The development and validation of Spanish versions of theState and Trait Food Cravings Questionnaires

p

Antonio Cepeda-Benitoa,*, David H. Gleavesa, M. Carmen Ferna ndezb,Jaime Vilab, Tara L. Williamsa, Jose Reynosoa

aDepartment of Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4235, USAbDepartmento de PsicologõÂa, Universidad de Granada, Spain

Received 3 March 1999; received in revised form 12 July 1999

Abstract

Objective: We developed and tested the psychometric properties of Spanish versions of the Trait andState Food Cravings Questionnaires (FCQ±T and FCQ±S respectively). Method: The instruments weretranslated and adapted to Spanish and administered to undergraduate students from a Southernuniversity in Spain (N = 271). The data were analyzed using con®rmatory factor analysis to comparethe factor structure of the English and Spanish versions of both questionnaires. Results: The factorsstructure of both questionnaires obtained excellent ®t indices across their Spanish versions with the oneexception that some factors of the FCQ±S were more highly intercorrelated among the Spanish samplethan the American. Discussion: This study supports the conceptualization of food cravings as universalmultidimensional motivational states that can be reliably measured and supports the use of the Spanishversions of the FCQ. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

In response to the often expressed dissatisfaction with the ``unscienti®c'' and ``imprecise''

de®nition and measurement of food cravings (e.g., Booth, Conner, & Gibson, 1989; Michener

& Rozin, 1994; Gendall, Joyce & Sullivan, 1997; Gendall, Sullivan, Joyce, & Bulik, 1997;

Weingarten & Elston, 1990), Cepeda-Benito and colleagues (Cepeda-Benito, Gleaves, Williams,

Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (2000) 1125±1138

0005-7967/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.PII: S0005-7967(99)00141-2

www.elsevier.com/locate/brat

pPortions of this paper were presented at the annual convention of the Association for Advancement of Behavior

Therapy, November 1998, Washington, DC.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-409-845-8038; fax: +1-409-845-4727.E-mail addresses: acb@tamu.edu (A. Cepeda-Benito), dhg@tamu.edu (D.H. Gleaves).

& Erath, 1999; Williams, Gleaves, Cepeda-Benito, Samudio, & Harrison, 1998) developed andvalidated two multi-factorial, food craving instruments: the Food Craving Questionnaire-Trait(FCQ±T) and the Food Craving Questionnaire-State (FCQ±S). These instruments areconsistent with the theory that food cravings can arise from or be expressed as physiologically-or psychologically-mediated processes (Weingarten & Elston, 1990). The construction of thequestionnaires was in accord with recent multidimensional measures of drug cravings (e.g.,Ti�any & Drobes, 1991; Ti�any, Singleton, Haertzen, & Henning®eld, 1993).Cepeda-Benito et al. (1999) found the FCQ±T and FCQ±S to have excellent internal

consistency, with the FCQ±T also showing good three-week test±retest reliability. The FCQ±Shad lower test±retest reliability, but this ®nding was congruent with the expectation thatpsychological states change as a function of time and circumstances and was also demonstratedin an experimental manipulation (Cepeda-Benito et al., 1999: Study 2). Using con®rmatoryfactor analyses, the authors also obtained results supporting the notion that cravings havemultidimensional features (Ti�any, 1990; Weingarten & Elston, 1990). That is, the analysesyielded excellent ®t indices for nine and ®ve factor solutions for the FCQ±T and FCQ±Srespectively (Cepeda-Benito et al., 1999: Study 1). The factor structure of these questionnaireswas corroborated in a cross validation study with a second sample of college students (Cepeda-Benito et al., 1999: Study 3). As support for the construct validity of the instruments, theFCQ±T subscales correlated signi®cantly with other trait eating-related measures; i. e., thehunger and disinhibition scales of the Eating Inventory (Stunkard & Messick, 1985, 1988), andthe FCQ±S scores of participants who completed the questionnaire after a 12 h fooddeprivation period were considerably higher on all ®ve dimensions than the craving reports ofsubjects who ate breakfast just before completing the questionnaires (Cepeda-Benito et al.,1999: Study 2).

