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The Diversity of Living Things
Since very early times, people have _____________________ living things. Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE) proposed that all living things were separated into just two kingdoms: ___________ and ____________. These two kingdoms were used right up until the _______________:
Animals were: ______________ (could ___________ independently from __________ to ___________) _______________________ (__________________) because they got their energy from
____________ organisms
Plants were: _____________________ (could _______ move independently from place to place) ___________________ (_________________) because they got their energy from the ________
But, during the 1900s, there was an explosion of scientific knowledge. Scientists: discovered numerous ______________________ used the ______________ microscope to study cell structure (_________________) at the
microscopic level, studied ________________________ (how organisms develop from a _____________ into a
_______________ organism), learned how to sequence ________ and identify individual ____________.
As new species were discovered, some didn’t ________ into either kingdom; for example, the ______________ is a single-celled organism that has a ________________, so it is ______________ and also has ___________________, so it is an __________________.
In the mid-1950s, a new kingdom _______________ was created to handle these unusual species. Protists are ______________________ cells (they have a true _______________) and they are usually: _______________ (they need a moist, ________________ environment) _______________ (have mitochondria so they require _______________) __________________ (some live in _____________, but each cell can operate __________________
Protists are an incredibly _______________ group, but there are three broad categories: 1. ____________________ protists (___________): have some type of _____________________ and
make their own food 2. ____________________ protists (________________ or “first animals”): ______________ their food 3. ____________________ protists (Slime and water _____________): ______________ their food
A very useful way to ______________ and ______________ organisms is called a __________________ ________. This is a series of questions with clearly contrasting choices: it is ____________________. Dichotomous keys can either be _______________ or a ________________. For example, how could we distinguish between the euglena (above) and the protists pictured on the next page?
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The Tree of Life: The Six Kingdoms
LUCA
Each tip is a different species
The Organization of Life: The Animal Kingdom The Timeline: Planet Earth is about _______________ years old Oldest known rocks are about _____ billion years old Life (prokaryotes) arose about _____ billion years ago Eukaryotic cells appeared only _____ billion years ago Living things became increasingly ______________ Modern humans appeared ___________________ ago
The Tree of Life: There are between _____________ million different species currently living on Earth All living organisms share a common ancestor (________) The tree of life shows a __________________ pattern as new species arise
Species: A species is a group of organisms that can _________
_____________ and produce _____________ young ____________________ is the study of how species _________________ (their evolutionary history) The more _______________ the species, the ______________ together they are on the “Tree of Life”
Taxonomy: In biology, taxonomy is the science of ___________________ and ___________________ organisms Taxonomy means “a system of arrangement”. It is simply an organizational structure. Governments, the armed forces, large companies and the education system all have a ‘taxonomy’ or
an organizational structure ____________________________________ (1707 – 1778) devised the ______________ of
classifying plants and animals that we use today. He used a series of __________________ (a ______________________________) to group
organisms together. He divided each group into smaller and smaller _____________________, called ____________. Linnaeus asked questions like:
1. Does the animal have ________________, and if it does, _____________________?
2. Does the animal have ____________? Tissues are groups of specialized cells that __________________________ to carry out a _________________________________ Tissues form when the organism is an _____________. There are four types of tissues:
3. Does the animal have only a ______________, or a separate _____________ and ___________?
4. Does the animal have a __________________ body or is it more round to include a body _____________, called a ________________(pronounced ‘see-lum’)?
5. Does the animal have a _________________? Is it _____________ the body (an ____________________) or _______________ the body (an _____________________)?
