The discontinuous The discontinuous nature of CVsnature of CVsBeyond DichotomiesBeyond Dichotomies

Budapest 25 – 26 October, Budapest 25 – 26 October, 2010 2010

How come words?How come words?

““The meanings of words The meanings of words …… have a have a specialspecial weight in the general weight in the general economy of our consciousnesseconomy of our consciousness that that cannot be cannot be uundernder--estimatedestimated” ” Marchetti 2006Marchetti 2006

Why compounding?Why compounding?

Developmental primacy in expressing Developmental primacy in expressing complex concepts, preceding complex concepts, preceding derivation (Bickerton (1990) and derivation (Bickerton (1990) and Jackendoff (2002)). Jackendoff (2002)).

““Compounding might be considered to Compounding might be considered to be the universally fundamental word be the universally fundamental word formation process” (Libben 2004: 2). formation process” (Libben 2004: 2).

Compounding isCompounding is a a protoproto-grammatical phenomenon -grammatical phenomenon

(Jackendoff 2009)(Jackendoff 2009) the area of modern language which the area of modern language which

preserves the semantico-pragmatic preserves the semantico-pragmatic grounding of the proto-language stagegrounding of the proto-language stage

““the same phenomenon writ small” the same phenomenon writ small” (Jackendoff 2009: 114) – where same (Jackendoff 2009: 114) – where same refers to the nature of semantic relations refers to the nature of semantic relations that guide discourse structuring and that guide discourse structuring and utterance comprehension which are not utterance comprehension which are not syntactically marked.syntactically marked.

The weight of words in our The weight of words in our consciousnessconsciousness

No qualitative difference between words and No qualitative difference between words and utterances in terms of listener’s utterances in terms of listener’s comprehension strategies and meaning comprehension strategies and meaning construction. construction.

Words are ostensive inferential prompts.Words are ostensive inferential prompts. ““[S]alient meanings should be processed [S]alient meanings should be processed

initially before less salient meanings are initially before less salient meanings are activated” (Giora and Fein 1999: 1601)activated” (Giora and Fein 1999: 1601)

Contextually induced differences in degrees Contextually induced differences in degrees of explicitness / implicitness of of explicitness / implicitness of representations in one and the same lexeme.representations in one and the same lexeme.

Spoon-feeding on verb compoundsSpoon-feeding on verb compounds General neglect of CVs - tendency to stonewall General neglect of CVs - tendency to stonewall

about verb compounds – we are force-fed by about verb compounds – we are force-fed by linguistic discourses that they are scarce, linguistic discourses that they are scarce, unproductive as compounding structures and unproductive as compounding structures and idiosyncratic (exception: V+V in Japanese).idiosyncratic (exception: V+V in Japanese).

CVs considered insignificant as they are not CVs considered insignificant as they are not uniformly the result of composition; might uniformly the result of composition; might result from conversion and back-formation result from conversion and back-formation (exception: Bulgarian grammatical morphology (exception: Bulgarian grammatical morphology does not allow conversion and back-formation does not allow conversion and back-formation is a rarity).is a rarity).

What is a CV?What is a CV? Compound verb (CV) – a compound which Compound verb (CV) – a compound which

irrespective of its derivational pattern has as its core irrespective of its derivational pattern has as its core meaning a verbal meaning and can be used in all meaning a verbal meaning and can be used in all finite forms. finite forms.

Verb compounding – word-formation processes Verb compounding – word-formation processes whose result is compound verbal lexemes.whose result is compound verbal lexemes.

Mechanisms subsumed under verb compounding – Mechanisms subsumed under verb compounding – conversion, composition proper, back-formation. No conversion, composition proper, back-formation. No discrimination between these as sources of CVs.discrimination between these as sources of CVs.

The nature of CVsThe nature of CVsThe (dis)continuous nature of CVs:The (dis)continuous nature of CVs:A) discontinuous = dichotomous arguments surrounding the A) discontinuous = dichotomous arguments surrounding the understanding and analysis of CVs:understanding and analysis of CVs:

i) composition, conversion or back-formationi) composition, conversion or back-formationii) lexicon vs. grammar; listeme status vs. full productivity ii) lexicon vs. grammar; listeme status vs. full productivity iii) morphological products vs. lexical objects vs. syntactic iii) morphological products vs. lexical objects vs. syntactic

structuresstructuresiv) semantic regularity vs. idiosyncrasyiv) semantic regularity vs. idiosyncrasyv) endocentricity vs. exocentricityv) endocentricity vs. exocentricityvi) coordinative, subordinative, attributive, etc. vi) coordinative, subordinative, attributive, etc. vii) lexeme vs. root status of the compound-internal vii) lexeme vs. root status of the compound-internal

constituents.constituents.B) continuous = construction-based complex naming units.B) continuous = construction-based complex naming units.