1. Cross-cultural research, eating disorders, and purpose of the study

Cross-cultural investigations are important because human behavior and their controllingvariables can be common (emic or universal), di�erent (etic, or culture-speci®c), or have bothemic and etic aspects across di�erent cultures (Matsumoto, 1996). Therefore, cross-culturalresearch allows investigators to make inferences about the truth of human behavior and actaccordingly. Conducting cross-cultural research on eating-related phenomena is particularlyimportant given that some aspects of Western culture are thought to play a pivotal role in thenature of eating disorders and that many nations and cultures are increasingly adoptingWestern values (Pate, Pumariega, Hester, & Garner, 1992).The tenet that eating-disorders are culturally-speci®c originally stemmed from the common

®nding that anorexia and bulimia were largely restricted to young, white or Jewish femalesfrom achievement-oriented, upper-middle class families from Western countries (e.g., Bruch,1978; Pierce, 1990). Whereas new evidence suggests that eating disorders are becoming moreprevalent across other social classes and cultures than previously thought (Crago, Shisslack &Estes, 1996; Pate et al., 1992; Raich et al., 1992), the hypothesis that culture plays afundamental role in the etiology and development of eating disorders continues to be sound.That is, studies consistently ®nd that exposure to and assimilation of Western (American)

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values are clearly associated with the prevalence of eating disorders in non-Western cultures(Crago et al., 1996; Pate et al., 1992).Given the relevance of cross-cultural research on eating-related phenomena, the construct of

food cravings in other cultures warrants study. If the construct generalizes to di�erent cultures,we would want to know how universal or culture-speci®c the relationships between foodcravings and other eating-related variables are. As a ®rst step towards the achievement of thesegoals, the present study developed Spanish versions of the FCQ±T and FCQ±S and tested fortheir measurement equivalence with the English (USA) versions. The establishment ofequivalence of measurement is perhaps the most important methodological issue in cross-cultural research (Lonner & Malpass, 1994).Eating disorders research from Spanish speaking countries is scarce. The few available

studies indicate that many eating disorder ®ndings generalize to Spanish speaking populations.For the most part, this research shows that body image disturbance and self-esteem are alsoassociated with eating psychopathology in Spanish speaking countries (e.g., Martõ nez &Spinetta, 1997; Raich, Torras Claraso & Mora Giral, 1997). Other Spanish research has alsoshown that body image disturbances and low self-esteem are associated with the adoption ofthe Western ideal of thinness and what the achievement slimness symbolizes, i.e., success,control, attractiveness, competitiveness (Raich et al., 1992; Toro, Cervera, & Pe rez, 1989).To our knowledge, there has only been one previous attempt to study food cravings in a

Spanish speaking population. Mahaluf, Nader, Correa and Vargas (1991) interviewed Chileanpregnant women using a ``semi-structured opinion poll'' of 60 questions and identi®ed sixdistinct features of pregnancy-speci®c food cravings or antojos. The qualitatively identi®edfeatures were (1) pregnancy-dependent, (2) a sense of urgency, (3) problems delaying thecraving, (4) the need to eat big amounts of food, (5) a sense of special satisfaction after eatingthe desired food, and (6) indisposition if the craving could not be satis®ed. It should be notedthat the predominant meaning of the word ``antojo'' is ``whim''. Antojo is also used to namebehaviors and actions that are motivated by capriciousness rather than by reason or need.Thus, the present study of cravings clearly broadens the range of eating-related phenomenathat has been investigated with Spanish speaking populations to date.

2. Method

2.1. Participants and procedures

Spanish participants were 271 volunteer undergraduate psychology students from theUniversidad de Granada, a university in Southern Spain. Seventy ®ve percent of theparticipants were female. Ages ranged from 17 to 39 with a mean age of 20 (SD=2.82) years.The American participants were the 217 undergraduate introductory psychology students whoare described in Cepeda-Benito et al., (1999). Sixty six percent of the American participantswere female. Ages ranged from 18 to 44 with a mean age of 21 (SD=2.9).American students responded to posted and verbal announcements that requested volunteers

for a psychology experiment. Those who agreed to participate received extra credit towards

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their psychology courses (see Cepeda-Benito et al., 1999). Spanish participants were recruitedthrough verbal announcements at the beginning of di�erent class periods. Participantsanonymously completed the questionnaires during their regular class periods. Participantsreceived no tangible compensation for their participation.All administration sessions were conducted in group format, with all participants completing

the 88 and 60 item original versions of the FCQ±T and FCQ±S, respectively. Additionally,subjects completed a brief demographic sheet where they indicated their sex, age, and the timeat which they last ate something.