Using the answers to these and other questions, Linnaeus came up with the following __________ (levels of organization):
K_______________ P_______________ C_______________ O_______________ F_______________ G_______________ S_______________ (King Phillip Came Over For Good Spaghetti) The greater number of taxa that two plants or animals have in ________________, the more closely _________________ they are and the closer their evolutionary history (______________________). Species are identified and named by their _____________ and _____________, using a system called ___________________________________________. Rules for Binomial Nomenclature: 1. Write the Genus name with a ______________ letter. 2. Write the species name with a ____________________ letter. 3. If you are typing, type in ________________:
eg. Canis familiaris 4. If you are hand-writing, both names are under-lined separately:
eg. Canis familiaris We know two plants or animals are different species if they can not ______________________ and produce _____________ young. eg. A male donkey and female horse can mate and produce hybrid offspring called “_______________”
Mules can not reproduce (are ___________________), so donkeys and horses are separate species
Kingdom: Fungi Before 1950, there were two kingdoms: _____________ and _______________. In the mid 1950s, a new kingdom _________________ (single-celled eukaryotes) was added. Then in the 1970s, further studies of ________________ and _________________________ resulted in the creation of two other kingdoms: _________________ (prokaryotes) and _______________. Fungi had been considered _____________ (saprophytes) because they have __________________ and are _________________. However, they are significantly _________________ from both plants and animals because they: are ______________________ that get their energy by
releasing digestive __________________ into their ________ and ___________________ the nutrients. Because digestion takes place _______________ of the cell, it is called ________________________ digestion. They are important _____________________
have a cell wall made of _____________ (plant cell walls are made of _________________; _____________ shells are made of ___________)
store energy as _________________ (plants store energy as ________________; _______________ and _______________ use glycogen)
often have their cells arranged in long _____________ called ______________. Hyphae can join together to form other structures, for example, __________________ are made of compacted hyphae
their cells can have _____________________________ nucleus There are four main groups of fungi, based on their _________________ and _____________________: a) Zygospore Fungi (includes ______________ such as black bread mould) their hyphae spread ______________ and ___________ their food they can reproduce ______________ or ____________________ the ‘fuzz’ you see is ___________________________ which produce the _____________
b) Imperfect Fungi (includes ________________ such as mould on oranges or in _________ cheese) their hyphae spread ______________ and __________ their food they only reproduce ______________________ the ‘blue’ patches in blue cheese are patches of conidia which produce the _______________ they produce many medicines, such as ___________________ and _______________________, an
__________________________________ drug given to patients after organ transplants so they don’t ______________ (make ____________________ to) the new organ
c) Club Fungi (includes ______________________ and bracket fungi) their hyphae grow in sprawling masses of ___________________ underground the mushroom you see forms _____________ in its ‘___________’ underneath
d) Sac Fungi (includes ______________, _________________ and truffles) develop their ______________ directly on their hyphae may be _______________________ such as yeast, which reproduce asexually by _______________
Kingdom: Plantae (Radish seed sprouting http://thekidshouldseethis.com/post/18800462609)
Plants are multi-cellular autotrophic eukaryotes. They produce their own food by ___________________________ and store it as _______________. They live on ___________ while _________, which are ________________, live in the _____________. Living on land has a major advantage: lots of ________________. Living on land has a major disadvantage: limited _____________. In fact, plants are organized by how they ______________ and ___________________ water and other nutrients.
