing; He- Hei; Xu- Xuan; Zi - Zi ; Ca- Cang;
L-L; Xu- Xun; Zh-Zhe; Da- Dan; Ho- Hong.
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It could be concluded that the then major color terms could coverBai, Huang,Chi, Qing/Cang, Hei, Xuan,. Among them, the usage of Xuan, Cang is gradually
reduced; Zi awaits further confirmation of whether it belongs to the basic color
terms or not; and Hong and L are not prevalent at that time.
As a frame of reference, Shuowen jiezi, completed in the Eastern Han ()
Dynasty by Xu Shen, could serve as an essential source for verification. The major
color terms used in this work are20:
Bai 82, Hei 68, Chi 54, Huang 53, Qing 36, Dan 9, Zhu 7, Xuan 5, Jiang (,
crimson) 5, Wu2 (, black) 3, Zi 2, Liu-Huang ( , brown)1, Huang-Hei
( , yellow-black) 6 / Huang-Bai ( , yellow-white) 2, Qing-Hei (,
grue-black) 6 / Qing-Chi (, grue-red) 2 / Qing-Huang(, grue-yellow)
2 / Qing-Bai (, grue-white) 1, Chi-Huang (, red-yellow) 3 / Chi-Hei
( , red-black) 3 / Chi-Bai ( , red-white) 1, Bai-Huang ( ,
white-yellow) 1 /Bai-Qing(, white-grue) 1 / Bai-Hei (, white-black)
1, Zi-Qing ( , purple-grue) 1 / Xuan-Huang ( , black-yellow) 1 /
Dan-Huang(, red-yellow) 1 (Xu 1995)among other things, Cang 0.
It should be noted that here Zi is not frequently used and more importantly, its
definition in Shuowen jiezi reads: of cloth, a grue-red color (). Another
noteworthy fact lies in the use of Xuan and Cang. Obviously, they are not
employed as basic color terms again.
Furthermore, another important work, Shi ming Shi Cai Bo (.),
completed at the end of The Eastern Han dynasty by Liu Xi (), includes such color
terms as Qing, Chi, Huang, Bai, Hei, Jiang, Zi, Hong, Xiang (, pale yellow), L,
Piao (, light grue), Zi2 (, black), Zao ( or, black), Su, Gan (, dark
purple). In his work, Xuan and Cangare not listed. And its definition ofZi goes like
this: Zi means a flaw. It holds its status as a secondary color term and is regarded as a
flaw of five Pure Colors (, , , ).
In summary, Zi still fails to obtain the status as a basic color term at that time,
while Xuan, Cang are no longer used as basic color terms. Correspondingly, we
could have the following basic color terms: Bai, Huang, Hei, Chi , Qing.
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4.5 The Three Kingdoms, Through Jin To Southern & Northern Dynasties (ca. 220 589 A.D.)
Basic Color Terms:
Bai (white), Huang (yellow), Hei (black), Chi (red), Qing (black or grue), Zi (purple)
During this period, we could locate such history books as San guo zhi ( ),
Hou han shu (), Song shu (), Nan qi shu () and Wei shu ()21.
Here we take Chi, Qing as a reference, and the other color terms are listed in terms
of their frequencies.
Table 4
Ch Qi Zi Ji L Za Ga Ho Bi Zi2 Pi Xu Xi Fe
San guo 19 31 6 5 1 2 2
Hou ha n 124 98 38 25 12 26 10 5 3 6 8 4 1
Song 170 164 71 47 24 26 8 9 6 5 7 4 5
Nan qi 91 58 48 33 22 7 10 13 2 2 1
Wei 118 93 31 10 6 10 3 5 6 12 1 2 4
Sum 522 444 194 120 65 62 30 29 28 25 20 9 8 4
% 34 29 12 8 4 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0
* Ch - Chi; Qi-Qing; Zi - Zi ; Ji-Jiang; L- L; Za- Zao; Ga- Gan; Ho- Hong; Bi- Bi;
Zi2--Zi2; Pi-Piao; Xu- Xun; Xi- Xiang; Fe- Fei.
In Table 4, we could observe the slow rising ofZi in the late period and its
frequency far overtakes those of others like Jiang, L, Zao, Gan, Hong,
Bi (, bluish green). It could be inferred that apart from those basic color terms,
Zi has been ranked as important.
To do justice to this assertion, we go further to another important etymological
dictionary, Yu pian (), compiled at that time, for confirmation. Among them,
these color terms are listed: Bai 163, Hei 137, Chi 89, Huang 76, Qing 45, Cang 19,
Xuan 12, Zi 9, Zhu 5, L 5, Hong 3, Jiang 3, Dan 2, Gan 1, Piao 1, Fei (, bright
red) 1 (Besides, there are still another 60 color terms listed, which are less used).
What we should pay attention to is its definition of these words like L, which isinterpreted as of cloth, a grue-yellow color (), Lan, which is defined as
a kind of grass, from which colorQing(black or grue) could be extracted (
), Bi, which is explained as blue or green precious stone (),
and Fei, which is conceived as crimson boil silk (). Among them, Zi
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has been used only less frequently than those basic color terms as well as Cang, Xuan,the late basic color terms.
Such fact could be more revealing if we review the so-called Pure Color and
Secondary Color theory, which has been formulated during this period. As early as
in Li ji Yu Zao ( .), it has been stated that clothes take pure color while
skirts employ secondary color (, ). Upon such statement, Zheng
Xuan (), a famous scholar in the Eastern Han Dynasty, interprets it as the
crown should be in black while its dress in yellow (). Liu Xi, in his
Shi ming Shi Cai Bo, also explains Zi means a flaw. It holds its status as a
non-basic color term and is regarded as a flaw of five basic color terms , ,
, . Taiping yu lan (), completed in the Song dynasty
(ca. 960 1279 A.D.), quotes Huan ji yao le (), completed in this period,
as saying: Pure Colors include Qing, Chi, Huang, Bai, Hei while Secondary Color
consist of Gan, Hong, Piao, Zi, Liu-Huang. This is the first time when Pure and
Secondary Colors are systematically distinguished. Also in this period, Huang Kan
( ), from the Southern Liang () Dynasty, comments that Pure Colors
comprise Qing, Chi, Huang, Bai, Hei while Secondary Colors containL, Hong, Bi,
Zi, Liu-Huang. Although different assertions are made, Zi, Hong, Liu-Huang are
all included as one part of Secondary colors. It could be deduced that those three
colors, are ranked as the next most important at that time.
