The difficulties become most acute The difficulties become most acute whenwhen

culture shifts from something to be culture shifts from something to be described,described,

interpreted, or explained, and is treatedinterpreted, or explained, and is treated

instead as a source of explanation itself.instead as a source of explanation itself.

Kuper 1999: xiiKuper 1999: xii

AimsAims

►Define CultureDefine Culture►Locate the “problem”:Locate the “problem”:

Human rights “versus” RelativismHuman rights “versus” Relativism

►Define cultural relativismDefine cultural relativism►Why Anthropology?Why Anthropology?

How does this relate How does this relate to to

human rights?human rights?

AAA Statement of 1947AAA Statement of 1947

cul•ture (kul'chcul•ture (kul'chuur), —r), —n., v.,n., v., -tured, --tured, -

tur•ing.tur•ing. 1.1. the quality in a person or society that arises the quality in a person or society that arises

from a concern for what is regarded as excellent from a concern for what is regarded as excellent in arts, letters, manners, scholarly pursuits, etc. in arts, letters, manners, scholarly pursuits, etc.

2.2. that which is excellent in the arts, manners, etc.that which is excellent in the arts, manners, etc.3.3. a particular form or stage of civilization, as that a particular form or stage of civilization, as that

of a certain nation or period: of a certain nation or period: Greek culture.Greek culture.4.4. development or improvement of the mind by development or improvement of the mind by

education or training. education or training. 5.5. the behaviors and beliefs characteristic of a the behaviors and beliefs characteristic of a

particular social, ethnic, or age group: particular social, ethnic, or age group: the youth the youth culture; the drug culture.culture; the drug culture.

6.6. Anthropol.Anthropol.the sum total of ways of living built the sum total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings and transmitted up by a group of human beings and transmitted from one generation to another.from one generation to another.

What can an What can an anthropological perspective anthropological perspective

add?add? AAA Statement of 1947AAA Statement of 1947

– Consulted by working group for UDHRConsulted by working group for UDHR How How do we understand other peoples do we understand other peoples

practices? Can we ever judge them?practices? Can we ever judge them?– Yes, but develop tools for studying othersYes, but develop tools for studying others

Culture - central question for the disciplineCulture - central question for the discipline– 1952 study by Alfred Kroeber and Clyde 1952 study by Alfred Kroeber and Clyde

Kluckhohn cataloged over 100 definitions of Kluckhohn cataloged over 100 definitions of cultureculture

Anthropological DefinitionsAnthropological Definitions

►That complex whole which includes That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a and habits acquired by man as a member of society – E. B. Tylor (1871)member of society – E. B. Tylor (1871)

Pre-1900 concepts of culturePre-1900 concepts of culture

►Associated with the progressive Associated with the progressive accumulation of the characteristic accumulation of the characteristic manifestations of human creativity: manifestations of human creativity: art, science, knowledge, refinement – art, science, knowledge, refinement – those things that freed man from those things that freed man from control by nature, by environment, by control by nature, by environment, by reflex, by instinct, by habit, or by reflex, by instinct, by habit, or by custom.custom.

Culture and EvolutionCulture and Evolution

►Culture was NOT associated with tradition;Culture was NOT associated with tradition;►Tradition was seen as weighted, limiting;Tradition was seen as weighted, limiting;►So were custom, instinct, or temperament,So were custom, instinct, or temperament,►Associated with lower evolutionary statusAssociated with lower evolutionary status►AND frequently argued in RACIAL terms.AND frequently argued in RACIAL terms.

►““SCIENCE” OF EUGENICSSCIENCE” OF EUGENICS

CCulture -> ulture -> ccultureulturess

► Plural did not appear with regularity until ~ Plural did not appear with regularity until ~ 1910. 1910.

► Before 1910, culture = Before 1910, culture = thought of as a stage of evolutionary development thought of as a stage of evolutionary development to be acquired; to be acquired; scholars referred to “stages of culture” or “forms scholars referred to “stages of culture” or “forms

of culture.”of culture.”

►What caused this shift in how we What caused this shift in how we understand culture ?understand culture ?