What is it about?What is it about?Amongst the numerous dichotomies that CVs Amongst the numerous dichotomies that CVs transcend, only three major ones, which are in transcend, only three major ones, which are in relations of mutual implications, are discussed here:relations of mutual implications, are discussed here: A) coordinative vs. subordinative (classification);A) coordinative vs. subordinative (classification);

B) endocentric vs. exocentric (which can be B) endocentric vs. exocentric (which can be factored out into: i) headedness (both factored out into: i) headedness (both

structural and semantic) and ii) creativity structural and semantic) and ii) creativity vs. compositionality;vs. compositionality;C) lexical (in)determinacy of the input C) lexical (in)determinacy of the input constituents.constituents.

Though distinct, these naturally dovetail into one Though distinct, these naturally dovetail into one another and resist separate treatment.another and resist separate treatment.

The Construction SchemaThe Construction Schema

Construction schemas - “a cognitive Construction schemas - “a cognitive representation comprising a representation comprising a generalization over perceived generalization over perceived similarities among instances of similarities among instances of usage” resulting from “repeated usage” resulting from “repeated activation of a set of co-occurring activation of a set of co-occurring properties” (Barlow and Kemmer properties” (Barlow and Kemmer 2000: xxiii).2000: xxiii).

Configured meaningConfigured meaning

The compromised Compositionality The compromised Compositionality principle in the interface between the principle in the interface between the morpho-syntax and semantics of morpho-syntax and semantics of compounds can be salvaged by the compounds can be salvaged by the notion of construction Gestalts with notion of construction Gestalts with configured meaning which is the configured meaning which is the result of prompted attentional result of prompted attentional inferential processes that underlie inferential processes that underlie word comprehension and use. word comprehension and use.

The construction gradienceThe construction gradienceThree types of construction schemas in Three types of construction schemas in terms of meaning contribution of terms of meaning contribution of construction and constituents:construction and constituents:a) balanced contribution (compounds and a) balanced contribution (compounds and idioms);idioms);b) the construction itself has greater b) the construction itself has greater contribution (morphosyntactic objects contribution (morphosyntactic objects such as the causative construction);such as the causative construction);c) the constituents have greater c) the constituents have greater contribution (with different salience contribution (with different salience attributed to different constituents – attributed to different constituents – words).words).

On classifying CVs On classifying CVs Lieber (2009) - characteristics of compounds in Lieber (2009) - characteristics of compounds in English as an IE, Germanic language:English as an IE, Germanic language:A) A) stir-frystir-fry , , trickle-irrigatetrickle-irrigate, , slam-dunkslam-dunk and and blow-dryblow-dry - simultaneous endocentric coordinate compounds- simultaneous endocentric coordinate compounds; ; B) B) headhuntheadhunt, , machine-washmachine-wash and and spoon-feedspoon-feed - - endocentric verb-containing subordinate endocentric verb-containing subordinate compounds of the output category V (Lieber 2009: compounds of the output category V (Lieber 2009: 360-361). 360-361). These are dubbed “a marginal class”. The These are dubbed “a marginal class”. The classifying system of compounds is the one classifying system of compounds is the one presented by Bisetto and Scalise (2009) with a presented by Bisetto and Scalise (2009) with a slight broadening of the subordinate class to slight broadening of the subordinate class to include ones with subject-oriented interpretations. include ones with subject-oriented interpretations.

On classifying CVs againOn classifying CVs again ““[T][T]o o trickleirrigatetrickleirrigate is to irrigate in a is to irrigate in a

particular wayparticular way” (Bauer n.d.: 8).” (Bauer n.d.: 8). “According to Carstairs-McCarthy (2002:

61) stir-fry and freeze-dry are both headed compounds. The hyponymy test works well here: stir-frying is a kind of frying (not a kind of stirring) and freeze-drying is a kind of drying (achieved by freezing). Again they seem to be excluded from the set of dvandvas” (Bauer 2008: 4).

