The effect of formulaic The effect of formulaic sequences trainingsequences trainingon fluency developmenton fluency developmentin an ESL classroom in an ESL classroom

Nel de JongNel de Jong, Queens College of CUNY, Queens College of CUNYLaura HaldermanLaura Halderman, University of , University of PittsburghPittsburghMegan RossMegan Ross, Northwestern University, Northwestern UniversityAAAL 2009, Denver, CO

What is Fluency?What is Fluency?

Broad vs. narrow definitionBroad vs. narrow definition (Lennon, 1990) (Lennon, 1990)– Broad: general oral proficiencyBroad: general oral proficiency– Narrow: speed and smoothness of oral deliveryNarrow: speed and smoothness of oral delivery

The rapid, smooth, accurate, lucid, and efficient The rapid, smooth, accurate, lucid, and efficient translation of thought or communicative intention translation of thought or communicative intention into language under the temporal constraints of into language under the temporal constraints of on-line processingon-line processing (Lennon, 2000, p. 26) (Lennon, 2000, p. 26)

Fluency isFluency is– a characteristic of the speaker’s speech: a characteristic of the speaker’s speech:

performance fluencyperformance fluency– a characteristic of the speaker: cognitive a characteristic of the speaker: cognitive

fluencyfluency(Segalowitz, 2000)(Segalowitz, 2000)

Characteristics of a Characteristics of a Fluent SpeakerFluent Speaker Oral production poses greater working Oral production poses greater working

memory demands than written memory demands than written productionproduction

Fluent speech requires automatization of Fluent speech requires automatization of processes processes (e.g., Lennon, 2000; Segalowitz, (e.g., Lennon, 2000; Segalowitz, 2000; Towell, Hawkins & Bazergui, 1996)2000; Towell, Hawkins & Bazergui, 1996)

WM demands are also lowered by the WM demands are also lowered by the use of prefabricated chunks of language, use of prefabricated chunks of language, such as formulaic sequences (FSs):such as formulaic sequences (FSs):– FSs = Continuous or discontinuous FSs = Continuous or discontinuous

sequences of words, which are, or appear to sequences of words, which are, or appear to be, prefabricated (cf. Wray, 2002, p. 9)be, prefabricated (cf. Wray, 2002, p. 9)

Characteristics of Characteristics of Fluent SpeechFluent Speech There are many measures of fluency, There are many measures of fluency,

including:including:A.A. Length of fluent runsLength of fluent runs

– Number of syllables between pausesNumber of syllables between pausesB.B. Length of pausesLength of pausesC.C. Phonation/time ratioPhonation/time ratio

– % of time filled with speech% of time filled with speechD.D. Articulation rateArticulation rate

– Syllables per minuteSyllables per minute(Towell et al., 1996)(Towell et al., 1996)

Formulaic Sequences Formulaic Sequences and Fluencyand Fluency Formulaicity aids the speaker’s Formulaicity aids the speaker’s

production production (Wray, 2000)(Wray, 2000)::– Manipulates information (e.g., mnemonics)Manipulates information (e.g., mnemonics)– Buys time for processing and provides Buys time for processing and provides

textual bulktextual bulk– Creates a shorter processing routeCreates a shorter processing route– Organizes, and signals the organization, of Organizes, and signals the organization, of

discoursediscourse If FSs are chunks, they can be If FSs are chunks, they can be

produced without pauses, contributing produced without pauses, contributing to the “smoothness” of speech to the “smoothness” of speech (cf. (cf. Wood, 2006)Wood, 2006)

How Formulaic How Formulaic Sequences are Sequences are LearnedLearned Wray (2002): L1 is learned holistically, but (older) Wray (2002): L1 is learned holistically, but (older)

L2 learners process FSs at the word level:L2 learners process FSs at the word level:– Incorrect formulaic sequence use is a result of Incorrect formulaic sequence use is a result of

constructing the sequence from parsed speechconstructing the sequence from parsed speech Towell et al. (1996): Language is proceduralized Towell et al. (1996): Language is proceduralized

into grammatically correct chunks. If the structure into grammatically correct chunks. If the structure of a FS is incorrect, it has not been proceduralized.of a FS is incorrect, it has not been proceduralized.– However, L2 speaker often use many However, L2 speaker often use many

idiosyncratic, ungrammatical sequences idiosyncratic, ungrammatical sequences (Oppenheim, 2000)(Oppenheim, 2000)

So L2 learners need to use formulaic sequences So L2 learners need to use formulaic sequences repeatedly to be able to retrieve them as chunks.repeatedly to be able to retrieve them as chunks.