In view of such complicated situation, we turn again to those works written in
spoken language for further confirmation of the status of Zi. We include Shi shuo
xin yu () and Qi ming yao shu (), written both in this period, in
our corpus. The final search results are presented as follows:
Table 5
Ba Hu Ch Qi He Zi L Bi Ho Ga Pi LH
Shi shuo xin yu 21 9 1 7 3 3 0 1 0 0 0 0
Qi ming yao shu 222 127 96 84 83 43 16 5 4 1 2 0
Sum 243 136 97 91 86 46 16 6 4 1 2 0
% 33 1 9 13 13 12 6 2 1 1 0 0 0
* Ba- Bai; Hu- Huang; Ch - Chi; Qi- Qing; He- Hei; Zi - Zi ; L- L; Bi- Bi; Ho-
Hong; Ga- Gan; Pi-Piao; LH-Liu-Huang.
It is found that the frequency of Zi in these two works are highly consistent
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with the data we have collected in the history books as well as dictionaries. At thattime, its use has far outrun those of other non-basic color terms and could be safely
listed as an equivalent of the other basic color terms.
In summary, Zi could be ranked among the basic color terms at that time. So
the list should be Bai, Huang, Hei, Chi , Qing, Zi.
4.6 The Sui Through Tang, Five Dynasties & Ten Kingdoms To Song Dynasties (ca. 581-1279 A.D.)
Basic Color Terms:
Bai (white ), Huang (yellow), Hei (black), Chi/Hong (red), Qing (grue), Zi
(purple), L (green)
During this period, we could find such history books asLiang shu (), Chen
shu (), Bei qi shu ( ), Zhou shu (), Jin shu (), Sui shu (),
Nan shi (), Bei shi (), Jiu tang shu ( ), Jiu we dai shi (),
Xin tang shu (), Xin wu dai shi ()22. Accordingly, we list Chi, Zi
as a reference data here and the frequencies of the other major color terms are:
Table 6
Ch Zi L Ji Za Ho Bi Cu Xu Ga Zi2 Pi Zh Xi
Liang 23 39 8 3 6 8 5 7 1 1 1 6 2
Chen 10 17 1 1 4 2
Bei qi 23 11 2 1 1 1 1
Zhou 12 18 4 1 1 2 1
Jin 238 79 22 43 42 6 3 8 3 6 7 9 3
Sui 304 101 44 98 48 21 13 18 34 28 8 22 3 7
Nan 51 60 11 16 7 14 7 5 1 2 3
Bei 84 49 8 3 8 6 4 3 1 2 1 4
Jiu tang 126 365 42 19 31 18 10 11 11 2 8 4 3
Jiuwudai 19 75 10 3 6 3 4 1 2 4
Xin tang 220 168 46 7 31 22 14 16 5 18 3 5
Xinwudai 11 8 2 1 4 3 6
Sum 1121 990 198 167 146 132 79 69 64 55 43 34 32 19
% 36 31 6 5 5 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
* Ch - Chi; Zi - Zi ; L-L; Ji-Jiang; Za- Zao; Ho- Hong; Bi- Bi; Cu- Cui; Xu-Xun;
Ga- Gan; Zi2--Zi2; Pi-Piao; Zh-Zhe; Xi-Xiang.
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In Table 6, Zi is found to have firmly established its status as a basic colorterm. And eventually, L and Hong start to appear as color terms in common use.
At the same time, Lan emerges the first time23 and Hui initiates its use in a
metaphoric way24. It could be noticed that He, Zong (, brown), Cheng still
kept using as the names of articles. Taking all these into account, the basic color
terms in this period, should at least contain Bai, Huang, Hei, Chi, Qing, Zi, while
L, Hong, Lan, Hui call for further justification.
We first turn to Lei pian (), another etymological dictionary compiled in
this period, and have produced the following frequency list:
Bai 295, Hei 248, Huang 165, Chi 162, Qing 122, Xuan 28, Zi 14, Su 13, Jiang
12, Zhu 10, Dan 8, Gan 6, Zhe 5, Bi 4, Zi 2 3, Hong 3, Zao 3, Tong 3, Piao 3, Xun 2,
L 1; in this book, Lan, Hui, Zong, Cheng, Cui (, jade green),He, Dian are not
listed as color terms and there are another 124 less-used color terms composed of
Chi, Hei, Bai, Huang, Xi. Anyway, it is easily perceived that L and Hong
have been listed as color terms but they are not used frequently. As for Hui and
Lan, they are still excluded from color terms.
Now, we cast a look at what Dunhuang bianwen ()25, written in
spoken language, has provided us. We get the following data: Qing 85, Hong 70, Zi
61, Chi 34, L 14, Hui 0, Lan 0. Conspicuously, Hong has achieved an equal status
as Zi and Chi. At the same time, there is an increasing use of L, though its
frequency of use still falls short of those of the other basic color terms. On the other
hand, Hui and Lan could not be claimed to be basic color terms.
To ascertain what position Hong and L hold at that time, we refer to Quan
tang shi ( ) and Quan song ci ( ) (in electronic version). The relevant
frequencies are stated as follows (here we make no distinction between the use as the
color terms and the other usages, since we lay emphasis more onL, Hong, which are
mainly employed as color terms there): Bai 12829 / 2320, Qing 6467 /3620, Huang
4240 / 3242, Hong 4168 / 5748, Bi 2841 / 2160, L 2792 / 2773, Cui 2555 / 2993, Zi
2294 / 1105, Dan 2140 / 1245, Zhu 1867 / 1201, Cang 1733 / 703, Xuan 1431 / 220,
Su1323 / 1043, Chi 807 / 302, Fen(, pink) 785 / 1171, Hei 528 / 136, Hui 415 /
117, Lan 259 / 198, He 148 / 22, Tong 127 / 63, Zong 36 / 5, Cheng 28 / 91 .
