The conservation of sacred sites: Sarnath, a case study

The Conservation of Sacred Sites:Sarnath, a case study

Amita Sinha

Sacred places are frequentlynatural areas such as forestgroves, caves, hilltops andconfluences of streams andrivers and are not necessarilylimited to religious buildings.As areas with varyinggeographical distribution theycan be located in the midst of asettlement, at its periphery, orat a considerable distance fromit They can be small or largeareas supporting secular uses aswell. Usually they are foci witha concentrated force of spiritualenergy decreasing with distance

and which do not have clearlydefined edges. They may beforgotten places of a pastcivilisation or centres ofveneration. If they aredestinations of pilgrimage, theyhave facilities catering to theneeds of visiting pilgrims andresident devotees. There are asmany kinds of sacred places asthere are cultures and societies,with the common element beingthe feelings of reverence andextraordinarily strong emotionsthey evoke.

As significant pieces of

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Fig. 1 Varanasi and Sarnath

landscape to be conserved sothat their religious ambience isnot destroyed, sacredenvironments have not been asignificant area of concern inhistoric preservation andconservation. The culturalresources of these very oftencomplex sites, with no clearseparation of the religious fromthe secular, present achallenging task in drawing upa policy framework forconservation. For designers,their environmentalenhancement is an importantfield of enquiry and action.Significant elements of thephysical environment from thehistorical and culturalperspective, myths and legendsassociated with them, culturalnorms governing use of spaceby the visitor/devotee, all haveto be identified. Conservationentails restoration, renovation,and sometimes newdevelopment for deflectingundesirable uses and promotingthe educative potential of thesite.

The Hindu concept of sanctityof space is expressed in thelocation of its pilgrim centreswhich are geographicallydistributed at confluences ofrivers or river mouths, hilltops,mountains, and caves. Varanasi,on the banks of the riverGanges, is a tirtha (a ford at astream symbolising crossingover) and its holiness hasalways attracted ascetics, andreligious leaders. Sarnath, on itsoutskirts, was a forested areaand a deer preserve chosen bythe Buddha as a location for hisfirst sermon and for thefounding of an order of monks(fig. 1). Since Buddhismoriginated as a monasticreligion, Sarnath has becomeone of the many nuclei innorthern India from where thereligion diffused worldwide.Over time, monasteries andtemples were erected as thecommunity of monks increased

AbstractThis article concernsresearch issues inhistoric conservationexemplified through acase study of a sacredsite in India. Itdiscusses theenvironmentalqualities of Indiansacred spacescharacterised by amultiplicity of religionsand diffusing into therealm of the secular.An historical survey ofreligious architecture,myths and legendsand participantobservations of themany user groups arerecommended asresearch methodologiesto be followed whenformulating aconservation policyframework.

Key WordsConservationInterpretationLandscapeIndia

AuthorAmita Sinha is in theDepartment of LandscapeArchitecture, of theUniversity of Illinois atUibana-Champaign, 214Mumford Hall, 1301 WestGregory Drive, Urbana, IL61801, USA.

Landscape Research 16(3), 1991 23

Footnotes1 The department ofLandscape Architecture atthe University of Illinois inUrbana Champaign hasbeen involved in theplanning of Sarnath since1988. Site visits and studioprojects have resulted intwo reports submitted tothe Indian Government'sMinistry of Tourism.

2 The barrel vault of thethatched cottages of theIndo-Aryans is reflected inthe vaulted roof andhorse-shoe shaped windowsin Buddhist monastic caves.It is not religious creed thatdetermines the architecturalstyle of the Indianmonuments, but the regionin which they are found.While all the three religions:Buddhism, Hinduism andJainism, have similar templeforms, the stupa adds aunique element to Buddhistarchitecture and has alsoinfluenced the shape of theapsidal temple.

Fig. 2 The sacred site ofSarnath

and the site became a veneratedpilgrim destination. Sarnath hasancient ruins interspersed withBuddhist, Jain, and Hinducomplexes spread over a largearea, forming pockets in anagricultural landscape ofcultivated fields and nucleatedhamlets. The sacred importanceof the site is attested by thelarge number of religiousmonuments built and rebuiltover the ages.