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

Does a pretraining of formulaic Does a pretraining of formulaic sequences lead to an increase in their sequences lead to an increase in their use in subsequent speaking activities use in subsequent speaking activities (fluency training)?(fluency training)?

If so, does fluency increase?If so, does fluency increase?– Effortless use of formulaic sequences frees Effortless use of formulaic sequences frees

up cognitive resources for sentence up cognitive resources for sentence structure planning, which in turn may lead structure planning, which in turn may lead to an overall more fluent performance in to an overall more fluent performance in terms of speed and pausing patternsterms of speed and pausing patterns

The studyThe study

ParticipantsParticipants

34 ESL students, low and high 34 ESL students, low and high intermediateintermediate

16 female, 18 male16 female, 18 male Age: average 26 years; range 18-44Age: average 26 years; range 18-44 L1s: Arabic (10), Chinese (6), Korean L1s: Arabic (10), Chinese (6), Korean

(16), Spanish (1), Thai (1)(16), Spanish (1), Thai (1) Enrolled in Speaking courses at the Enrolled in Speaking courses at the

English Language Institute of a large English Language Institute of a large university in the U.S.university in the U.S.

Formulaic SequencesFormulaic Sequences

CategoryCategory Formulaic SequenceFormulaic Sequence

Give an exampleGive an example Take something like …Take something like …To give an example, …To give an example, …

Give a summaryGive a summary The point is that …The point is that …What I’m trying to say is that …What I’m trying to say is that …

Indicate the orderIndicate the order The first thing is that …The first thing is that …One final thing is that …One final thing is that …

Give an opinionGive an opinion As far as I can tell, …As far as I can tell, …It seems to me that …It seems to me that …

Add an example or Add an example or argumentargument

What’s more, …What’s more, …That’s not all. …That’s not all. …

Selection of Formulaic Selection of Formulaic SequencesSequences From Nattinger & DeCarrico From Nattinger & DeCarrico

(1992)(1992) Typical for spoken discourseTypical for spoken discourse Learnability: familiar words; Learnability: familiar words;

transparent meaning; lengthtransparent meaning; length Usefulness for fluency: lengthUsefulness for fluency: length Discourse function can be elicitedDiscourse function can be elicited Not used yet; not taughtNot used yet; not taught

Formulaic Sequences Formulaic Sequences PretrainingPretrainingOne 50-minute sessionOne 50-minute session1.1. ListeningListening: One-minute speech that : One-minute speech that

contained the ten formulaic contained the ten formulaic sequences (“common phrases”)sequences (“common phrases”)

1.1. Three comprehension questionsThree comprehension questions2.2. Fill-in-the-blanks; blanks are words from Fill-in-the-blanks; blanks are words from

formulaic sequencesformulaic sequences3.3. Check answers, with focus on function Check answers, with focus on function

wordswords

2.2. FunctionFunction: Categorizing the sequences : Categorizing the sequences according to meaning/functionaccording to meaning/function

Formulaic Sequences Formulaic Sequences Pretraining (cont.)Pretraining (cont.)

3.3. Grammatical structure and Grammatical structure and intonationintonation: Explanation and : Explanation and modeling of the relationship modeling of the relationship between grammatical structure and between grammatical structure and intonationintonation

4.4. SpeakingSpeaking: One to two minutes about : One to two minutes about a given topic. Use five sequences; a a given topic. Use five sequences; a partner checks off the sequences partner checks off the sequences from the list. Then switch roles.from the list. Then switch roles.

