Helsinki University of Technology

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management

Institute of Strategy and International Business

Antti Vassinen

The Concept of Strategic Marketing in Marketing Discourse – a Bibliometric Study

This study is a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of Master of Science in Industrial Engineering and Management.

Helsinki, 17 May 2006

Supervisor: Juha-Antti Lamberg, Acting Professor, Helsinki University of Technology

Instructor: Henrikki Tikkanen, Professor, Helsinki School of Economics

HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY ABSTRACT OF THE MASTER´S THESIS Industrial Engineering and Management Author: Antti Vassinen Subject of the thesis: The Concept of Strategic Marketing in Marketing Discourse – a Bibliometric Study Number of pages: 104 + 19 Date: 2006-05-17 Library location: TU

Professorship: Strategy and International Business

Code of professorship: TU-91

Supervisor: Juha-Antti Lamberg, Acting Professor Instructor: Henrikki Tikkanen, Helsinki School of Economics In management discourse, strategic marketing is found everywhere. Yet, one will rarely come across two identical definitions. There is a distinct need for a clarification. A shared terminology would serve many purposes in clarifying the scientific discourse, not to mention usage in business. To this end, the thesis attempts to map the phenomena referred to by “strategic marketing”. Secondly, the thesis reflects on the various understandings of strategic marketing in discourse, in contrast to a specific understanding and definition of strategic marketing as the key driver in any value-creating process. The purpose of this thesis is to serve as a preliminary literature study to a wider joint research project by the Helsinki School of Economics and the Swedish School of Economics in Helsinki, by the name of StratMark. The aim of the study is to investigate the origins of the present understandings of “strategic marketing”, taking advantage of bibliometric methodology. The research aims to answer the following questions: (1) What are the antecedents that have contributed to the present state of the discourse on “strategic marketing”? (2) What roles, organizational activities, processes and levels of decision-making are attributed to “strategic marketing” in literature? (3) What antecedents might prove useful starting points for framing further research within the StratMark project? A population of 423 articles related to strategic marketing, published in 37 journals between 1986 and 2005 comprised the base set of data. All articles were classified according to relevancy, and a series of descriptive, citation and co-citation analyses performed on the articles and their citation data. The analyses indicated, that the discourse is indeed wide and varied. Four distinct groups of antecedents to the present state of the discourse were discovered, each composed of a selection of seminal publications: (A) The competitive environment, (B) Operational marketing performance and international growth, (C) The resource-based view, and (D) Market orientation and performance. The points of view and research fields that most closely corresponded with the StratMark perspective were the ones reflected and originating in the antecedent groups C and D. The study achieved the objective of setting directions for further research and enabling linkages to be made to other components in the StratMark research project. Suggestions for improvements and further research, both within the scope of this study and the wider research project context, were suggested.

Keywords: strategic marketing, marketing, strategy, bibliometrics, citation analysis, discourse, antecedents

Publishing language: English

TEKNILLINEN KORKEAKOULU DIPLOMITYÖN TIIVISTELMÄ Tuotantotalouden osasto Tekijä: Antti Vassinen Työn nimi: Strategisen markkinoinnin käsite markkinoinnin diskurssissa – bibliometrinen tutkimus Sivumäärä: 104 + 19 Päiväys: 2006-05-17 Työn sijainti: TU