Obviously, Bi, Cui, Dan achieve a high frequency in usage because of its reference
to the objects, while Chi, Hei get a relatively low frequency due in large part to
their tone and cultural images. Whereas Hong, L top even other basic color
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 97
terms in contrast to the low frequency of Hui, Lan, Zong, Fen, Cheng, He, whichare mainly or totally used as the names of objects.
As another way of evidence, the search results ofMeng l iang lu ()26 and
Wulin jiu shi ()27, which have been completed shortly before or around the
Yuan Dynasty, assure us of the above analysis.
Table 7
Ho Zi L He Ch Hu La
Wulin jiu shi 33 27 19 4 4 0 0
Meng liang lu 103 61 41 18 18 0 0
Sum 136 88 60 22 22 0 0
% 42 27 18 7 7 0 0
* Ho- Hong; Zi - Zi; L-L; He- Hei;Ch - Chi; Hu-Hui; La-Lan.
As shown in Table 7, Hong has overpowered such basic color terms as Zi,
Hei and Chi in its frequency and L could also be ranked as one member
among those basic color terms.
In summary, it could be perceived that at that time, Chi and Hong coexists
as basic color terms and Chi is going to be replaced by Hong to represent Red.
Concurrently, Hong, L are increasingly employed since the Tang and Song
dynasties as a possible result of the prevalence of poems and Ci, classical Chinese
poetry conforming to a definite pattern. Accordingly, Basic Color Terms should
include Bai, Huang, Hei , Chi/Hong, Qing, Zi , L.
4.7 The Yuan Through Ming To Qing Dynasties (ca. 1271-1911 A.D.)
Basic Color Terms:
Bai (white), Huang (yellow), Hei (black), Hong (red), Qing (grue), Zi
(purple), L (green)
All history books in this period areLiao shi (),Jin shi (), Song shi (
), Yuan shi (), Ming shi ()28. Here in contrast to the frequency of such
basic color terms as Chi, Hong, Qing, Zi, L, we list those of other major color terms
as follows:
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Table 8Qi Ch Ho Zi Fe Zh L Bi Cu La He Fen Hu
Liao 67 14 17 20 10 9 10 1 2 1
Jin 124 110 177 136 100 28 29 6
Song 1033 1244 242 498 314 301 87 48 60 6 13 2 1
Yuan 400 215 245 58 102 81 12 15 12 10 6
Ming 335 179 547 74 31 55 84 13 9 21 7 11 2
Sum 1959 1762 1228 786 557 365 290 103 92 40 30 13 9
% 27 24 17 11 8 5 4 1 1 1 0 0 0
* Qi- Qing; Ch - Chi; Ho- Hong; Zi - Zi; Fe- Fei; Zh- Zhu; L-L; Bi- Bi; Cu- Cui;
La-Lan; He- He;Fen- Fen; Hu-Hui.
Table 8 witnesses a full-scale replacement of Chi by Hong. (during this
period, Chiis mainly employed in Tianwen zhi [ , Records of Astronomy]
and Yufu zhi [ , Records of Vehicle and Clothing] of those books. ) and L
is stabilized as a basic color term. Lan, He have now entered the list of color terms
but fail to claim the status of being basic color terms; Hui is now on stage as a
color word in grey spoon ()(in Song shi) and grey and black mouse (
) / silver grey plate ( ) (in Yuan shi); Fen shows up in terms of
Fen-Hong ( , pink-red)(in Song shi) and Fen-Bai (, pink-white),
Fen-Qing (, pink-grue) , Fen-Mo ( , pink-black) (in Ming shi); on the
contrary, Zong remains to be the name of object as shown in a house of palm (
), a carriage of palm () respectively in Song shi and Ming shi; and Cheng
retains its status as a name of object. The only surprise lies in the mass production of
Fei, which, after scrutiny, proves to be closely related to the color of the officials
gown of the Ming dynasty.
With regard to the spoken-language corpus, we refer to A Dream of Red Mansions
(), a classic written in Vernacular Chinese () and completed at the end of the
Qing dynasty (in electronic version). Its frequencies of relevant color terms are:
Hong 391, Qing 134, L 86, Hei 74, Zi 38, Chi 18, Hui 15, Lan 2, Fen-Hong 1, He 0,
Cheng 0, Zong 0, Fei 0.
Not surprisingly, the frequency we got is similar to the data we have collected
from those history books (the exception ofFei has been illustrated above.) Again, the
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replacement of Chi by Hong is irrevocable, while it is more fitting not to regardHui and Lan, though with a considerable increase in its frequency compared with
the previous stage, as basic color terms.
In view of the above analysis, we asserts the following basic color terms: Bai,
Huang, Hei , Hong, Qing, Zi, L.
4.8 Modern China (ca. 1911-present)
Basic Color Terms:
Bai (white), Hong (red), Hei (black), Huang (yellow), Zi (purple), L (green),
Lan (blue), Hui (grey)
There exists a controversy over what are basic color terms in Modern China.
Different claims are listed here: (as cited in Xie 2004:97):
Table 9
Source Ho Hu Ch Qi L La Di Zi Zh He Hei Ba Hu
TY
JM
XD
LYQ
ZRF
LDQ
YJ
YXP
WFX
LHY
* The shadow part indicates this color is regarded as belonging to basic color terms.
* TY- Tongyici cilin (); JM- Jiaming hanyu yilei cidian (
); XD- Xiandai hanyu fenlei cidian (); LYQ- Liu Yunquan
(); ZRF- Zhan Renfeng (); LDQ- Liu Danqing (); YJ- Ye Jun
(); YXP-Yao Xiaoping (); WFX- Wang Fengxin (); LHYLi
Hongyin ().