Plants
Non-vascular plants eg. _______________ absorb water and nutrients from the
ground by simple ______________ and ___________________
stay ______________ and _________ to the ground where it is ___________
produce ____________
Vascular plants have _________, ___________ and __________ special vascular tissues carry transport water and
_________________ up from the ___________ (_____________)
phloem carries _____________ and nutrients from the _______________ to all parts of the plant
Do not produce seeds eg. __________ produce _______
Produce seeds
Do not produce flowers or fruit called ________________________ seeds are ‘___________’ (no fruit) eg. coniferous (cone-bearing) trees,
gingko biloba
Produce flowers and fruits called _____________________ seeds protected in a __________ eg. maples trees, apple trees, tulips,
grasses
Introduction to Prokaryotes: Archaea and Bacteria
Recall the _____________________ which states that: all living things are made of ___________ all cells come from ______________________ cells cells are the smallest __________________________ of life (the smallest living thing) cells are the smallest __________________________ of life (can carry out all life processes,
‘___________________’)
There are two types of cells: 1. _______________________: very early cells with ______ membrane-bound _____________ or
_______________________ 2. _______________________: later cells with a ______________________ and membrane-bound
_______________________
There are two groups of prokaryotic cells: ________________ and ___________________ both include s huge number of very _____________ cells, so they are grouped in _____________ archaea and bacteria are both ____________________ (function as a _____________ cell) both have a single ____________ of ___________ both reproduce mainly by ________________________ (________________ or ‘without sex’)
A. Domain Archaea these are among the ______________ living things on Earth (Archaea means ‘_____________’) these early cells arose when the Earth was ________, highly _____________ and
___________________ (‘without oxygen’) they were originally grouped with the _________________, but they have unique
______________________ pathways (____________________) and unique ________________, so they were separated into their own Domain in _____________
they do not cause any known ___________________
Archaea are incredibly diverse and can be classified as: a) _________________________ (extreme loving) which can grow in extreme conditions such as: thermophiles which can grow in very _____________________________ eg. _____________ psychrophiles which grow in very ____________________________ eg. ______________ acidophiles can grow in very _________________ (_____________) eg. ________________ halophiles can grow in very ______________________________ solutions eg. the ___________ barophiles which can live under huge _________________ eg. ________ in the ____________ acidothermophiles can grow in high temperature and high acidity eg. ______________________
___________________
b) _______________________ which live under ‘________________’ conditions they are part of the ___________________ in the ocean (tiny cells, plants and animals) they live in the __________ and human ________________________
c) _______________________ which produce ________________ (CH4, ___________________) they are obligate __________________ (_______________ is _____________ to them) they live in the ________________ and _______________ (________) of animals. They produce
the methane in _________________, and ______________________ (________) of ________________ and _________________
live in ______________, _________________ and ______________ treatment facilities
B. Domain Bacteria these are also among the _______________ living things on Earth and incredibly ____________ they have a unique type of _____________________ while we are most familiar with ______________________ (________________________)
bacteria, these are only a ___________________ of bacteria. Most are ____________________. Typical Structure of Bacteria The Classification of Bacteria Several different criteria can be used to classify bacteria. The most common are listed below:
1. ________________________ shows differences in bacterial _________________ and __________________
Bacterial _________________ are composed of a unique substance called _____________________ which can be stained _____________ with “___________________” (named for Hans Christian Gram, see Figure 12.7 on page 421). Gram staining is used _________________ to ______________ and _______________ bacteria causing _________________ (____________________) a) Gram Positive Bacteria have a ___________ peptidoglycan cell wall and a __________________
_____________ (if any) so they take up the Gram stain ________________, turning __________ b) Gram Negative Bacteria have a __________ peptidoglycan cell wall and a __________________
_____________ so they ______________ take up the Gram stain very well. They ____________ stain ______________ (they are stained __________ to make them visible)
2. Bacterial Shapes and Arrangement There are _____________ common shapes of bacteria and four types of ______________________: a) ________________-shaped bacteria are called ______________ (plural: ____________) b) _____________________ bacteria are called _________________ (plural: _______________) c) ______________ shaped bacteria are called _________________