2.2. Measures

The FCQ±T was derived from a total of 88 statements that were generated using 10theoretical dimensions of trait food cravings. Participants were asked to indicate howfrequently each statement ``would be true for you in general'' using a six point scale that rangedfrom ``Never'' or ``Not Applicable'' to ``Always''. The FCQ±S was derived from a total of 60statements representing seven dimensions of state food cravings. Participants were asked toindicate the extent to which they agreed with each statement ``right now, at this very moment''using a ®ve point Likert scale that ranged from ``Strongly Agree'' to ``Strongly Disagree''.Cepeda-Benito et al. (1999) performed Con®rmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and speci®ed a

priori a 10-dimensional model for the FCQ±T, and a 7-dimensional model for the FCQ±S. Forboth instruments, the authors examined goodness of ®t as well as factor loadings andmodi®cation indices to determine if items needed to be eliminated. The ®nal version of theFCQ±T contained nine scales and 37 items. The overall alpha for the FCQ±T was 0.97, andsubscale alphas ranged from 0.81 to 0.94. Test±retest reliability for the FCQ±T was r = 0.88,and test±retest reliability for the subscales was good ranging from r = 0.72 to r = 0.88. The®nal version of the FCQ±S contained ®ve scales and 15 items. The overall alpha for the FCQ±S was 0.94 and subscale alphas ranged from 0.82 to 0.88. As expected, the test±retest reliabilityfor the state version was lower than that for the trait version (r = 0.56, with test±retestreliabilities for the subscales ranging from r = 0.40 to r = 0.63). The nine and ®ve factormodels of the FCQ±T and FCQ±S, respectively, were tested and the results indicated good ®tsfor both models. The authors also found support for the discriminant validity of both modelsas con®dence intervals (+ or ÿ2 standard error) around the factor correlations did not contain1.0 for either instrument (see Cepeda-Benito et al., 1999). That is, all factors were independentof each other and there were no two factors that should have been combined.The original 88 and 60 items of the FCQ±T and FCQ±S, respectively, were independently

translated into Spanish by the ®rst and last authors of the present article, both of whom arebilingual in Spanish and English. The two translations of each questionnaire were highlysimilar and easily consolidated into a single Spanish translation per questionnaire. The Spanishquestionnaires were then translated back into English by an experienced and ¯uent Spanish-as-a-second-language instructor whose native language is English. The back translations were thencompared to the original English questionnaires item by item. Discrepancies were identi®edand adjustments to the Spanish translation were resolved by discussion. Finally, the

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questionnaires were administered to a small group of Spanish college students and theirfeedback was incorporated into the ®nal Spanish translations.

2.3. Statistical methods

2.3.1. Di�erences in factor structureCFA was conducted with the generalized least squares (GLS) method (for recommendations

for GLS see Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Browne, 1982, 1984). For ®t indices, we examined thew 2 statistic, the Goodness-of-Fit index (GFI; JoÈ reskog & SoÈ rbom, 1993), the Normed-Fit Index(NFI; Bentler & Bonett, 1980), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI; see Marsh, Balla & McDonald,1988), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), and the root mean square error ofapproximation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck, 1993, Finch & West, 1997). Values of the GFI,NFI, TLI, and CFI range from zero to 1.00, with a value close to 1.00 indicating a better ®t(e.g., Byrne, 1989; Mulaik et al., 1989). For The RMSEA, values of less than 0.05 areconsidered a close ®t and less than 0.08 an adequate ®t; values of greater than 0.10 suggestroom for improvement in the model (Finch & West 1997). The TLI, CFI, and RMSEA havebeen found to be una�ected by sample size (Bentler, 1990; Fan, Thompson & Wang, 1999;Marsh et al., 1988).To test for factorial invariance across the American and Spanish groups, we tested a

sequence of multi-sample, ``stacked'' measurement models as described by Bollen (1989), Byrne(1989), JoÈ reskog and SoÈ rbom (1993, and Lomax (1983). Using only the 37 and 15 items of the®nal versions of the FCQ±T and FCQ±S respectively, we sequentially tested the equivalence

Table 1Comparing models for English and Spanish versions of the FCQ±T

Model Hypothesis w 2 df GFIa NFIb TLIc CFId RMSEAe Dw 2 Ddf p

1 Equal covariance matrices 927 703 0.91 0.99 0.98 1.0 0.0372 Equal no. of factors 1641 1186 0.80 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.0403 Equal factor structure 1711 1223 0.79 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.041

Model 3-2 di�erence(LX invariant)

70 37 < 0.01

4 Modi®ed structure model 1685 1221 0.79 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.040

Model 4-2 di�erence 44 35 0.145 Equal factor correlations 1727 1257 0.78 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.040

Model 5-4 di�erence(LX+PH invariant)

41 36 0.23

6 Equal error matrices 2140 1294 0.76 0.96 0.99 0.98 0.053Model 5-4 di�erence(LX, PH, and TD invariant)

413 37 < 0.01

a GFI = Goodness of Fit Index.b NFI = Normed Fit Index.c TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index.d CFI = Comparative Fit Index.e RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error or Approximation.