Nature of compound construction Nature of compound construction constituentsconstituents

Bauer’s (2001) idea of formal isolation Bauer’s (2001) idea of formal isolation as a basic criterion for compoundhoodas a basic criterion for compoundhood: : ““Compound is a lexical unit made up of Compound is a lexical unit made up of two or more elements, eachtwo or more elements, each of which of which can functioncan function as a lexeme independent as a lexeme independent of the other(s) inof the other(s) in other contexts, and other contexts, and which shows some which shows some phonological and/or phonological and/or grammaticalgrammatical isolation from normal isolation from normal syntactic usagesyntactic usage”” (Bauer 2001: 695). (Bauer 2001: 695).

Nature – cont’dNature – cont’d

Non-specific status of construction-Non-specific status of construction-internal constituents in CVs – internal constituents in CVs – avoidance of the dichtomization of the avoidance of the dichtomization of the root / fully-fledged lexeme continuum. root / fully-fledged lexeme continuum. This collapses the classificatory This collapses the classificatory dichotomy dichotomy coordinate / subordinate and allows for coordinate / subordinate and allows for the postulation of a generalized the postulation of a generalized construction schema. construction schema.

CV schema CV schema Generalized schema for Generalized schema for machine-washmachine-wash, , stir-frystir-fry and and tumble-dry:tumble-dry:[[P] [[P] XXi, j, ki, j, k [R] [R] VVa, b, c a, b, c ] V] Vl, m,l, m, nn [to [to processprocess something to a certain effect by exploiting something to a certain effect by exploiting SEMSEMi, j, ki, j, k effect] effect]

XX – major lexical categories – major lexical categories P and R – sound sequencesP and R – sound sequences j, a, mj, a, m – lexical indexes specifying the – lexical indexes specifying the

mappings in the tripartite parallel mappings in the tripartite parallel architecture (Jackendoff 2009: 106)architecture (Jackendoff 2009: 106)

Lower-level schemasLower-level schemas Each of the verbs instantiating the generalised Each of the verbs instantiating the generalised

schema, is a scaffold for a lower-level schema schema, is a scaffold for a lower-level schema in which the rightmost verbal constituent is in which the rightmost verbal constituent is lexically specified. The lower level schemas lexically specified. The lower level schemas correspond to word formation families or correspond to word formation families or niches whose members are analogical niches whose members are analogical elaborations of the respective schema:elaborations of the respective schema:X-fry: X-fry: [[P] [[P] XXi, j, ki, j, k [fry] ] V [fry] ] Vl, m,l, m, nn [to [to fry fry something to a certain effect by exploiting something to a certain effect by exploiting SEMSEMi, j, ki, j, k effect] effect]

The The –dry family–dry familyThe The dry-dry-family: family: (1) tumble-dry, (2) sundry, (1) tumble-dry, (2) sundry, (3) kilndry, (4) spin-dry, (5) drip-dry, (6) (3) kilndry, (4) spin-dry, (5) drip-dry, (6) blow-dry, (7) rough-dry, (8) freeze-dry, (9) blow-dry, (7) rough-dry, (8) freeze-dry, (9) air-dry, (10) smoke-dry, and (11) spray-dryair-dry, (10) smoke-dry, and (11) spray-dry

X-dry: X-dry: [[P] [[P] XXi, j, ki, j, k [dry] [dry]ll] V] V,m,,m, n n [to bring [to bring something to a dried state by exploiting something to a dried state by exploiting SEMSEMi, j, ki, j, k effect/possibilities] effect/possibilities]

A + CA + CGeneralizations involving local, niche-internal classification Generalizations involving local, niche-internal classification require the postulation of a non-dichotomous cline which can require the postulation of a non-dichotomous cline which can pay justice to all the facts of lexical input:pay justice to all the facts of lexical input:

[ V + V] [ V + V] [non-V + V] [non-V + V] coordinatecoordinate subordinate subordinate synchronous mannersynchronous manner

The cline captures the The cline captures the –fry–fry niche with the generalized SEM niche with the generalized SEM [process to a certain effect]. [process to a certain effect]. Stir-fryStir-fry occupies the leftmost area occupies the leftmost area of the cline, while of the cline, while deep-frydeep-fry indicates the rightmost extreme. indicates the rightmost extreme. The same argument goes for the The same argument goes for the –dry–dry niche, where niche, where freeze-dryfreeze-dry (+ causative) and (+ causative) and drip-drydrip-dry (+ inchoative) will delineate the (+ inchoative) will delineate the leftmost zone, while leftmost zone, while rough-dryrough-dry will signal the rightmost one, will signal the rightmost one, with with smoke-drysmoke-dry occupying a middle position along the cline. occupying a middle position along the cline.