Experiment: Experiment: ProceduresProcedures1.1. PretestPretest2.2. Pretraining formulaic sequencesPretraining formulaic sequences

• Control condition: regular classesControl condition: regular classes3.3. Fluency trainingFluency training

• 4/3/2 task: Speak about a topic for 4, 3, 4/3/2 task: Speak about a topic for 4, 3, and 2 minutesand 2 minutes

• Three times over 2 weeks: Session A, B, Three times over 2 weeks: Session A, B, CC

4.4. Posttest (4-7 days later)Posttest (4-7 days later)5.5. Delayed posttest (31-35 days later)Delayed posttest (31-35 days later)

Computer labComputer lab

ResultsResults

Results:Results:Use of Formulaic Use of Formulaic SequencesSequences Most students attempted to use at least one Most students attempted to use at least one

formulaic sequence formulaic sequence (max. 20 students)(max. 20 students)– Session A total: 12 students (avg. 5.7 attempts)Session A total: 12 students (avg. 5.7 attempts)– Session B total: 15 students (avg. 7.3 attempts)Session B total: 15 students (avg. 7.3 attempts)

And one student in the No Pretraining And one student in the No Pretraining condition had one attemptcondition had one attempt

– Session C total: 15 students (avg. 4.9 attempts)Session C total: 15 students (avg. 4.9 attempts) Four out of five students who did not use Four out of five students who did not use

any any trainedtrained formulaic sequences, did use formulaic sequences, did use more more untraineduntrained sequences sequences

Results:Results:Formulaic Sequences and Formulaic Sequences and FluencyFluencyResults from Session B only: most FSs per speechResults from Session B only: most FSs per speech Students who used more trained formulaic Students who used more trained formulaic

sequences tended to have longer pauses:sequences tended to have longer pauses:– 2-min. speech: 2-min. speech: r r = .315, = .315, p p = .074 (trend)= .074 (trend)– LowerLower fluency fluency

However, their fluent runs were longer (but only However, their fluent runs were longer (but only for FSs with grammatical errors)for FSs with grammatical errors)– 2-min. speech: 2-min. speech: r r = .408, = .408, p p = .018= .018– 3-min. speech: 3-min. speech: r r = .414, = .414, p p = .015= .015– HigherHigher fluency fluency

The trained formulaic sequences seem not to be The trained formulaic sequences seem not to be used automatically; students need to pause to used automatically; students need to pause to use themuse them

Results:Results:Post-testsPost-tests

Students used hardly any formulaic Students used hardly any formulaic sequences in the immediate and sequences in the immediate and delayed posttestsdelayed posttests– Both groups: no trained sequencesBoth groups: no trained sequences– Pretraining group: 0.24 and 0.29 untrained Pretraining group: 0.24 and 0.29 untrained

sequences per studentsequences per student– No Pretraining group: 0.21 and 0 untrained No Pretraining group: 0.21 and 0 untrained

sequences per studentsequences per student However, the teachers reported the However, the teachers reported the

students did use the sequences in classstudents did use the sequences in class

Results:Results:Untrained SequencesUntrained Sequences Untrained sequences were Untrained sequences were

included in the analysis only if:included in the analysis only if:– they were used by at least fivethey were used by at least five

students, each in at least two students, each in at least two speechesspeeches

– they had a function in the text, e.g., they had a function in the text, e.g., fluency device, exemplifierfluency device, exemplifier

Untrained formulaic sequences:Untrained formulaic sequences:– In my opinionIn my opinion –– First of all First of all– For exampleFor example

Results:Results:Untrained SequencesUntrained Sequences In general, students in the In general, students in the

Pretraining condition used more Pretraining condition used more untraineduntrained sequences than students sequences than students in the No Pretraining conditionin the No Pretraining condition– More students used untrained More students used untrained

sequencessequences– These students used a greater These students used a greater

number of untrained sequencesnumber of untrained sequences Effect on the use of formulaic Effect on the use of formulaic

sequences and discourse sequences and discourse organizers organizers in generalin general

Formulaic Sequences per Speech in Session B

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

4-min 3-min 2-min

Mea

n #

of F

Ss

per

Stu

dent

Pretraining -Trained FSs

Pretraining -Untrained FSs

No Pretraining -Trained FSs

No Pretraining -Untrained FSs

Results:Results:Formulaic Sequences and Formulaic Sequences and Fluency (2)Fluency (2) Again, results from Session B onlyAgain, results from Session B only Correlations between # of Correlations between # of untraineduntrained

sequences and mean length of fluent sequences and mean length of fluent runs:runs:– 3-min. speech: 3-min. speech: rr = .356, = .356, pp = .039 = .039– 2-min. speech: 2-min. speech: rr = .468, = .468, pp = .006 = .006

Correlations between # of Correlations between # of untraineduntrained sequences and phonation/time ratio:sequences and phonation/time ratio:– 3-min. speech: 3-min. speech: rr = .380, = .380, pp = .027 = .027– 2-min. speech: 2-min. speech: rr = .369, = .369, pp = .035 = .035

No correlations found in 4-min. speechNo correlations found in 4-min. speech– Due to length of speech?Due to length of speech?