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Table 2Factors (scale a's for Spanish version), items, and item factor loadings (standardized loadings from the LAMBDA

X matrix) for Food Cravings Questionnaire±Trait for both English and Spanish versions/samples (when di�erent,loadings for the Spanish version appear in parentheses)a

Having Intentions and Plans to Consume Food (0.57)5 Sin duda alguna, las ganas de comer me hacen pensar en como voy a conseguir lo que quiero comer 0.66

(Food cravings invariably make me think of ways to get what I want to eat)

18 Cada vez que deseo comer algo en particular, me pongo a hacer planes para comer 0.66(Whenever I have cravings, I ®nd myself making plans to eat)

23 Cuando se me antoja una comida, normalmente intento comerla tan pronto como pueda 0.57

(When I crave certain foods, I usually try to eat them as soon as I can)Anticipation of Positive Reinforcement that may Result from Eating (0.72)9 Como para sentirme mejor 0.68

(I eat to feel better)

10 Algunas veces, mi vida parece prefecta cuando como lo que me apetece 0.66(Sometimes, eating makes things seem just perfect.)

15 Cuando como lo que deseo me siento mejor 0.64

(Eating what I crave makes me feel better)24 Comer lo que me apetece mucho me sienta estupendamente 0.50

(When I eat what I crave I feel great)

37 Comer me alivia 0.71(When I eat food, I feel comforted)

Anticipation of Relief from Negative States and Feelings as a Result of Eating (0.72)

16 Cuando como lo que deseo me siento menos deprimido 0.68(When I satisfy a craving I feel less depressed)

19 El comer me tranquiliza 0.86(Eating calms me down)

21 Despues de comer no tengo tantas ansiedades 0.76(I feel less anxious after I eat)

Lack of Control over Eating (0.84)

2 Cuando tengo deseos intensos de comer, una vez que me pongo a comer no puedo parar de comer 0.77(When I crave something, I know I won't be able to stop eating once I start)

3 A veces, cuando como lo que se me antoja, pierdo control y como demasiado 0.80

(If I eat what I am craving, I often lose control and eat too much)22 Si tengo la comida que deseo, no puedo resistir la tentacio n de comerla 0.73

(If I get what I am craving I cannot stop myself from eating it)25 No tengo la fuerza de voluntad de resistir mis deseos de comer las comidas que se me antojan 0.63

(I have no will power to resist my food crave)26 Una vez que me pongo a comer tengo problemas en dejar de comer 0.82

(Once I start eating, I have trouble stopping)

29 Si me dejo llevar por la tentacio n de comer pierdo todo mi control 0.71(If I give in to a food craving, all control is lost)

Thoughts or Preoccupation with Food (0.80)

6 No hago mas que pensar en la comida 0.77(I feel like I have food on my mind all the time)

8 A veces me encuentro pensativo preocupado con comida 0.76

(I ®nd myself preoccupied with food)27 Por mucho que lo intento, no puedo parar de pensar en comer 0.82

(I can't stop thinking about eating no matter how hard I try)28 Gasto demasiado tiempo pensando en lo pro ximo que voy a comer 0.74

(I spend a lot of time thinking about whatever it is I will eat next)

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across groups of: (a) covariance matrices, (b) factor form (number of factors), (c) factorstructure (loadings), (d) correlations among the three factors, and (e) error matrices. Todetermine if constraining matrices to be invariant across the groups led to a signi®cant

Table 2 (continued )

Having Intentions and Plans to Consume Food (0.57)

30 A veces me doy cuenta de que estoy sonÄ ando despierto y estoy sonÄ ando en comer 0.90 (0.40)(I daydream about food)

31 Cada vez que se me antoja una comida sigo pensando en comer hasta que como lo que se me antojo 0.65

(Whenever I have a food craving, I keep on thinking about eating until I actually eat the food)32 Cuando tengo muchas ganas de comer algo estoy obsesionado con comer lo que deseo 0.71

(If I am craving something, thoughts of eating it consume me)

Craving as a Physiological State (0.65)11 Se me hace la boca agua cuando pienso en mis comidas favoritas 0.61

(Thinking about my favorite foods makes my mouth water)

12 Siento deseos intensos de comer cuando my esto mago esta vacõ o 0.57(I crave foods when my stomach is empty)

13 Siento como que mi cuerpo me pidiera ciertas comidas 0.63(I feel as if my body asks me for certain foods)

14 Me entra tanto hambre que mi esto mago se siente com un pozo sin fondo 0.63(I get so hungry that my stomach seems like a bottomless pit)