* Ho- Hong; Hu- Huang; Ch- Cheng; Qi- Qing; L- L; La- Lan; Di- Dian; Zi - Zi;
Zh-Zhe; He- He; Hei- Hei; Ba-Bai; Hu- Hui.
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From Table 9, it could be found that Hong, L, Lan, Hei, Bai as basic colorterms are not disputed. As for Zi, Huang, Hui, they await further confirmation. In
contrast, He is alternating between acceptance and denial while Qing, Zhe, Cheng,
Dian receive doubts in many respects.
In order to verify the actual usage of each major color terms, we look to Qing
shigao ()29 for a possible solution. The frequency of relevant color terms are
specified as follows (here the routine name and official title such as Zheng hong qi
[ , Primary Red Battalion], Lanling shiwei [ , Blue-Plume
Housecarl] are not counted):
Table 10
Hu Ba Ho La Hei Ch Zi L Hu Zo Zh He Qi
Qing shi 941 756 561 279 246 201 137 93 6 3 3 0 522
25 20 15 7 7 5 4 3 0 0 0 0 14
* Hu-Huang; Ba- Bai; Ho- Hong; La- Lan; Hei- Hei; Ch - Chi; Zi - Zi; L-L; Hu-
Hui; Zo-Zong; Zh-Zhe; He- He; Qi- Qing.
We could easily figure out Huang, Bai, Hong, Lan, Hei, Zi, L as the major
color terms. The only exception could be Qing, which is frequently used, but
denotes, like Cang, three different colors, i.e., Hei, L, Lan. After the emergence
of Lan, it is not fitting to classify it as a basic color term according to B & Ks
definition. As for Chi, it could only be found in Tianwen zhi and Yufu zhi,
confining to a larger extent to some special fields. As a result, Hui, Zong, Zhe are
still very rare while He, Dian, Cheng could not be traced.
But since the May 4th Movement, Vernacular Chinese develops by leaps and
bounds. To further verify the positioning of Hui, Zong, Zhe, He, Dian, Cheng in
modern Chinese, we take most of celebrated works30 by modern writers into account
and the relevant data is listed as follows: Bai-se ()210, Hong-se () 192,
Hui-se () 190, Hei-se () 178, Huang-se () 125, L-se () 101,
Lan-se (
) 83, Qing-se (
) 54, Zi-se (
) 48, Chi-se (
) 39He-se (
)
33, Zong-se () 22, Zhe-se () 10, Cheng-se () 0 , Dian-se () 0. And
the respective occurrences ofHongand Chi as color terms are 1763 and 121.
In summary, in modern Chinese, Qing should be excluded according to B &
Ks standard; and Bai, Hong, Hei, Huang, L, Lan, Zi could be regarded as the
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 101
basic color terms. The only uncertainty lies in Hui, which, though not inaccordance with B&Ks requirement that it shall not specify one class of objects, is
different from He, Zong, Cheng. It enjoys a higher freedom while used together
with a noun (se [) in the combination could be omitted) and could be modified
by such adjuncts as hen (, very) or feichang ( , very). It seems that
Hui is undergoing the last lexicalization stage of being a basic color term. On the
contrary, He, Zong, Cheng have to combine se in representing color and cannot
be modified by hen or feichang. Moreover, they, more often than not, specify
one class of objects as Jin (, gold / of gold color), Yin (, silver / of silver
color), Yu (, jade / of jade color) do.
In view of all these, Hui could barely be accepted as a basic color term and
thus form a constellation of Bai, Hong, Hei, Huang, L, Lan, Zi, Hui.
4.9 Conclusion
To sum up, we could come up with the following table, which illustrates the
long-history evolution of CBCT.
Table 11
Period Bai Hei Huang Hong Qing Zi L Lan Hui
1 You Chi
2 Xuan Chi
3 Chi Qing/Cang
4 Chi
5 Chi
6 Chi/Hong
7
8
* 1- The Late Shang dynasty; 2- The Western Zhou dynasty; 3- The Spring & Autumn
and Warring States Periods; 4- The Qin dynasty and Han dynasties; 5- The Three
Kingdoms Dynasties through Jin to Southern & Northern dynasties; 6- The Tang and
Song dynasty; 7- The Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties; 8- Modern China.
5RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Based on the diachronic analysis of CBCT, its evolution could be divided,
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as it is, into five phases. They are:
Table 12
Phase Period Basic Color Terms
1 Bai You Huang Chi1. The Shang and Western
Zhou dynasties 2 Bai Xuan Huang Chi
3 Bai Hei Huang Chi Qing/Cang2. The Eastern Zhou, Qin and
Han dynasties 4 Bai Hei Huang Chi Qing
3. The Southern & Northern
dynasties
5 Bai Hei Huang Chi Qing Zi
6 Bai Hei Huang Qing Zi L Chi/Hong4. The Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming
and Qing dynasties 7 Bai Hei Huang Qing Zi L Hong
5. Modern China 8 Bai Hei Huang Hong Lan Zi L Hui
* 1- The Late Shang dynasty; 2- The Western Zhou dynasty; 3- The Spring & Autumn
and Warring States Periods; 4- The Qin dynasty and Han dynasties; 5- The Three
Kingdoms Dynasties through Jin to Southern & Northern dynasties; 6- The Tang and
Song dynasty; 7- The Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties; 8- Modern China.
5.1 Chinese Basic Color Terms against The Recent Developments of Berlin & Kays Theory
Based on the above analysis, we could figure out the evolutionary development
of CBCT. Without knowing what stages have preceded its development, CBCT starts
from Stage III with white, red, yellow and black (Phase 1), moves to Stage IV
containing white, red, yellow, black and grue (Phase 2), develops further to include
purple (Phase 3), then reaches a Special Stage including white, red, yellow, black,
grue, green and purple (Phase 4), and ends with Stage V having white, red, yellow,
black, green, blue, purple and grey (Phase 5).