Higher fluencyHigher fluency

Results:Results:Correct and Incorrect Correct and Incorrect FormForm Trained formulaic sequences were Trained formulaic sequences were

often used incorrectly (form errors)often used incorrectly (form errors)– E.g., E.g., I give you an example, What I'm I give you an example, What I'm

trying to say that, Seems to metrying to say that, Seems to me– Accuracy:Accuracy:

Session A: 39%; B: 23%; C: 25%Session A: 39%; B: 23%; C: 25% But high standard deviations: 41, 27, 35 But high standard deviations: 41, 27, 35

resp.resp. Untrained formulaic sequences Untrained formulaic sequences

were mostly used correctlywere mostly used correctly

Results: SummaryResults: Summary

Most students attempted to use Most students attempted to use some trained formulaic sequencessome trained formulaic sequences– Mixed effects on fluencyMixed effects on fluency– Often with grammatical errorsOften with grammatical errors

Pretrained students also used more Pretrained students also used more untrained sequencesuntrained sequences– Some effect on fluencySome effect on fluency

Very few sequences used on post-Very few sequences used on post-teststests

DiscussionDiscussion

DiscussionDiscussion

RQ1: Yes, the pretraining led to an increase in the use RQ1: Yes, the pretraining led to an increase in the use of formulaic sequences in speaking activitiesof formulaic sequences in speaking activities– However, students often used them incorrectlyHowever, students often used them incorrectly– Some students used them more than othersSome students used them more than others– There was little transfer to other speaking tasksThere was little transfer to other speaking tasks

RQ2: Mixed effect on fluency. The use of trained RQ2: Mixed effect on fluency. The use of trained formulaic sequences led to longer fluent runs formulaic sequences led to longer fluent runs (=fluency) but also longer pauses (=dysfluency)(=fluency) but also longer pauses (=dysfluency)

The trained formulaic sequences were probably not The trained formulaic sequences were probably not stored as chunks, and retrieval was not automatizedstored as chunks, and retrieval was not automatized– Role of frequency Role of frequency (Ellis, Simpson-Vlach & Maynard, 2008)(Ellis, Simpson-Vlach & Maynard, 2008)

DiscussionDiscussion

Raising awareness of formulaic sequences Raising awareness of formulaic sequences led to an overall increase in their useled to an overall increase in their use

Even without training, students used some Even without training, students used some basic formulaic sequences with high basic formulaic sequences with high accuracyaccuracy

It seems that the use of formulaic It seems that the use of formulaic sequences was not effortless, and had a sequences was not effortless, and had a mixed effect on fluencymixed effect on fluency

The form errors suggest that the students The form errors suggest that the students had learned formulaic sequences at the had learned formulaic sequences at the word level, and did not store and retrieve word level, and did not store and retrieve them as chunks them as chunks (cf. Towell et al., 1996; Wray, (cf. Towell et al., 1996; Wray, 2002)2002)

Future ResearchFuture Research

Students used few formulaic Students used few formulaic sequences. Can we find better ways to sequences. Can we find better ways to teach formulaic sequences?teach formulaic sequences?– To improve fluencyTo improve fluency– To improve accuracyTo improve accuracy– To improve long-term effectsTo improve long-term effects

Analyze the correct Analyze the correct useuse of the of the sequences (so far, only analyzed sequences (so far, only analyzed formform))– Function in the textFunction in the text

Why were some sequences were Why were some sequences were “more popular” than others?“more popular” than others?