(plural: ________________) 3. Presence and arrangement of _________________ 4. Aerobic or Anaerobic (can they grow in the presence of ________________) 5. Ability to form _____________ (allows bacteria to survive during ______________ conditions) 6. Energy/Nutrient Source Used a) _______________________ bacteria - make their own food (are __________________)
chemoautotrophs use ________________ energy eg. from hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in __________________ deep in the ocean
photoautotrophs use ____________ energy from the sun, similar to ___________________ b) _______________________ bacteria - ______________ make their own food (are
_____________________), rely on other organisms for food
7. Are they pathogenic? a) Pathogenic bacteria (“____________________”) cause ___________________ eg. Neisseria gonorrhoeae a _____________________ which causes ___________________
Salmonella typhi a flagellated bacillus that causes ____________________________ Staphylococcus aureus (a staphylococcus) that causes ____________ and _________________ Streptococcus pneumoniae (a streptococcus) is a common cause of _____________________ Streptococcus pyogenes is the cause of ____________________________ Helicobacter pylori is the cause of ______________________________ Clostridium difficile (C. diff) is a _________________ that causes infectious _______________
(often in ____________________) b) Non-pathogenic bacteria _______________ cause disease and are often _________________
_______________________ bacteria, _____________________, lactobacillus in _____________ (a _____________________), E. coli in our _________, E. coli used for _________________ ___________________________
Homework on Archaea (read pages 414 – 418 on Archaea) 1. How was it first discovered that Archaea are different from Bacteria? 2. What are three significant differences between Archaea and Bacteria? 3. Review Stanley Miller and Harold Urey’s experiment (maybe re-read the note “Abiogenesis Theory:
From Molecules to Cells” from Unit 1). Suggest a reason why Archaea are anaerobic. 4. Classify the following types of Archaea that are capable of living: a) under the ice in the very cold Arctic Ocean ______________________________ b) in highly acidic peat bogs ___________________________________ c) in bubbling mud in a thermal hot spring _____________________________ d) in human bellybuttons _________________________________ e) in extremely salty tide pools ________________________________ f) in high pressure thermal vents in the Marianas Trench deep in the ocean: ______________________ g) in glacial ice high in the Himalayan mountains ____________________________ Homework on Bacteria (read pages 419 – 421 on Bacteria): 1. Describe one advantage for each bacterial shape. 2. Explain what the Gram stain is used for. What compound (substance) does it stain? 3. Look at the label of a container of yogurt. What is one of the last ingredients? 4. Identify the following shapes and arrangements of bacteria:
S. pyogenes Bacillus cereus
Helicobacter pylori E. coli and Salmonella typhi Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Treponema pallidum (causes syphilis)
S. aureus Campylobacter jejuni
(causes diarrhea)
Bacterial Reproduction Bacteria can divide by ___________________________in as little as every 20 minutes. When conditions are favourable, their numbers increase exponentially, as shown in the typical population curve below: Bacterial reproduction can be slowed or stopped by: 1. Denaturing (changing the ____________ of) their enzymes by: a) ____________ (this is why we get a ____________ when we are sick) b) ____________ (limits water) c) adding ____________ or ____________ (traps or removes free water by osmosis) d) adding ____________ 2. Slowing down their chemical reactions by: a) _____________ or _____________ b) limiting ________________ (nutrients needed for growth) by keeping things ___________ 3. Using antibacterial treatments, such as: a) ___________________are chemicals or treatments which are applied to
___________________ objects to kill all bacteria; for example: formaldehyde, bleach or rubbing alcohol. Disinfectants do not necessarily destroy bacterial _________ or _________.
b) _________________ are substances applied to the surface of living tissues to ___________ or ___________ the growth of bacteria; for example: soaps or mouthwashes.
c) _______________________are substances which are taken ________________and can be transported through the circulatory system to destroy bacteria within the body; for example: _______________or _______________. Antibiotics do not destroy viruses.
d) ___________________refers to extremely __________ treatments that destroy viruses and kill ________living things, including bacteria, bacterial spores, yeasts and molds. A combination of extreme __________ and ______________(for example in an autoclave), treatment with powerful ionizing radiation or flaming microbiological equipment will sterilize objects. Sterilization techniques can not be used on __________ tissue.