The Main-line Hypothesis
Against the latest revision of Berlin & Kays theory of basic color terms
suggested by Kay & Maffi (1999), the evolution of CBCT does not fall into theassumed main line (Trajectory A, see Figure 5). Instead, it fits better into Trajectory B
by following an order of Stage I, Stage II, Stage IIIBk/G/Bu, Stage IVG/Bu and Stage V.
However, before we make such a claim, some further considerations should be
given to the status of You and later Xuan as Black or Green or Blue in Stage
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IIIBk/G/Bu. It should be noted that in Period 1: the Late Shang Dynasty, apart from fourbasic color terms, we could observe such color terms as Wu (multi-colored), Li
(multi-colored or black) but not Cong(cyan); whereas in Period 2: The Western Zhou
Dynasty, Congemerges to represent Cyan and Wu and Li disappear in our searching
results. Though due to the limits of historical literature available now, it is not safe to
assert that Composite Category Black or Green or Blue in Stage III Bk/G/Bu could be
represented in CBCT by both a basic color term meaning black (You in Period 1
and Xuan in Period 2) and another color term referring to either multi-colored
(Wu or Li in Period 1) or cyan (Cong in Period 2), we should not simply
claim the former doctrine while discard the latter possibilities.
Another noteworthy point lies in the Special Stage of CBCT with both Qing
(black or grue) and L (green) entering the list of basic color terms. It is really
surprising why Qingcould persist even up to Period 7 without losing its glamour (in
Contemporary China, Qingas a color term is less frequently used31). It seems that we
could classify this Special Stage in CBCT into a transition stage between Stage IV and
Stage V, but a transition period spanning between 600 years (counting from the Song
Dynasties to 1911) and 1300 years (counting from the Tang Dynasty to 1911) is really
challenging us to wonder how transition takes shape. In view of this, it would be more
proper to defend that there is another stage existing between Stage IV and Stage V.
Most important of all, the evolution of CBCT falsifies the significance of the
Main line proposed by Kay & Maffi (1999). By virtue of this fact, we are cautioned
that a number of synchronic studies do not amount to a diachronic study. Though 83%
of languages in the world could be grouped under this Main-line framework (Chinese
included), it does not necessarily mean that this is exactly an evolutionary development
of most basic color lexicons. Obviously, the evolution of Chinese basic color terms
adopts another less traveled route and reaches the same point in the Main line.
Derived categories:Zi(purple), Hui(gray) andHe / Zong(brown)
According to Kay & McDaniel (1978) as well as Kay, Berlin & Merrifield
(1991), gray, brown and purple could appear before Stage V, when the green
or blue composite category is dissolved. Judging from the evolution of CBCT, those
revisions are essential to the original Berlin & Kays (1969) model. It is conspicuous
that in Chinese,Zi has been holding the status of a basic color term long since Period
5. Amazingly, this is also corresponding to Bosters (1986) and Davies & Corbetts
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 105
5.2 Shifts In Color Naming And UsageAccording to the Lexical Diffusion theory proposed by William S-Y Wang,
language changes in an S-curve fashion (gradual beginnings, rapid spread and
gradual tapering off) that is lexically gradual, diffusing across the lexicon (Wang
1969, 1979, 1983). Though his theory is more phonologically and morphologically
oriented, many investigations into syntactical and semantic change have also been
conducted (Romaine, 1983; Kroch, 1989; Stein 1990; Ogura & Wang, 1993; Hundt
2001; Company 2002; Cheung 2004). Based on the Lexical Diffusion theory, Wang
points out that this hypothesis of lexical diffusion suggests that , at any given time in
any living language, we should expect to find several sets of morphemes with dual
pronunciations (Wang, 1969: 15). In the same vein, we could focus on shifts in color
naming and usage to locate several sets of senses with dual lexemes.
It is interesting to note that in the long history of evolution of CBCT, 1) Black
is sequentially represented by You, Xuan, Hei; 2) Blue and Green are universally
represented by Cong, Cang, Qing before they became basic color terms; 3) Red has
been represented by Chi, but when it comes to the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties
(Period 7), Hong takes its place; 4) Zhu has faded out gradually after the Ming
dynasty as a possible result of taboo on using the personal names of emperors; 5)
since the Movement of Vernacular Chinese, the CBCT tends to develop from
monosyllabic words to be disyllabic words, for instance, Huang is more frequently
adopted as Huang-se. Could such interesting transformations in color naming and
usage be accompanied by a slight shift in category perception, especially for 1), 2) ,3)
and 5)? For example, in Bai Yun Cang Gou (), Cang means black or
gray which shifts from its original meaning in early historical period. That is not an
easy question to be answered and invites further investigations. However, as
suggested above, we could further analyze such transformations in the light of the
Lexical Diffusion theory for a more revealing picture. For the purpose of
convenience, we now turn to the replacement ofChi byHong for a close look at how
such change proceeds.
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)106
0.00%
0.02%
0.04%
0.06%
0.08%
Chi 0.018% 0.032% 0.035% 0.022% 0.059% 0.009%
Hong 0.001% 0.006% 0.002% 0.002% 0.016% 0.048%
3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 1: Contrast between ChiandHong: Usage in General
* Percentages are based on each words total occurrences / total tokens for each
period. Each number indicates a corresponding Period, e.g., 3 refers to Period 3.
Furthermore, we present a contrast between Chi and Hong when they are used
as color terms32 as follows (Graph 2):
0.00%
0.01%
0.02%
0.03%
0.04%
Chi 0.006% 0.012% 0.015% 0.012% 0.018% 0.002%
Hong 0.000% 0.001% 0.001% 0.001% 0.013% 0.029%
3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 2: Contrast between ChiandHong: Usage as Color Terms
* Percentages are based on each words total occurrences as color terms / total tokens
for each period. Each number indicates a corresponding Period.
To illustrate how much percentages Chi and Hongas color terms account for in
their total occurrences, we generate another graph here (Graph 3).