The cline of exocentricityThe cline of exocentricity Each niche is a constellation (a radially Each niche is a constellation (a radially

constructed prototype) within the network of the constructed prototype) within the network of the lexicon which constitutes a natural cline of lexicon which constitutes a natural cline of exocentricity. The general principle behind this exocentricity. The general principle behind this phenomenon is the same as the general phenomenon is the same as the general mechanism of human cognition (on which all mechanism of human cognition (on which all usage-based models of language acquisition rest) usage-based models of language acquisition rest) – abstraction (coupled with metaphtonymic – abstraction (coupled with metaphtonymic elaborations). elaborations). In analogically well-instantiated CV schemas the In analogically well-instantiated CV schemas the construction acquires greater semantic power construction acquires greater semantic power and determines the interpretation of the and determines the interpretation of the configured meaning. configured meaning.

Exocentricity cont’dExocentricity cont’d[[P] X[[P] Xi, j, ki, j, k [dry] [dry]ll] V] Vm m [to bring something to a dried state [to bring something to a dried state by exploiting SEMby exploiting SEMi, j, ki, j, k effect/possibilities] effect/possibilities]Extension 1 Extension 1 roughdry roughdry [[rough][[rough]II [dry] [dry]jj]]kk [to bring clothes to a particular dried [to bring clothes to a particular dried state] state] something = clothessomething = clothes

Extension 2Extension 2freeze-dryfreeze-dry and and smoke-dry smoke-dry [[P] X[[P] Xi, j, k i, j, k [dry][dry]l l ] ] m m [process something to a certain state [process something to a certain state by exploiting SEMby exploiting SEMi, j, k i,i, j, k i, effect] effect]something = food substancessomething = food substances

Exocentricity within a specified Exocentricity within a specified schemaschema

X-feed: (1) X-feed: (1) to breast-feedto breast-feed, (2) , (2) to to bottle-feedbottle-feed, (3) , (3) to spoon-feedto spoon-feed, (4) , (4) to force-feedto force-feed,, (5) (5) hand-feedhand-feed, (6) , (6) stall-feedstall-feed, (7) , (7) winterfeedwinterfeed, (8) , (8) grass-feedgrass-feed, etc. , etc. [[P] [[P] XXi, j, ki, j, k [feed] [feed]ll] V] Vm, n m, n [to provide [to provide with food by exploiting SEMwith food by exploiting SEMi, j, ki, j, k effect effect

/ possibilities]/ possibilities]

KNOWLEDGE IS FOODKNOWLEDGE IS FOOD““tto provide (another) with knowledge o provide (another) with knowledge

or information in an oversimplifiedor information in an oversimplifiedwayway” - ” - to spoon-feedto spoon-feed“ “ to compel to absorb or assimilate to compel to absorb or assimilate

information” - information” - to force-feed to force-feed

Metaphoric extension involving widening Metaphoric extension involving widening of of meaning of the verbal meaning of the verbal component’s potential component’s potential and metaphoric and metaphoric substitution of the implied object. substitution of the implied object.

CVs in BulgarianCVs in BulgarianThe The злозло-family: -family: (1) (1) злословя, злословя, (2) (2) злорадствам,злорадствам, (3) (3) зловиждам, зловиждам, (4) (4) зловиди зловиди ми се, ми се, (5) (5) злодействамзлодействам,, etc etc. . [[[[злозло]]ll [P] [P] XXi, j, ki, j, k] V] Vm, n m, n [SEM[SEMdo do i, j, k i, j, k with with bad/spiteful intentionsbad/spiteful intentions ] ]

злорадствамзлорадствам is fully exocentric – “to feel joy is fully exocentric – “to feel joy because something bad has happened to because something bad has happened to someone”someone”Markedness transfer from the domain of the Markedness transfer from the domain of the ego of the speaker to the domain of an ego of the speaker to the domain of an external participant (Phenomenon). The external participant (Phenomenon). The transfer is based on the metonymy EFFECT transfer is based on the metonymy EFFECT FOR CAUSE.FOR CAUSE.