1. Bacteria can reproduce ___________________ by the process of ________________________, producing two __________________ daughter cells:
2. Bacteria can also reproduce ________________ by ______________________, combining _______
or ________ of their genetic material with bacteria of the _________ or _________________ species:
a bacterium grows a specialized __________ called a _____________________________
a copy of some (or all) of one bacteria’s DNA, such as a ________________, passes through the ____________ to another bacteria
the recipient bacteria now has ______________ which it ____________ and uses as ____________
Advantage: increased _____________________________ may
help the recipient bacteria _________________ Disadvantage (for us): the DNA that is transferred may make the recipient
bacteria more _____________________ or __________________ to an __________________
Under adverse conditions (insufficient ________________, too _______, too ________, too _________, too ______________ etc.), some bacteria can survive by forming ____________________: 1. The ________________ cell replicates its ___________. 2. The new __________, some _____________________ and some __________________ are encased
in a specialized ________________________ inside the mother cell. 3. The spore ____________ and _________________. 4. The spore is __________________ when the mother cell ________________________. The spore is extremely resistant to ______________, ___________________, __________ and ___________. It stays _________________ until conditions _________________. When conditions are favourable, the spore loses its __________ and grows back into a ___________________. It has been reported that a bacterial spore was revived, cultured, and identified from the abdominal contents of extinct bees preserved for ____________________________ years in ____________ (petrified tree sap)!!! Another reputable source claims to have revived _____________________ year old bacterial spores that were trapped deep underground inside ________________________! (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/978774.stm)
Bacterial Reproduction Homework Questions
Read pages 424-426 in your text and answer the following questions:
Asexual Reproduction 1. What is the name of asexual reproduction in bacteria? 2. How is this process different from mitosis? 3. On average, how long does it take a bacterium to grow and divide under favourable conditions? 4. What three factors can slow down or limit bacterial growth and reproduction?
Sexual Reproduction 1. When does conjugation occur and why is it advantageous? 2. Describe what occurs in the process of conjugation. 3. What usually follows conjugation?
Gene Transfer 1. What are plasmids and why are they important? 2. How are plasmids transferred between bacteria? 3. Describe the process that uses bacterial plasmids for cloning human genes.
Spore Formation 1. What are endospores and why/when do they form? 2. Why is bacterial endospore formation advantageous? 3. Describe what happens to the endopsore when favourable conditions return.
Bacteria, Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotics are ______________ that are used to ____________________________________.
They work by ___________________ bacterial ______________________________________
in some way.
They do this in 2 main ways. Antibiotics can prevent bacteria from:
1) _________________________________________________________________________.
This ______________ its outer protective barrier and could cause it to _________________.
2) _______________________ or ______________________________. This prevents it from
__________________________, so it can’t _____________________.
Antibiotics kill the _________________ bacteria first. It takes longer to kill _________________
bacteria that may have developed some slight resistance to the antibiotic. For this reason, ____
of the prescribed antibiotic ______________________ to ensure that even these stronger,
resistant bacteria are ____________. If the antibiotic is not completely finished, these resistant bacteria
_______________________________ and the infection may _________________, or
these resistant bacteria may be __________________________________________________.
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria exist __________________________ of bacteria. They differ from
other bacteria of the same type because they have a ______________________________
that allows them to resist the antibiotic’s action.
How Do Bacteria Become Antibiotic Resistant?
1) A ___________________________________ caused by exposure to ________________ or
______________________, or due to an ______________ made while _________________
_______________________________________ could result in a resistance gene being created.
2) A bacterium with the resistance gene may _________________________ containing this
resistance gene to a non-resistant bacterium through _________________ during
____________________.
3) As non-resistant bacteria ____________________________________________________
around them, they may ___________ some DNA containing the resistance gene. Once this
DNA is ___________________ into the bacteria’s own DNA, the bacteria becomes resistant.
Homework: Viruses
Read pp.385 – 389 in your text. Use the information in your text and these notes to answer the following questions: A. Introduction to viruses (page 385) 1. Describe the structure of a virus. Why are viruses considered to be non-living? 2. What are the two functions of the capsid? 3. What are four criteria that are used to classify bacteria? 4. How are DNA and RNA viruses similar? How are they different? B. Viral Reproduction (page 386) 1. What must occur in order for a virus to enter a cell? 2. Briefly describe the two different ways that a virus can enter a cell. 3. How are the lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle the same? How are they different? C. Viruses and Disease (page 387) 1. What is a retrovirus? What do retroviruses have in addition to their capsid and RNA? 2. What is a provirus? 3. Explain how a person with HIV or herpes virus can have the virus in their DNA, but not have
symptoms.