The religious complexes weredestroyed in the thirteenthcentury by the invadingMuslims, however the last twocenturies have witnessed theirrevival and in recent timesBuddhist monks and nuns fromBurma, Japan, Sri Lanka, Tibetand Thailand have constructedtheir monasteries and templesclose to the millennia old ruins.Jain and Hindu temples andshrines to Hindu deitiesabound, testifying to the sacredcharacter of the place (fig. 2). Itis now a major religious centrefor the Buddhist monks andlaity from south, southeast andeast Asia, and is also the centrefor religiously ordained teaching.

The strong association withplace in Indian religions isrevealed at Sarnath, a sacredterritory venerated by numerousreligious groups and sects. Itsenvironmental setting providedfor the evolution and nurture ofdifferent religions such asBuddhism, Jainism and

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Hinduism, all of which revereSamath because of itsassociation with their respectivesaints and gods in a blend ofmythology and history. It isalso an example of thetransference of sanctity whereone religion does not completelydisplace another; all share in itsholiness.

Sacred sites venerated by manyreligions are as much culturalresource as historic monumentsince they constitute a livingexample of faith and reverenceprojected in the natural andbuilt environment. Sarnath isexceptionally rich in this respectas it also contains both age-oldruins and contemporarytemples. Conservation of sacredsites requires measures akin tothe historic preservation oflandmarks and districts. Theimportant difference whichshould be taken intoconsideration is that a sacredsite is revered and is frequentlya local or regional pilgrimdestination. A conceptualframework for research into theconservation of sacred placesshould therefore take intoaccount the uniqueness of suchsites, the religious and historicalforces that shape them and theenvironmental qualities thatimbue them with suchemotional significance for thedevotee. Two modes of activeresearch drawing upon historyand existing site evaluation aresuggested along with designimplications in the case ofSamath. This approach could befollowed in similar pilgrimagesites containing historicmonuments.

Cultural Heritage ZoneThe monuments and ruins atSamath constitute a microcosmof the cultural heritage of Indiaas they provide a record of therise and fall of religions, theirarchitectural monuments andassociated institutions, andpatterns of religiouslyconditioned behaviour. Thehistory and continuedpopularity of Indian religionsare clearly visible at Sarnath, itsruins giving us the period anddirection of religious currents. It

is imperative that these culturalresources be preserved in amanner that their educativepotential be communicated tothe lay public. Devotees andpilgrims will continue to flockto this site and so providing asupportive environment fortheir worship is essential. It isevident from preliminary sitesurveys that only sensitiveplanning can prevent the sitefrom being developed to anextent that destroys its religiousambience. The local planningauthority has proposed acultural heritage zone: a conceptakin to an historic district forthe preservation andconservation of culturalresources. It is a geographicallydefined area containing manyindividual structures linkedtogether by history, aesthetics,and religious use, which whenviewed as a whole, provide anunderstanding of the broaderpatterns of the subcontinent'scultural history. The mostimportant issues in the planningof this zone are the delimitationof the area, a policy for decidingwhich structures should bepreserved or conserved,guidelines on architecturalcontrol of future development,and a landscape plan that willenhance the sacred ambience,separate conflicting uses, andenable the viewer to experiencethe site as a whole. Policiesshould guide the carefulmanagement of change in thecultural heritage zone.However, policy formulation foran area such as this requiresmodes of research shaped bythe unique and complexsituation at hand.

Sarnath: Past andPresentNo monuments from Buddha'stimes can be found at Samathas the Buddha and hiscommunity of monks lived inperishable structures at the deerpark. The earliest relics at thesite are traced to Asoka, theMauryan emperor's reign in thethird century B.C. (fig. 3). Theyconsist of three stupas: Two atthe deer park; Dharmarajika,which contains the Buddha's