Emotions that may be Experienced Before or During Food Cravings or Eating (0.62)

20 Siento deseos de comer cuando estoy aburrido(a), enfadado(a), o triste 0.75(I crave foods when I feel bored, angry, or sad)

33 A menudo deseo comer cuando siento emociones fuertes 0.77

(My emotions often make me want to eat)Cues that may Trigger Food Cravings (0.76)1 Cuando estoy con alguien que esta comiendo me entra hambre 0.68

(Being with someone who is eating often makes me hungry)

34 Cada vez que voy a un banquete termino comiendo ma s de lo que necesito 0.62(Whenever I go to a bu�et I end up eating more than what I needed)

35 Para mi es difõ cil resistir la tentacio n de tomar comidas apetecibles que esta n a mi alcance 0.72

(It is hard for me to resist the temptation to eat appetizing foods that are in my reach)36 Cuando estoy con alguien que se pasa comiendo, yo tambie n me paso 0.74

(When I am with someone who is overeating, I usually overeat too)

Guilt from Cravings and/or for Giving in to Them (0.84)4 Detesto no poder resistir la tentacio n de comer 0.68

(I hate it when I give into cravings)

7 A menudo me siento culpable cuando deseo ciertas comidas 0.66 (98)(I often feel guilty for craving certain foods)

17 Cuando como algo que deseo con intensidad me me siento culpable 0.72(When I eat what I am craving I feel guilty about myself)

a Instructions: Hemos escrito una lista de comentarios que gente ha hecho acerca de sentimientos, pensamientos,deseos, tentaciones, y antojos relacionados con la comida y el comer. Por favor, utilizando los nu meros que hay

debajo de cada descripcio n, escriba en el espacio de la izquierda la frecuencia con la que usted se siente asi, o hastaque punto cada comentario describe como usted piensa o se siente en general: Nunca (1), Raramente (2), Algunasveces (3), A menudo (4), Casi Siempre (5), Siempre (6). In a recent cross-validation of the English version we added

two additional items to the ``Emotions'' scale: Cuando estoy muy estresado me entran deseos fuertes de comer andMe entran deseos fuertes de comer cuando estoy disgustado (a) (see Cepeda-Benito et al., 1999: Study 3).

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decrease in model ®t, we performed w 2 di�erence tests comparing the constrained andunconstrained models (see Bollen, 1989; Byrne, 1989; JoÈ reskog & SoÈ rbom, 1989).

2.3.2. Correlation analysesTo further test the validity of the FCQ±T and the FCQ±S, we correlated time since eating

with each of the factor scores from both craving questionnaires. Time since eating wascalculated by subtracting the time at which each participant last ate from the time at which thequestionnaire was being administered. If the FCQ±T measures trait or typical characteristics ofcravings within an individual, FCQ±T scores should be consistent across time andcircumstances. Conversely, FCQ±S scores should be positively associated with time since eating(Hill, Weaver & Blundell, 1991).

3. Results

The results of the sequence of models with the trait version are presented in Table 1. Resultssuggested the covariance matrices for the two groups were very similar (w 2 [703, N =473]=927.56, GFI=0.94, NFI=0.97; TLI=0.99; CFI=1.0; and RMSEA=0.037). The modelfor the same number of factors also ®t well (w 2[1186, N = 473]=1641.29, GFI=0.80;NFI=0.97; TLI=0.99; CFI=0.99; and RMSEA=0.040). When we constrained the LX matrixto be invariant, there was a signi®cant loss in ®t (delta w 2 (37, N = 473)=70.13, p < 0.05).However, examination of modi®cation indices suggested that this was due to only two items.When we allowed these items to be estimated separately in the two groups, the ®t was muchbetter and not signi®cantly poorer than the previous unconstrained model (delta w 2 [35, N =473]=44.00, p = 0.14. When we then constrained the Phi matrix (factor correlations) to beinvariant across groups, there was not a signi®cant loss in ®t (delta w 2 [36, N= 473]=41.95, p= 0.23), suggesting that the factor correlations were very similar across groups. Factorloadings are presented in Table 2. Constraining the error matrices to be invariant did lead to asigni®cant decrease in ®t (delta w 2 [37, N = 473]=413.58, p < 0.05). Because this is a veryrestrictive assumption, we did not pursue di�erences further at this time.Inter factor correlations for the FCQ±T ranged from 0.18 to 0.84, with an mean iter-factor