Bulgarian : EnglishBulgarian : Englishthe the словясловя--family: (1)family: (1) злословя, злословя, (2)(2) славословяславословя (i) intra-compound constituents - the (i) intra-compound constituents - the talk-talk-family; family; (ii) configured meaning - the (ii) configured meaning - the mouthmouth-family. -family. (i) English - the (i) English - the talk-talk-family: ((1) family: ((1) small-talk, small-talk, (2)(2) smooth-talk, smooth-talk, (3)(3) fast-talk) fast-talk) (ii) English – the (ii) English – the mouthmouth-family: ((1) -family: ((1) poormouth, poormouth, (2)(2) badmouthbadmouth, etc.). , etc.). All the verbs of the All the verbs of the mouthmouth-family in English are -family in English are metonymically constructed. ‘metonymically constructed. ‘Speaking/talkingSpeaking/talking” is not ” is not lexically specified in the construction complex, but lexically specified in the construction complex, but the metonymic transfer INSTRUMENT FOR PROCESS the metonymic transfer INSTRUMENT FOR PROCESS motivates the semantic characteristics of the family.motivates the semantic characteristics of the family.

A productive Bulgarian schemaA productive Bulgarian schema(1) (1) самоосигурявам сесамоосигурявам се samoosiguryavam samoosiguryavam se) ‘pay one’s social securities oneself’ se) ‘pay one’s social securities oneself’ ,,(2)(2) смообвинявам сесмообвинявам се (samoobvinyavam se) (samoobvinyavam se) ‘accuse oneself’‘accuse oneself’, , (3)(3) самоизтезавам сесамоизтезавам се (samoiztezavam se) ‘torture oneself’(samoiztezavam se) ‘torture oneself’, , (4)(4) самоизобличавам сесамоизобличавам се (samoizoblichavam se) (samoizoblichavam se) ‘reveal/expose oneself’‘reveal/expose oneself’,, etc. etc. Endocentric subordinative CVs with doubly Endocentric subordinative CVs with doubly marked incorporated internal argument:marked incorporated internal argument:[ [[ [самосамо]]ii [V]j [ [V]j [сесе]]kk] V] Vl l [to cause SEM [to cause SEMjj to oneself] to oneself]

The productive schema cont’dThe productive schema cont’d

The variable is the element which formally The variable is the element which formally occupies an internal position but determines occupies an internal position but determines the categorial and inflectional properties of the categorial and inflectional properties of the compound. Systematically the CVs are the compound. Systematically the CVs are endocentric and the meaning contribution endocentric and the meaning contribution of the non-verbal constituents has stronger of the non-verbal constituents has stronger grammatical overtones, rather than lexico-grammatical overtones, rather than lexico-semantic ones. The construction in this semantic ones. The construction in this niche has greater meaning contribution niche has greater meaning contribution than the constituents. than the constituents.

Exocentricity againExocentricity againAmong the ‘exceptions’ is Among the ‘exceptions’ is самозабравям сесамозабравям се (to self-forget oneself) which is semantically (to self-forget oneself) which is semantically exocentric. The verb means ‘go too far in exocentric. The verb means ‘go too far in one’s actions, to be arrogant/presumptuous’one’s actions, to be arrogant/presumptuous’. . Its meaning is based on metonymy. The Its meaning is based on metonymy. The script runs as follows [script runs as follows [people usually behave people usually behave themselves; when people get overexcited themselves; when people get overexcited they forget their good mannersthey forget their good manners]. So when ]. So when one ‘forgets oneself’ the two event schemas one ‘forgets oneself’ the two event schemas are collapsed into a single blend, based on are collapsed into a single blend, based on where EFFECT FOR CAUSE and CATEGORY where EFFECT FOR CAUSE and CATEGORY FOR PROPERTY conventional metonymys FOR PROPERTY conventional metonymys execute their force. execute their force.

RecapRecapCVs escape or resist traditional either/or CVs escape or resist traditional either/or interpretations due to their cognitive and interpretations due to their cognitive and linguistic complexity. Even though adopting a linguistic complexity. Even though adopting a constructionist approach permits the constructionist approach permits the reaching of informative and succinct reaching of informative and succinct generalizations, it tells us little about the generalizations, it tells us little about the cognitive, processing and neural rationale of cognitive, processing and neural rationale of CVs. CVs. Solving the puzzle of CVs as Solving the puzzle of CVs as underspecified naming/descriptive units underspecified naming/descriptive units will undoubtedly lead to further insights will undoubtedly lead to further insights in the complex and only seemingly in the complex and only seemingly patterned nature of human languaging.patterned nature of human languaging.

So where does this lead us?So where does this lead us?

What’s the cure?What’s the cure?

We have only reached the tip of the iceberg in We have only reached the tip of the iceberg in understanding the (dis)continuous nature of CVs. understanding the (dis)continuous nature of CVs.

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