24 Landscape Research 16(3), 1991

Fig. 3 Buddhist monuments and ruins at Sarnath

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relics, and the Dhamek,commemorating some event inhis life, while the Chaukhandistupa was built half a mileaway to mark the place of theBuddha's meeting with hisdisciples. In addition to the

stup'as are the remains of manymonasteries and temples. TheMain Shrine, dating from thesixth century A.D., marks thesite of the Buddha's hut duringhis residence there and thelocation of his first sermon. To

the West is an apsidal templeand the remnants of the Asokanpillar (fig. 4). There are sevenmonasteries constructed overhundreds of years andnumerous small stupas built bydevotees between the tenth andtwelfth centuries tocommemorate their pilgrimage(fig. 5). Newer structuresinclude a Jain templecommemorating the death ofthe thirteenth Jain prophet, aBuddhist temple (fig. 6), and anArchaeological Museumcontaining the numeroussculptures found at theexcavated site.

Four village hamlets surroundthe ruins with their vernaculararchitecture of courtyarddwellings separated by windingalleyways (fig. 7). Besides ruralhouses there are other structurescontaining administrative officesof the archaeology and forestrydepartments, educationalinstitutions, pilgrim lodgings,and private residences erectedin a style referred to as thepublic works department(characteristic of the Britishperiod in Indian history: fig. 8).Vending, one of the ancillaryuses associated with a religiousand a tourist complex,encompasses a number ofcommercial activities rangingfrom peripatetic sellers andmobile carts to permanentstructures (fig. 9). At Sarnath,vending is large scale, and iswidely distributed over themajor circulation routes: atentry and exit points, streetintersections, and shaded areasalong the roads.

Sarnath is, therefore, a complexsite supporting manifoldactivities, both religious andsecular, and attracting a varietyof users, ranging from pilgrimsof the three faiths, residentBuddhist monks, visitors fromVaranasi in search of recreation,and international touristsinterested in ruins andmonuments. To a planner ordesigner seeking to preserve thespirit of the place in preparingfuture scenarios, Sarnathpresents a daunting task. Theprecedents in historicpreservation and conservationin other parts of the world are

BibliographyBrown, Percy. IndianArchitecture - Hindu andBuddhist Periods. Bombay:Taraporevala, 1964.

Dutt, Sukumar. BuddhistMonks and Monasteries ofIndia. London, 1962.

Fergusson, James. History ofIndian and EasternArchitecture. London: JohnMurray, 1891.

Fitch, James. HistoricPreservation: CuratorialManagement of the BuiltWorld. New York:McGraw-Hill Book. Co.,1982.

Graver, Satish. TheArchitecture of India —Buddhist and Hindu.Ghaziabad, India: VikasPublishing House, 1980.

Havell, E.B. The Ancient andMedieval Architecture of India— A Study of Indo-AryanCivilisation. New DelhiS.Chand & Co., 1972.

Johnson, Ronald andMichael Schene (eds.).Cultural ResourcesManagement. Malabar,Florida; Robert Kreiger Pub.Co., 1987.

Keune, Russell (ed.). TheHistoric PreservationYearbook Bethesda,Maryland: Adler and Adler,1984.

Mitra, Debala. BuddhistMonuments. Calcutta: SahitaSamsad, 1971.Rhys Davids, T.W. BuddhistIndia. Delhi: MotilalBanarsidas, 1971.

Sahni, Daya Ram. Guide tothe Buddhist Ruins ofSarnath. Varanasi:Antiquarian Book House,1982.

Sarnath: A Master Plan forTourism Development.Department of LandscapeArchitecture, University ofIllinois atUrbana-Champaign, 1988.

Volwahsen, Andreas. LivingArchitecture - Indian. NewYork: Grosset and Dunlap,1969.

Williams, N., E. Kellogg, F.Gilbert (eds.). Readings inHistoric Preservation. Schoolfor Policy Research:Rutgers, 1983.