correlation of 0.63 (SD=0.13). None of the con®dence intervals around the factor correlations(+ or ÿ2 standard errors; see Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) contained 1.0, supporting thediscriminant validity of the model (that the items measured separate factors). The overall alphafor the Spanish version of the FCQ±T was 0.92. Individual alphas for three of the scales weresomewhat low, ranging from 0.57 to 0.65, and the remainder six alphas ranged from 0.72 to0.84 (see Table 2).The results for the same sequence of models for the state version of the instrument indicated

the American and Spanish samples were quite similar (see Table 3). A test of equal covariancematrices suggested a good model ®t (w 2 (120, N = 475)=326.26, NFI=0.98; CFI=0.99; andRMSEA=0.085). The model for the same number of factors also had a good ®t (w 2 [160, N=475]=375.24, GFI=0.89; NFI=0.98; TLI=0.99; CFI=0.99; RMSEA=0.075. When weconstrained the factor loading to be invariant across groups, there was a signi®cant loss in ®t(delta w 2 [15, N = 475]=61.54, p < 0.01). Examination of modi®cation indices suggested that

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the decrease in ®t was due to three items. We then allowed those to be estimated separately forthe two groups and the model improved. The di�erence between this model and theunconstrained model was not statistically signi®cant (delta w 2 [11, N = 475]=9.14, p = 0.61).We then constrained the factor loading matrix (Phi) to be invariant across groups. Thisinitially led to a signi®cant decrease in ®t (delta w 2 [10, N = 475]=56.16, p < 0.01).Examination of the modi®cation indices suggested that there were four factor correlations thatseemed to di�er across groups. That is, factor correlations for the Spanish state questionnairewere considerably large (range=0.73±0.97, Mean=0.84, SD=0.09). However, only one of 10con®dence intervals around the factor correlations (+ or ÿ2 standard errors) contained 1.0(``Desire'' and ``Lack of Control''), providing partial support for the discriminant validity ofthe model. When we allowed the four factor correlations to be estimated separately, the ®timproved, and the ®t of this model was not signi®cantly di�erent from the unconstrainedmodel (delta w 2 [6, N = 475]=8.14, p = 0.22). Factor loadings are presented in Table 4. Aswith the trait version, constraining the error matrix (TD) to be invariant, led to a decrease in®t (delta w 2 [15, N = 475]=57.47, p < 0.01), and we did not further investigate di�erenceshere. The overall alpha for the Spanish version of the FCQ±S was 0.94. Individual alphas forthe scales ranged from 0.74 to 0.88 (see Table 4). These alphas are fairly high considering thateach scale contained only three items.For the Spanish sample, time since eating ranged from 0 to 17.25 h, with a mean of 3.6

(SD=3.00), a median of 2.5 h, and a mode of 2 h. That is, the length of food deprivation for

Table 3Comparing models for English and Spanish versions of the FCQ±State

Model Hypothesis w 2 df GFIa NFIb TLIc CFId RMSEAe Dw 2 Ddf p

1 Equal covariance matrices 326.26 120 0.96 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.0852 Equal no. of factors 375.24 160 0.89 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.0753 Equal factor structure

(LX invariant)

436.78 175 0.88 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.080

Model 3-2 di�erence 61.54 15 < 0.014 Modi®ed structure model 384.38 171 0.90 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.073

Model 4-2 di�erence 9.14 11 0.615 Equal factor correlations matrices

(LX+PH invariant)433.11 181 0.90 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.077

Model 4-3 di�erence 56.16 10 < 0.01

6 Modi®ed model 392.52 177 0.90 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.072Model 6-4 di�erence 8.14 6 0.22

7 Equal error matrices

(LX, PH, and TD invariant)

449.99 192 0.89 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.075

Model 7-6 di�erence 57.47 15 < 0.01

a GFI=Goodness of Fit Index.b NFI=Normed Fit Index.c CFI=Comparative Fit Index.d TLI=Tucker±Lewis Index.e RMSEA=root mean square error or approximation.