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 107
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Chi 34.62% 38.65% 43.98% 55.50% 31.00% 21.68%
Hong 33.33% 11.84% 52.73% 92.31% 79.90% 60.42%
3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 3: Contrast between ChiandHong: Color Sense
* Percentages are based on each words total occurrences as color terms / total token
for each word. Each number indicates a corresponding Period.
In Graph 1 & 2, it could be observed how Chi is replaced byHonggradually. In
terms ofHong, it complies well with the Lexical Diffusion theory in both its total
tokens and its occurrences as a color term: It begins gradually from Period 3 to Period
6 and rises rapidly at Period 7 and 8. We are not sure whether it still gains momentum
or is going to taper off. As forChi, it looks more stable thanHongin every respect and
falls obviously into a tapering-off period33. In Graph 3, amazingly,Hongof color sense
also conforms excellently to the predications suggested by the Lexical Diffusion theory,
which reaches its peak at Period 6 and then tapers off34, whereas Chi is used most
frequently as color terms at the same time as Hong (Period 6). It runs counter to our
expectation of how each words prototypical center changes: Chi could proceed Hong
in its change of prototypical center since it has appeared as a basic color term
representing Red long beforeHongserves this function. Taking this into account, we
could assume that the change of prototypical center for one word does not necessarily
follow a Bell-shape curve. Instead, a Wave-curve change could be more acceptable and
plausible with reference to our corpora here. Of course, such tentative suggestion
should be subject to more rigorous verifications in the future.
5.3 Different Time Span Between Different Nations
From Stage III to Stage V, CBCT spends some 3500 years (from the Late Shang
dynasty [ca. 1500 B.C] to the present). Whereas the evolution of English Basic Color
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)108
Terms, originating from the Old English Anglo-Saxon (about 449 A.D.), at mostamounts to 1500 years for its development into Stage VII (referring to the present
English basic color terms system). If we have taken the possible time for Chinese to
develop into Stage VII into account, such gap could be astonishing35. Could level
of technological development and degree of cultural complexity, as suggested by
most scholars, account for such huge gap conceived in the same biological features?
It seems a more plausible answer is expected.
5.4 Motivation For Language Evolution
In many of previous literatures concerning the evolution of basic color terms,
explanations about the possible driving forces for the above-mentioned changes have
been less discussed. Some simulation work suggests that cultural factors could be a
force, and even Kays work suggests that cultural evolution may serve a role to adjust
color terms around some universal focal colors. With reference to the uniqueness of
Chinese history, the philosophy of Wu Xing or Five Agents, Taboo in calling
names of emperors or parents (), Rhyming in poetry as well as Language policy
could be possible candidates for such driving forces, but such explanations are not
firmly grounded. Furthermore, it is still pending whether language evolution is
biologically-based or culturally-based. Biologists, neurologists , anthropologists,
archaeologists, computer scientists, philosophers and linguists have presented to us
many contrasting and confusing arguments in both directions.
In view of this fact, the biologist George C. Williams, or Chomskys proposal
is worth considering as a possible way out. According to Williams, language is not an
organism, but it is a biologically based characteristic of a certain species of
organism36. It is therefore reasonable to look in it for crystalline features (due to laws
of form), i.e., Organism-as-crystal; artifactural features (due to natural selection), i.e.,
Organism-as-artifact, and documentary features (due to historical accident), i.e.,
Organism-as-document (Williams, 1992: 6). These seem closely parallel to
Chomskys three-way conditions (though Chomsky is concerned with the initial state
of the language faulty in an individual prior to linguistic experience and admittedly
there exist some differences between these two classification systems): Unexplained
elements of the initial conditions, Interface conditions (including the sensorimotor
and conceptual-intentional systems, the principled part of the initial conditions), and
General properties of computational efficiency (Chomsky 2001: 2-3). Since it is
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 109
difficult or impossible at present for us to verify or falsify these initial conditions ofan individual prior to linguistic experience or any language, it is feasible to cast a
look at its resultant conditions. Still, we take the semantic field of color for example.
Below, we present a list of those basic color terms with the relevant number of their
hyponyms, with a contrast between Modern English (E) and Modern Chinese (C) (Table 13).
Table 13Source: Xie, 2004: 100-167
Hong Huang L Lan Zi Hei Bai Hui
E C E C E C E C E C E C E C E C
P 85 127 57 129 41 140 28 75 19 37 62 99 55 95 33 53
M 27 26 24 32 18 33 20 16 10 21 5 16 15 11 17 25
* P Pure hue; M- Mixed hue.
As we know, in modern English and Chinese, their basic color terms are
fundamentally corresponding with each other, e.g.,Hei-se vs Black,Bai-se vs White,
Hong-se vs Red, Huang-se vs Yellow, Lan-se vs Blue , L-se vs Green, Zi-se vs
Purple and Hui-se vs. Grey. They even share the same contrast in hue between Cool
vs Warm or Dark vs Light. As for their hyperonymy, Yan-se() or Color, they
are exactly the same in their meaning. However, when we turn to its hyponymy, two
major differences could be detected immediately: 1) the number of hyponyms in
Chinese for each basic color terms is larger than that in English, with a few
exceptions in term of mixed hue ( ); and 2) most of Chinese hyponyms follow
a Object-Basic color terms configuration in their naming, e.g., Xue-Hong-se ( ,
sanguine). In contrast, such compounds are less adopted for hyponyms in English
and usually another new word is coined or borrowed to serve this function, e.g.,
Azure (Tian-Lang-se, ).
Obviously, these hyponyms are, to a larger extent, influenced by their
respective cultures in terms of both its defining of color sub-categories and its
naming or perception. On the contrary, these basic color terms are less affected,
differing only in the number of basic color terms: 11 for English and 8 for Chinese.As for their umbrella terms (the hyperonym of basic color terms), we may claim they
are universal in almost every respect. Thus, if we combine Williams three-way
distinction of language evolution with Chomskys three-fold initial conditions of an
individual, we could tentatively describe the status-quo of basic color terms as
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)110
bio-culturally-based, that of their hyperonym as more biologically-based and that oftheir hyponyms as more culturally-based. It follows that other semantic fields will
reveal the same picture to us. In view of this fact, Williams and Chomskys proposals
are worth further pursuing, e.g., with reference to high- or low-frequency words, so
that a more analytic framework about language evolution could be established and
testified or falsified.