Many thanks to:Many thanks to:

Co-PIs: Prof. Charles Perfetti, Co-PIs: Prof. Charles Perfetti, Dr. Laura Dr. Laura HaldermanHalderman

Research assistants: Colleen Davis, Jessica Research assistants: Colleen Davis, Jessica Hogan, Rhonda McClain, Hogan, Rhonda McClain, Megan RossMegan Ross

The students and teachers at the ELIThe students and teachers at the ELI The Robert Henderson Language Media CenterThe Robert Henderson Language Media Center Pittsburgh Science of Learning CenterPittsburgh Science of Learning Center

Contact: cornelia.dejong@qc.cuny.eduContact: cornelia.dejong@qc.cuny.eduThis work was supported in part by the Pittsburgh Science of Learning Center, which is funded by the National Science Foundation award number SBE-0354420.

ReferencesReferences

Ellis, N., Simpson-Vlach, R., & Maynard, C. (2008). Formulaic language in native and second Ellis, N., Simpson-Vlach, R., & Maynard, C. (2008). Formulaic language in native and second language speakers: Psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and tesol. language speakers: Psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and tesol. TESOL Quarterly, TESOL Quarterly, 4242(3), 375-396.(3), 375-396.

Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, Language Learning, 4040(3), 387-417.(3), 387-417.

Lennon, P. (2000). The lexical element in spoken second language fluency. In H. Riggenbach Lennon, P. (2000). The lexical element in spoken second language fluency. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), (Ed.), Perspectives on fluencyPerspectives on fluency (pp. 25-41). Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. (pp. 25-41). Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.

Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teachingLexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford: . Oxford: Oxford University Press.Oxford University Press.

Oppenheim, N. (2000). The importance of recurrent sequences for nonnative speaker fluency Oppenheim, N. (2000). The importance of recurrent sequences for nonnative speaker fluency and cognition. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), and cognition. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluencyPerspectives on fluency. Ann Arbor: The University . Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.of Michigan Press.

Segalowitz, N. (2000). Automaticity and attentional skill in fluent performance. In H. Segalowitz, N. (2000). Automaticity and attentional skill in fluent performance. In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluencyPerspectives on fluency (pp. 200-219). Ann Arbor: The University of (pp. 200-219). Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.Michigan Press.

Towell, R., Hawkins, R., & Bazergui, N. (1996). The development of fluency in advanced Towell, R., Hawkins, R., & Bazergui, N. (1996). The development of fluency in advanced learners of french. learners of french. Applied Linguistics, 17Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 84-119.(1), 84-119.

Wood, D. (2006). Uses and functions of formulaic sequences in second language speech: An Wood, D. (2006). Uses and functions of formulaic sequences in second language speech: An exploration of the foundations of fluency. exploration of the foundations of fluency. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 63The Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), (1), 13-33.13-33.

Wray, A. (2000). Formulaic sequences in second language teaching: Principle and practice. Wray, A. (2000). Formulaic sequences in second language teaching: Principle and practice. Applied Linguistics, 21Applied Linguistics, 21(4), 463-489.(4), 463-489.

Wray, A. (2002). Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic language and the lexiconFormulaic language and the lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Press.

Extra slidesExtra slides

Characteristics of Characteristics of fluent speechfluent speech There are many different ways in which There are many different ways in which

fluency has been measured:fluency has been measured:– Length, number, position of pausesLength, number, position of pauses– Articulation rate (words/syllables per minute)Articulation rate (words/syllables per minute)– Length of fluent runs (number of Length of fluent runs (number of

words/syllables between pauses)words/syllables between pauses)– Phonation/time ratio (% of time filled with Phonation/time ratio (% of time filled with

speech)speech)– Number of hesitations (Number of hesitations (I like to to to runI like to to to run))– And more…And more…

Characteristics of Characteristics of Fluent SpeechFluent Speech There are many measures of fluency, including:There are many measures of fluency, including:

A.A. Length of fluent runsLength of fluent runs– Number of syllables between pausesNumber of syllables between pauses

B.B. Length of pausesLength of pausesC.C. Phonation/time ratioPhonation/time ratio

– % of time filled with speech% of time filled with speech

D.D. Articulation rateArticulation rate– Syllables per minuteSyllables per minute

Increase in A without a trade-off with B and C Increase in A without a trade-off with B and C indicates procedularization (automatization) of indicates procedularization (automatization) of knowledge (Towell et al., 1996)knowledge (Towell et al., 1996)

D is a measure of speed, not proceduralizationD is a measure of speed, not proceduralization