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the entire sample could be characterized as short, as 90% of the participants were included bya time-since-eating range of 1 to 7 h in a positively skewed distribution. All of the correlationsbetween time since eating and the FCQ±T factors were below 0.08 and none were statistically

Table 4Factors (scale a's for Spanish version), items, and item factor loadings (standardized loadings from the LAMBDA

X matrix) for Food Cravings Questionnaire±State for both English and Spanish versions/samples (when di�erent,loadings for the Spanish version appear in parentheses)a

An Intense Desire to Eat (0.88)1 Ahora mismo, tengo un deseo intenso de comer una o varias comidas en particular 0.87

(I have an intense desire to eat one or more speci®c foods)

2 Ahora mismo tengo un antojo por una o varias comidas en particular 0.82(I'm craving one or more speci®c foods)

3 Ahora mismo me urge comer una o varias comidas en particular 0.81

(I have an urge for one or more speci®c foods)Anticipation of Positive Reinforcement that may Result from Eating (0.82)4 Si pudiera comer una o varias comidas en particular me sentirõÂ a perfectamente 0.70 (0.95)

(Eating one or more speci®c foods would make things seem just perfect)

5 Estoy seguro de que si comiera lo que deseo, mi humor mejorarõÂ a 0.93 (0.20)(If I were to eat what I am craving, I am sure my mood would improve)

6 Comer una o varias comidas en particular me harõÂ a sentir maravillosamente 0.85

(Eating one or more speci®c foods would feel wonderful)Anticipation of Relief from Negative States and Feelings as a Result of Eating (0.77)7 Si comiera algo no me sentirõ a tan de bil y aletargado 0.85

(If I ate something I wouldn't feel so sluggish and lethargic)8 Me sentirõ a menos antipa tico e irritable si pudiera satisfacer mis deseos de comer 0.96 (0.53)

(Satisfying my craving would make me feel less grouchy and irritable)

9 Me sentirõ a ma s alerta si pudiera satisfacer mis deseos de comer 0.87(I would feel more alert if I could satisfy my craving)

Lack of Control over Eating (0.74)10 Si tomara una o varias comidas en particular no podrõÂ a parar de comerlas 0.65

(If I had one or more speci®c foods, I could not stop eating it)11 Mi deseo de comer una o varias comidas en particular puede ma s que yo 0.66

(My desire to eat [one or more speci®c foods] seems overpowering)

12 Ahora mismo, se que voy a seguir pensando en lo que me apetece hasta que lo consiga 0.82(I know I'm going to keep on thinking about one or more speci®c foods until I actually have it)

Craving as a Physiological State (0.81)

13 Tengo hambre 0.92(I am hungry)

14 Si pudiera comer algo ahora mismo, mi esto mago no se sentirõ a tan vacio 0.83(If I ate right now, my stomach wouldn't feel as empty)

15 Me siento de bil por no comer 0.75(I feel weak because of not eating.)

a Instructions: Hemos escrito una lista de comentarios que gente ha hecho acerca de sentimientos, pensamientos, ydeseos, tentaciones, y antojos relacionados con la comida y el comer. Por favor, utilizando los nu meros que haydebajo de cada descripcio , escriba en el espacio de la izquierda hasta que punto usted esta de acuerdo con que usted

se siente asõÂ ahora mismo. Por favor note que algunas preguntas se re®eren a una o varias comidas en particular(comidas que le apetecerian ahora), mientras que otras se re®eren a comidas que le apetecen en general: Absoluta-mente nada de acuerdo (1), Casi nada de acuerdo (2), Neutral (3), Un poco de acuerdo (4), Muy de acuerdo (5).

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signi®cant. Conversely, the correlations between time since eating and the FCQ±S factorsranged between 0.19 and 0.35, and all were statistically signi®cant. That is, the data areconsistent with the FCQ±T and the FCQ±S being a trait and a state measure, respectively.

4. Discussion

This study found that the factor structures for the Spanish and English versions of theFCQ±T and FCQ±S to be very similar. That is, there were no major, factor structuredi�erences for the two versions. For the FCQ±T, the groups were strikingly similar in mostparameters, suggesting measurement equivalence across Spanish and American, collegepopulations (see Little, 1997). Thus, these data support the generalizability of theconceptualization of cravings as a multidimensional motivational construct (Ti�any, 1990).Although we found moderate-to-high correlations among the factors, the data supported

their discriminant validity. That is, none of the con®dence intervals around the factorcorrelations contained 1.0 (see Anderson & Gerbing, 1988), suggesting that the factors areindeed distinct constructs. Furthermore, the ®nding of high inter-factor correlations is notsurprising because it suggests the presence of a higher-order unifying factor (food cravings).Thus, these results suggest that while total FCQ±T scores could be used as a general measureof trait cravings, individual FCQ±T factor scores could be useful in providing discriminantinformation in future research. It is possible that the FCQ±T could be used to identify anddi�erentiate craving pro®les between speci®c populations. These data could then be used to testhow di�erent pro®les are associated with the assessment, treatment, and prognosis of eatingdisorders. For example, we could hypothesize that among anorexia nervosa patients, thosetyped as restricting would score lower in the ``Lack of Control'' dimension than would those ofthe binge-eating/purging type (see also Gendall, Joyce, Sullivan & Bulik, 1998; Overduin &Jansen, 1996; van der Ster Wallin, Norring & Holmgren, 1994).For the FCQ±S, there was also considerable support for the factorial similarity across