S PM&& Worfo Department style architecture at Sarnath Fig. 7 The countryside at Sarnath (top)Fig. 10 The wheel used in a gateway at Sarnath (middle)Fig. 9 Vending structures (bottom)


Fig. 11 Horse-shoe shaped entry to a Buddhist cave (after Volswahsen,1969)

Fig. 12 The Buddhist monastery (vihara-after Mitra, 1971)

Fig. 13 The apsidal Buddhist temple (diaitya griha-after Mitra, 1971)

helpful only to a limited degreeas the contexts are widelydifferent. The thriving religiosityof the site, its continuoustransformations, both past andpresent, its diverse uses andvaried users, make the task ofpreservation a complicatedaffair. Successfully to prepare ablueprint of policy frameworkrequires two modes of research:Site surveys of buildings,activities, and the various usergroups; and historical researchon Buddhist architecture, art,and landscape. Theseapproaches would assist in themaking of informed designdecisions on future developmentwithin the zone, and in theformulation of appropriatepreservation and conservationstrategies.

Modes of Research:Historical SurveyThe problem of what should bepreserved is compounded bythe fact that Sarnath is a livingsite with religious activitystretching in an unbrokencontinuity over two and halfmillennia. This has entailed anenormous amount of buildingactivity including stupas,monasteries and temples, someof which are still being built.Diversity in architectural stylesat Sarnath is very much evidentnot only because of the longperiod of building but alsobecause the spread of Buddhismworldwide has brought theindigenous style of the countriesinto the realm of Buddhistarchitecture. These styles arerepresented in the monasteriesof Burma, China, Japan,Thailand and Tibet located inproximity to the andent ruinsand monuments. The examplesof vernacular and colonialarchitecture which surround thestupas and monuments, formingtheir present day context, add tothis architectural diversity.

The preservation of the ruinsand monuments is the mostimportant issue in a culturalheritage zone. What is of almostequal importance is thearchitectural control over futuredevelopment so that some kindof unity may be established.


Both require a thoroughknowledge and understandingof architectural forms as theyhave evolved through history.The guidelines for architecturalcontrol should therefore bebased upon precedents so thatthe architecture continues tosymbolise religious tradition.Restoration too demands acareful reconstruction of howthe monument may haveappeared in.its heyday.

The literary sources on thearchitectural history of Sarnathinclude pilgrims' accountsdating back to the fourthcentury A.D., and Jatdkas, storiesof the various births of theBuddha, Hindu and Jainlegends. Sculptures and theruins themselves capture intheir iconography the life andtimes of Gautama Buddha.

The exploration of attitudes tonature in ancient Buddhist Indiathrows light on how natureshould be treated in theplanning of the cultural heritagezone. The Buddha spenttwo-thirds of his entire lifegiving discourses in forests andother natural settings on theoutskirts of the major cities inNorthern India. Thecongregation order (sangha) andthe religious creed (dharma)were formulated inencampments nestling in thenatural surroundings. Nature isinvested with a profoundsymbolic meaning in Buddhismdue to the Buddha's sojourn inforests, his enlightenment underthe pipal tree (ficus religiosa, alsocalled the Bodhi Tree), his birthin a garden and his death in agrove of trees on the banks of ariver. The concept of retreatingto the solitude of nature for thepurpose of meditation isprevalent in Indian culture.Concentration was aided by theserenity of a forested setting. Atthe end of a philosophicaldialogue, the Buddha enjoinedupon his followers: 'Here arethe trees, think this matter out!'.Meditation, sermons anddiscussion all took place innatural settings in ancient Indiapointing to the need for alandscape that will capture theambience of Buddhist times.Planting groves of trees,

providing steps to water,maintaining the flora and faunaof the Buddhist period andusing other natural elementstherefore should receive primeconsideration in redesigning thesite.

The new structures such as avisitors' centre, living quartersfor monks, and meditation hallsin the cultural heritage zoneshould emphasise the continuityof architectural tradition whichentails a study of Indianreligious architecture. Theaffinity between Buddhist, Jainand Hindu architecture, withtheir roots in ancient Indiandomestic prototypes, reflects thecommon heritage of the threereligions. The autochthonousarchitecture of the villagessurrounding the monumentsand ruins is a living example oftheir roots.2

Buddhism as a creed manifestsitself strongly in art andarchitecture. Certain features aresymbolic of major events in theBuddha's life and are evocativeof the religion. For example, theBodhi Tree is associated with theBuddha's enlightenment, theeight-spoked wheel is identifiedwith the wheel of the Dharma(fig. 10), and the Buddha'sparinirvana (passage fromearthly life) is symbolised by thestupa. These aniconic symbolsaiding contemplation are foundworldwide in all regionsassociated with Buddhism andshould therefore be used aselements in new buildings andsite redesign.