6CONCLUSION
In this paper, we first sketch out how Chinese basic color terms evolve. And
then with reference to the relevant findings, we have compared the actuality in
Chinese with the assumption held by the theory of Basic Color Terms. We have noted
that the evolution in Chinese conforms to a great degree to the hypothesis suggested
in the recent revisions, with exception to the unorthodoxical route chosen by
CBCT and the possible explanation of a Special Stage in CBCT. In a sense, the
universality of color perception could be justified semantically. And it is also very
interesting for us to note how words and naming are progressing with the
development of society.
However, there are also several limitations to this study. It is not an
experimental study due to its diachronic perspective and unique corpus. What is
more important, our study is closely connected to Chinese literature and its own
naming system in color words, which will certainly make the reading a little bit
difficult. We should also notice that our corpus could not be exhaustive, it is possible
that many incidents or highlights in CBCT fail to be noted. More relevant
research is expected to discover those latent imprints in color category and its
relation with society.
Nonetheless, by virtue of frequency counts, we have init iated a diachronic
study concerning basic color terms and come up with an evolutionary scheme of
CBCT in a more acceptable way. Resorting to different dynasties of Chinese history
books and other documentat ions stil l available now, we intend to have a try in
verifying or falsifying some findings in cross-sectional studies. We think such path is
less traveled and is worthwhile to be further pursued.
At the same time, we believe our research could also be revealing to the
following further studies:
First, the similarity and difference between the evolution of CBCT and that of
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 111
other languages could be compared so as to highlight their abnormalities inrelation to their respective languages and cultures. For example, Hebrew in The
Bible37, is estimated to be classified as Stage IV, with its basic color terms being:
adom red, laban white, sahorblack, yaroq green, sahob yellow (Brenner,
1982). This is highly complying with the evolution of CBCT both in terms of time
(the Spring & Autumn and Warring States Periods) and stage (both are on Stage IV).
If we contrast these basic color terms in the present Hebrew (after its revival) with
CBCT now, it could be enlightening to the questions above;
Second, the lexicalization of color category could be reviewed with reference to
our findings concerning the specific historical development of color terms. Just as
Wang has suggested, the lexicon is mostly enriched via a process which biologists
call pre-adaptation, i.e., making use of pre-existing structures for novel functions
(Wang 1999: 253). Such semantic extension could be better observed if it is confined
to such a domain like Color;
Third, the temporal order of CBCTs emergence could be used in archaeology
so as to locate the exact date of ancient books, paintings, relics etc.
In general, through the survey of the evolution of CBCT, we are anticipating to
explore a new way in studying color category. And we wish such an attempt should
not be wrongly made.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Professor William Shi-Yuan Wang, the Editor, not only for his
generous help in the writing process, but also for his constructive comments on an
earlier draft that have greatly improved this article. I am also indebted to anonymous
reviewers for their insightful comments. The research described here has been
supported by Special Items Fund of Beijing International Studies University, BMEC
grant SM201010031001 and PHR201108165.
NOTES
1. Usually, such history book of one dynasty will be recorded and compiled by
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)112
scholars of the next dynasty. Starting from Shiji (), the first book of this kind,which had recorded the important historic moment ever since ancient times till
Western Han Dynasty when the author was in, this tradition lasts until the time when
the last book of Qing Dynasty has been published.
2. Previous scholars have tried to attribute the inscriptions to the different royal
reigns which are usually divided into five periods: Period I = King Wu Ding [];
Period II = King Zu Geng [], King Zu Jia []; Period III = King Lin Xin [
], King Kang Ding []; Period IV = King Wu Yi [], King Wen King [];
and Period V = King Di Yi [], King Di Xin []. See Dong [1935].
3. Is it yellow? There is no verdict among scholars.
4. X means a word having not recognized yet.
5. It is edited by Chinese Research Center of East China Normal University, a work
which is based on 9916 pieces of bronze wares with inscriptions made in the Late
Shang and Western Zhou dynasties and 2253 pieces of bronze wares with inscriptions
made in the Spring & Autumn and Warring States Periods.
6. It is believed by Sima Qian () and Ban Gu () that this book is edited by
Confucius (551 B.C.- 479 B.C.). Here we only refer to Five Mandates of the Early
Zhou Dynasty () and Yao Dian (), Shun Dian () and Yu Gong (
).We dont include the last 25 pieces since they are possibly not written at that time.
7. It is selected and edited by Confucius.
8. It is trimmed and edited by Confucius.
9. It is believed to be written by Confucius, who once comments that if there would
be several years added to me, I would have mastered the quintessence ofZhou yi well.
I could easily become without major faults (
). In this view, this book is written at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period
before Confucius died.
10. It is written in the Early Warring States Period.
11. Chunqiu () is edited by Confucius in his late years while the author of
Chunqiu zuozhuangis claimed by Sima Qian and Ban Gu to be Zuo Qiuming (
), an official historiographer () of the same age as Confucius. The recent
studies seem to suggest this book is edited around the Early Warring States Period.
12. The Works of Mencius is regarded by Sima Qian as a narration by Mencius,
together with his disciples Wanzhang ( ) and Gongsun Chou () and
Mencius plays a dominant role in completing it. There is still controversy over
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 113
Mencius birthdate. But it is generally believed that Mencius was born in 372 B. C.i.e, the Mid Warring States Period.
13. It is believed, by different scholars, to be written by Zhou Gong Dan ( ) in
the Western Zhou, or to be completed in the Warring States Period, or to be authored
by Liu Xin ( ) in the Western Han Dynasty. The recent study, based on
inscriptions in the bronze wares made in the Zhou and Qin dynasties, suggests that it
should be a work in the Warring States Period.