samples. Four out of ten factor correlations did, however di�er, with the correlations beingconsistently higher in the Spanish group. The fact that a few parameters di�ered makes theterm ``partial invariance'' more appropriate to describe the structure equivalence results for theFCQ±S (see Byrne, 1989).Although only one of the inter-factor correlation intervals for the FCQ±S contained 1.0

(``Lack of Control/Desire''), the inter-factor correlations of the Phi matrix were neverthelesshigh (range=0.73±0.97). However, it should also be noted that the factors in the Phi matrixare theoretically measured without error and, thus, higher than correlations between factorscores that are generated by simply adding item scores. In the present case, the correlationsbetween the simple factor scores for the FCQ±S ranged from 0.62 to 0.76. Therefore, forpractical use in most research situations, the FCQ±S factors may not be so highly intercorrelated.Spanish versions of both instruments demonstrated good overall internal consistency,

suggesting the presence of higher-order factors (i.e. food cravings). The individual scale alphaswere almost surprisingly high for the FCQ±S given that each scale had only three items (andalpha is a�ected by the number of items on a scale). On the trait version, the alpha for the

A. Cepeda-Benito et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (2000) 1125±1138 1135

``Having Intentions and Plans to Consume Food'' factor was perhaps problematically low.However, this was a sub-scale that had only three items and the moderately high factor loadingfor all three items suggested adequate measurement of the latent factor. Nevertheless, if futureresearch attempts to revise the questionnaire, adding items to those with the fewest items mayimprove their reliability.It is unclear why the structure equivalence was more strongly supported for the FCQ±T than

the FCQ±S. However, the answer might be related to the ``Desire'' factor of the FCQ±S. Thatis, the FCQ±T does not measure the ``Desire'' dimension of craving, and this factor wasinvolved in three of the four correlations that di�ered between the Spanish and Americansample. Therefore, it is possible that the ``Desire'' dimension is a more general measure ofcravings for Spaniards than for Americans. Nevertheless, the overall results indicated ``partialinvariance'' and partial discriminant validity for the factor structure of the FCQ±S. As withthe FCQ±T, the results provide support for the multidimensional nature of cravings asmeasured by the FCQ±S.Further evidence for the construct validity of the instrument was provided by the di�erential

correlation patterns between time since eating and each of the FCQ instruments. Thesepatterns of correlations provide further support for the construct validity of the instruments.While FCQ±T factor scores did not correlate with length of time since eating, FCQ±S factorscores were consistently associated with time since eating. That is, the FCQ±T wasconceptualized as a trait measure and as such should be less in¯uenced by temporary andtransient states than the FCQ±S; which was developed to measure state dependent cravings.These data are also consistent with the ®nding that a 12 h deprivation interval signi®cantlyincreased self-reported state cravings but no substantial changes in trait cravings (Cepeda-Benito et al., 1999: Study 2). Although the correlation between time since eating and the FCQ±S factors could be characterized as ``small to medium'' (i.e., 0.10 to 0.30, Cohen, 1988), theyare sizable if we take into consideration that the range for time since eating was ratherrestricted and positively skewed (i.e., longer food-deprivation periods were under-represented).To our knowledge this study represents the most comprehensive cross-cultural examination

of food cravings to date. We feel this type of research is timely as it is becoming increasinglyevident that eating disorder phenomena are no longer limited to rich Western nations (Pate etal., 1992). The FCQ±T and FCQ±S have the potential of furthering cross-cultural eating-related research. Their established measurement equivalence should facilitate comparativeresearch among Spanish and English speaking countries. The natural next step in this line ofresearch should include examinations of the extent to which food cravings are associated withother eating-related variables, and investigations of whether these relationships are emic or etic.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Texas A&M University International Research TravelAssistance Grant Program and Psychology Department and the Departamento de PsicologõÂ a ofthe Universidad de Granada. We thank the Faculty, undergraduate assistants and participantsfrom both departments for their generous help and facilitation of this research. We would alsolike to thank Lisa Cepeda for her assistance in translating the instruments.

A. Cepeda-Benito et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (2000) 1125±11381136

Portions of the data reported here were presented at the annual meeting of the Associationfor the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, November 1998, Washington DC.

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