I will discuss a few examples inhistorical Buddhist architectureto explain how they can be usedin contemporary times. Themonastery (vihara), and prayerhall (chaitya griha), and elementssuch as railings, pillars,gateways, and horse-shoeshaped windows (fig. 11)emerge as prototypes of forms,shapes, and details that can beused to evoke the religioussymbolism in new architecture.For example the Buddhistmonastery took the form of aquadrangle surrounded on threeor four sides by monks' cellsaround a courtyard (fig. 12).Several monasteries formed a

complex at places celebrated inBuddhist legends, associatedwith the Buddha's missionarytravels, and in the vicinity ofstupas commemorating thesignificant events in his life.This can inspire the form of theliving quarters for monks whocome to Sarnath on a periodicbasis.

In many cases an apsidal shrinechamber (chaitya griha)containing a stupa or an imagewas attached to the monasteryor located in close proximity. Itassumed its form from thecircular plan and the domicalcontour of the stupa and theritual of draimnambulation (fig.13). The apsidal form resultingfrom an attachment of anoblong hall to a semicircular oroctagonal apse can serve as aprototype for all structures forreligious congregation andmeditation. The Buddhist pillarsand railings (fig. 14) can becomeedges and nodes in a landscaperedesign which seeks to give adistinct identity to the culturalheritage zone through unifyingmarkers.

Modes of Research:Site EvaluationA complete picture of presentday Sarnath can only beascertained by a systematicappraisal of environmentalconditions. The varied mix ofuses requires a number of sitesurvey techniques such asdocumentation of land uses,photographic survey of buildingstructures, and interviews witheach category of user. Anumber of institutions areinvolved in a caretakingcapacity such as thearchaeological surveyresponsible for the excavationsand upkeep of the monuments,state forestry departments,temple authorities, monasticinstitutions, and Varanasidevelopment authority. Eachone is involved in somemeasure with the future of thesite and should be representedin the planning of the culturalheritage zone. A political tug ofwar over the allocation ofresources could easily result if


Fig. 14 Buddhist gateway (totana) and railing (after Mitra, 1971)

Fig. 15 Vernacular architecture at Sarnath

planning is attempted withoutunlocking the complex

administrative structure of theseagencies. A participatory

decision-making model shouldfollow the identification ofprincipal actors and theinstitutional interests theyrepresent.

The sphere of users extendsbeyond the institutions dtedabove and includes manytransient users who come toSarnath to admire its ruins andenjoy the tranquillity of the.agricultural landscape, andpilgrims who visit the site tocelebrate the various festivals.There is both a daily andseasonal rhythm of use whichshould be carefully studied inorder to record the peak, theebb, and the flow. The culturalnorms and motives for visitswhich govern each category ofusers' behaviour are alsodifferent, with religiousdevotion and secular aestheticappreciation not being alwayscompatible. Internationaltourists come mostly in winterand early spring; the stay of theBuddhist pilgrims coincideswith the Dalai Lama's biannualvisits; the Hindu festivals attractthousands of pilgrims from thenearby areas; and year-roundvisitors from Yaranasi come ingreater numbers during theweekends. Facilities for thepilgrims and daily visitors canonly be designed afterascertaining their numbers, theirperiod of stay, and theiractivities.

Establishment of a culturalheritage zone introduces ameasure of control for futuredevelopment. How can aseparation of uses be attemptedin a territory where the sacredmeshes with the secular withina context of diffused sanctity?Residential, educational,administrative, commercial andrecreational uses coexist withreligious ones, in keeping withthe subtle gradation of thereligious to secular in Indianthought. Casual observations ofvisitors' behaviour reveal thatthe peace and tranquillityrequired for religious meditationand worship are threatened byincreasing recreational use inthe vicinity of the ruins. Theoveruse of the monumentsthreatens their very survival.Careful zoning of various


activities requires documentingthe areas and the intensity ofuse. For example, thefamily-oriented picnic activitiesof Varanasi residents within thearchaeological site disturbs themonks engaged in meditationand worship and also erodesthe ruins. If a park is designedat a site not too far away, theserecreational activities would bedeflected, reserving the existingarea for visits made by thosewishing to appreciate and learnabout Buddhist history.