Franz Boas Franz Boas (b.1858, to U.S. 1886, (b.1858, to U.S. 1886, d.1942) d.1942)

German immigrantGerman immigrant Founder of American Founder of American

AnthropologyAnthropology Research in British Research in British

Columbia among the Columbia among the KwakiutlKwakiutl

Developed new Developed new methodological toolsmethodological tools

Found that even Found that even “primitive” peoples “primitive” peoples are complexare complex

define CULTUREdefine CULTURE (Kroeber and Kluckhohn ) (Kroeber and Kluckhohn )

►Learned behavior, socially transmitted Learned behavior, socially transmitted and cumulative in time;and cumulative in time;

►Rather than define culture by a single Rather than define culture by a single definition, we need to consider how it definition, we need to consider how it manifests, i.e. rituals, kinship networks, manifests, i.e. rituals, kinship networks, social arrangements, even social arrangements, even lawlaw; ;

►With culture, like life or matter, it is the With culture, like life or matter, it is the total of the varied phenomena that is total of the varied phenomena that is significant.significant.

Human Rights and “relativism”Human Rights and “relativism”

►Discussion of culture arises from a debate Discussion of culture arises from a debate about whether human rights are universal about whether human rights are universal or relative to different cultures;or relative to different cultures;

►Do not mistakenly place universalism and Do not mistakenly place universalism and relativism in opposition to one another; relativism in opposition to one another;

► Such debates fail to define culture or use Such debates fail to define culture or use outdated definitions of culture and outdated definitions of culture and misunderstand “relativism” in the misunderstand “relativism” in the anthropological sense.anthropological sense.

So how do we make sense of other So how do we make sense of other peoples’ “strange” practices?peoples’ “strange” practices?

► In this sense, relativism is a methodIn this sense, relativism is a method

►Provides the tools for learning the Provides the tools for learning the internal logicsinternal logics of local practices of local practices

►Ethnographic Method (Boas)Ethnographic Method (Boas) No more separation between person No more separation between person

collecting data and theoristcollecting data and theorist Live among the peopleLive among the people Learn their languagesLearn their languages

What are those Methods?What are those Methods? Understand “webs of signification” Understand “webs of signification”

(Geertz)(Geertz) Symbols have meaningsSymbols have meanings Find out what meanings people attribute to Find out what meanings people attribute to

symbols (including rituals, practices)symbols (including rituals, practices) In their own terms, contexts (ex. wink)In their own terms, contexts (ex. wink) Culture is “a system of inherited

conceptions expressed in symbolic forms“

Power Relations shape ‘cultural Power Relations shape ‘cultural practices’practices’ ColonialismColonialism EconomyEconomy History History

►Add in Observer’s PerspectiveAdd in Observer’s Perspective we are subjective creatureswe are subjective creatures need to develop tools that account for need to develop tools that account for

our subjective positions.our subjective positions.

We see the world the way we do not We see the world the way we do not becausebecause

that is the way it is but because we that is the way it is but because we havehave

these ways of seeing (these ways of seeing (Wittgenstein)Wittgenstein) Human rights is a way of seeingHuman rights is a way of seeing

GOAL: Move away from the GOAL: Move away from the dichotomy: Human rights dichotomy: Human rights andand

cultureculture Instead, consider human rights Instead, consider human rights AS AS cultureculture

HR practices ARE themselves cultural practices HR practices ARE themselves cultural practices founded on liberal values;founded on liberal values;

BUT, as they spread throughout the world, HR BUT, as they spread throughout the world, HR principles gain local meaningsprinciples gain local meanings

Just don’t forget they can be very political!Just don’t forget they can be very political!

What is “human rights What is “human rights asas cultural practice”?cultural practice”?

►““Human rights have become Human rights have become ‘universalized’ as values subject to ‘universalized’ as values subject to interpretation, negotiation, and interpretation, negotiation, and accommodation. They have become accommodation. They have become ‘culture’” (Preis 1996:290).‘culture’” (Preis 1996:290).

►ComplexComplex►MultivocalMultivocal► IntersubjectiveIntersubjective

If human rights is cultural If human rights is cultural practice, then…practice, then…

►What does this mean for universalism?What does this mean for universalism?► Shared principles?Shared principles?► Consensus-based approaches to human Consensus-based approaches to human

rights?rights?► Can human rights be empirically-Can human rights be empirically-

determined?determined?► Relativism is the “how” of universalismRelativism is the “how” of universalism

Helps us reach consensusHelps us reach consensus By giving us methodology for understandingBy giving us methodology for understanding