14. Among them, Guan yin zi ( ) by Yin Xi (), Shen zi () by Shen
Dao (),Kang cang zi ( ) by Geng Sangchu ( ), Yan zi () by Yan
Ying (), Yin wen zi ( ) by Yin Wen () are not included in our analysis
since it is possibly not written at that time.
15. This collection is more trustworthy than Si ku quan shu ().
16. The search results show that there is almost no use of color words in Deng xi zi
( ) andLao zi (). Consequently, theirs results are not listed in the table.
17. Wu Xing assumes complex and cosmic interrelationships among the five agents
(metal, wood, fire, water and earth), the five directions (north, south, east, west and
the middle ), the five colors, the five tastes, the five notes of the musical scale, etc.
18. It is verified that these two works were written in the Western Han () Dynasty.
19. Shi ji andHan shu are two ofThe Twenty-five Histories.
20. The other color words composed of Bai, Hei, Chi, Huang, Qing, Dan, Zhu, Xi
(, the silk radical) account for another 155 words (Hu 1941). Due to their low
frequencies, they are not included here.
21. They are all from The Twenty-five Histories.
22. They are all from The Twenty-five Histories.
23. Two instances could be found: to go beyond Lan, we get Qing ()
(Bei qi shu: 292) / to go beyond Lan, we get Qing() (Bei shi: 1233).
24. Three instances could be found: as grey as ash () (Jin shu: 185) / of
ash color and with short legs () (Jin shu: 1276) / as grey as ash ()
(Sui shu: 405).
25. Here we choose A New Collection of Dunhuang Bianwen verified and edited by
Pan Chonggui ().
26. As for its completion, it is generally believed to be after the fall of Linan (),
the then Capital of The Southern Song Dynasty. However the date in the book is
stipulated as on the Mid-Autumn Festival of the year Jiaxu (), i.e.,
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JOURNAL OF CHINESE LINGUISTICS Vol. 39 No. 1 (2011)114
1274, just before the Fall. But in terms of its content, the book is still assumed bymost scholars to be completed after the fall of the Southern Song Dynasty.
27. It should be completed before 1290.
28. All books are from The Twenty-five Histories.
29. This is the last book ofThe Twenty-five Histories.
30. Here 30 collections of works are included: The Works of Lu Xun (),
The Works of Hu Yepin (), The Works of Jiang Guangci (),
The Works of Qu Qiubai (), Ideal and Energy (), The
Works of Liang Qichao (), The Works of Liang Yuchun (),
The Works of Lu Yin (), The Works of Peng Jiahuang(), The
Works of Shi Pingmei (), The Works of Wang Shiwei (), The
Works of Rou Shi (), The Works of Zou Taofen (), The Works of
Dai Wangshu ( ), The Works of Kang Youwei ( ), The
Collection of Prose of Xiao Hong (), Novels of Xiao Hong (),
Aimei Qiaoyu (),Poems of Xu Zhimo (),Prose of Xu Zhimo (
), The Works of Xu Dishan (), The Works of Ye Zi (),
Prose of Yu Dafu (), Novels of Yu Dafu (), The Works of
Zhu Xiang (), The Collection of Prose of Zhu Ziqing (),
The Collection of Poems of Wen Yiduo (), The Last Public Speech (
), The Works of Liu Bannong (), and The Works of Zou Rong
().
31. By searching on www.google.cn (Time: 11: 50 a.m., July 9th, 2007), we have been
feedback the following data (Unit: million): L-se 65.2, Hei-se 52.5, Hong-se 42.1,
Bai-se 40.8, Huang-se 25, Hui-se 20.6, Zi-se16.2, Lan-se13.8, He-se 7.25, Cheng-se
6.9, Zong-se 5.83, Qing-se 4.25, Fen-Hong-se 1.17, Zhe-se 0.074, Dian-se 0.037.
32. Cheng has provided detailed quantitative data for each History Book, other
classical records and dictionaries, on the basis of which we have counted the total
tokens for each period as 438,444 (Period 3); 1,378,494 (Period 4); 3,381,302
(Period 5); 9,356,725 (Period 6) and 9,621,840 (Period 7). For Period 8, we use the
Traction Software Rapid PDF Count (V2.03) to obtain the total tokens (6,096,357)
for those 30 collections.
33. A search in our corpora shows that forChi, its total occurrences are 78 (Period 3),
445 (Period 4), 1187 (Period 5), 2020 (Period 6), 5683 (Period 7) and 558 (Period 8);
for Hong, 3 (Period 3), 76(Period 4), 55 (Period 5), 143 (Period 6), 1537 (Period 7)
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THE EVOLUTION OF BASIC COLOR TERMS IN CHINESE 115
and 2918 (Period 8).34. See each table and list in Section 4 for detailed figures. It should also be noted
that here we do not distinguish Hong of Pink sense from Hong of Red sense
due to its complexity.
35. Period 7 is an exception for Chi. A further analysis indicates that Chi ()
exists in numerous names for officials and military ranks in Yuan shi, likeHu-chi (
), Hua-chi () [2789 occurrences in total (49.08% of Period 7) in Yuan shi],
and at the same time, Chi is used frequently in describing the royal rites and
astronomical phenomenon in Song shi, like Chi-ma (), Chi-qi () [1800
occurrences in total (31.67% of Period 7) in Song shi].
36. Period 3 is an exception forHong. This is largely due to its rare occurrences. In
our corpora, we have detected only 3 tokens forHong, and one of them is used as a
color term.
37. According to Kurgans hypothesis, the pro-Indo-European language could be
traced back to as early as 4000 B.C. But it could hardly be testified.
38. Coincidently, William S-Y Wang has also contributed an article on this topic. See
Wang, 2006 for details.
39. The Old Testament has been completed around the age from 1440 B.C. to 400
B.C. Among them, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy have been
claimed to be the earliest.
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