A survey of all minor andwayside shrines which aboundin Sarnath is necessary. As thewhole site is considered sacred,there is a tendency for theshrines to spring up under atree, by the road, or near apond, usually to commemoratea mythical episode or event inthe life of a renowned saint.Each of these could beconsidered a manifestation ofsanctity which permeatesSarnath. The shrines alsoindicate the incorporation of thelocal divinities into the largerpantheon of Hindu gods andgoddesses as well as into thereligious structure of apreeminent Buddhist centre. Thesites of the shrines can beenhanced and incorporated intothe landscape redesign so thatthere is provision for theworshippers' daily offerings.

The cultivated fields of wheatand mustard represent a perfectsetting for the ruins adding tothe effect of timelessness. Theneed for land to build touristlodges and housing (whichrelieves the overcrowdeding ofVaranasi) subjects this area topressures which cannot bewithstood without some policymeasures. The conservation ofthe agricultural landscapeamong which the ruins nestlerequires documentation of therural lifestyle and habitat (fig.15), the agricultural practices,and the development pressures.A socioeconomic survey will

help determine the subsidies tobe given for promotion ofvillage handicrafts and theircommercial distribution so thatvillagers can continue to residein their ancestral land.

ConclusionBeside the preservation ofmonuments and ruins, the mostimportant goal is theconservation of natural areas.Furthermore, buildings datingfrom the turn of the centuryhousing administrative offices,educational institutions, andpilgrim lodges, should berenovated periodically. Thoughnot historically significant inthemselves, these provide anappropriate scale. The landscaperedesign of the cultural heritagezone should enhance thelocation of shrines, allow forvending, limit vehicular use andprovide site features such asrailings and pillars which unifythe site. For new developmentssuch as the visitor andmeditation centres, theenvironmental designer shoulddraw upon both the religiousand vernacular architecturalheritage. After a vocabulary oftraditional forms and shapeshas been collated, it then has tobe creatively used toaccommodate the requirementsof the pilgrims, tourists, andinhabitants of the site.

The reverence and emotionalconnection to Sarnath arerevealed by thousands ofdevotees who flock there onspecial occasions and also bythe residents who feelthemselves to be blessed byliving in this holy place. Theseties of sanctified reverence andholiness can be strengthened byenvironmental design (whichshould support conservation ofcultural resources), approachesto which have been outlinedabove. Due to the complexity ofthe site, which contains

monuments erected over theages and exhibits layers of useranging from religious torecreational, one single mode ofresearch is inadequate. Thehistorical richness demands astudy of religious forms as theyhave evolved over the ages sothat they may be used bothironically and symbolically forhistoric allusion and remindersof tradition. The bewilderingdiversity of use in religious,educational, rural andrecreational settings for theassessment of needs and theidentification of possibleconflicts entails a participantobservation approach. It isimportant to understand theideology of each category ofuser within which their purposein visiting or living in thesacred site makes sense. Onlythen can the meanings attachedto the site be ascertained andconsequently supported byenvironmental design.

Sarnath, therefore, presents avery interesting case study ofboth religious and secular forcesin placemaking. It demonstratesthe complexity of the notion ofsacredness as manifested in thephysical environment and itsoverlap with the non-sacredrealm of settings and activities.To preserve the sacred onlywould devoid it of all richnessof life. A sacred place is notviewed for aestheticappreciation only (although thatmay be a part of it) but is alsoassociated with transcendentalexperience. Therefore itsenvironmental manipulationshould be handled extremelysensitively with full awarenessof religious history andcontemporary culturalmeanings. The modes ofresearch outlined in this papercan be used in all sacred sitesearmarked for historicconservation which are activepilgrim destinations and whichalso support a residentpopulation.


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The conservation of sacred sites: Sarnath, a case study