Professuuri: Yritysstrategia ja kansainvälinen liiketoiminta

Koodi: TU-91

Työn valvoja: Juha-Antti Lamberg, vs. professori Työn ohjaaja: Professori Henrikki Tikkanen, Helsingin kauppakorkeakoulu Liikkeenjohdon keskustelu on täynnä viittauksia strategiseen markkinointiin. Määritelmät termille eivät kuitenkaan usein ole yhteneväisiä: johdonmukaiselle ja jaetulle terminologialle olisi kuitenkin vahva tilaus sekä tieteellisen diskurssin selkeyttämisessä että etenkin liikkeenjohdon käytössä. Tämä tarkoitusperä mielessä tämä tutkimus yrittää kartoittaa niitä eri ilmiötä, joihin viitataan käsiteparilla ”strateginen markkinointi”. Tämän lisäksi tutkimus tarkastelee näitä eri strategisen markkinoinnin ymmärryksiä, pyrkien peilaamaan niitä strategisen markkinoinnin käsittämiseen arvonluontiprosessin avaintekijänä. Tutkimuksen tarkoitus on luoda alustava kirjallisuuskatsaus Helsingin kauppakorkeakoulun ja Svenska Handelshögskolanin yhteistä StratMark-tutkimushanketta varten. Tutkimuksen päämääränä on selvittää ”strategisen markkinoinnin” nykykäsitysten alkuperiä käyttäen hyväksi bibliometrisiä tutkimusmenetelmiä. Tavoitteena on vastata seuraaviin tutkimuskysymyksiin: (1) Mitkä antesedentit ovat vaikuttaneet “strategisen markkinoinnin” diskurssin nykytilaan? (2) Mitä rooleja, organisatorisia toimintoja, prosesseja ja päätöksenteon tasoja kytketään ”strategisen markkinoinnin” käsitteeseen kirjallisuudessa? (3) Mitkä antesedentit voisivat olla hyödyllisiä lähtökohtia StratMark:in puitteissa tapahtuvan jatkotutkimuksen kannalta? Tutkimusaineistoksi valittiin 423 strategiseen markkinointiin liittyvän artikkelin populaatio. Artikkelit on julkaistu 37 tieteellisessä aikakausilehdessä vuosien 1986 ja 2005 välillä. Artikkelit luokiteltiin relevanssin mukaan. Tämän jälkeen aineistoa tarkasteltiin useiden eri kuvaavien analyysitekniikoiden sekä sitaatio- ja yhteissitaatiomenetelmien avulla. Analyysit osoittivat, että strategisen markkinoinnin ympärillä käytävä keskustelu on erittäin laajaa ja monikäsitteistä. Neljä selkeää ja erillistä keskustelun nykyrakennetta taustoittavaa antesedenttiryhmää tunnistettiin: (A) kilpailuympäristö, (B) operatiivinen markkinoinnin tuloksellisuus ja kansainvälinen kasvu, (C) resurssipohjainen näkökulma, ja (D) markkinasuuntautuneisuus ja tuloksellisuus. Näistä jokainen koostui joukosta uraauurtavia julkaisuja. Näkökulmat ja lähestymistavat, jotka lähimmin vastasivat StratMark-tutkimusryhmän näkemystä, löytyivät antesedenttiryhmistä C ja D. Tutkimus saavutti tavoitteen, jonka mukaan sen tuli osoittaa suuntaviivoja tulevalle tutkimukselle ja mahdollistaa sidoksia StratMark-hankkeen muihin osakokonaisuuksiin. Kehityskohteita ja jatkotutkimuskohteita tunnistettiin sekä tämän tutkimuksen aihealueen sisältä, että laajemman tutkimushankekokonaisuuden puitteissa. Avainsanat: strateginen markkinointi, markkinointi, strategia, bibliometria, sitaatioanalyysi, diskurssi, antesedentti

Julkaisukieli: englanti

i

Acknowledgements I am indebted to Professor Henrikki Tikkanen, Professor Kristian Möller

and Docent Petri Parvinen, as well as other faculty members at the HSE

Department of Marketing and Management, without whose support this

thesis would be quite different. In involving me with the StratMark

project, and academic research at large, they have indeed opened a new

window to the world for me. I look forward to continuing my research

under their guidance and support for years to come.

I also owe great thanks to the Department of Industrial Engineering and

Management at the Helsinki University of Technology – a hallmark of

rationality and flexibility. I have but praise for both the athmosphere at

the Institute of Strategy and International Business and department

administration. An embodiment of this spirit is also Dr. Juha-Antti

Lamberg, who supervised this thesis. Furthermore, I would like to thank

all those brilliantly intelligent individuals, who I have had the opportunity

to work with with during our time as undergraduates. You truly made the

experience worthwhile.

In the scope of the thesis, I wish to thank Juha Mattsson, Henri Schildt and

others who have trodden the path the path of bibliometric analysis

before me. Your experiences have been invaluable.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents, family and

close friends, all who have stood firmly by during my studies, offering

their support and wise words. Finally, I would like to mention two

individuals, without whose fostering and inspiring example I would not

be where I am today: my first teacher Riitta Mäkinen, for starting me on

my path, and Nicholas Botting, for showing me science for what it really

is.

Helsinki, 17 May 2006

Antti Vassinen

ii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................i

Table of Contents....................................................................................................ii

List of Figures .........................................................................................................iv

List of Tables ..........................................................................................................iv

1 Introduction........................................................................................................1

1.1 Background......................................................................................................1

1.2 The StratMark Project ......................................................................................2

1.3 Research Problem.............................................................................................4

1.3.1 Research Objectives .................................................................................8

1.4 Key Concepts....................................................................................................8

1.4.1 Marketing ................................................................................................9

1.4.2 Strategy..................................................................................................10

1.4.3 Strategic Marketing...............................................................................12

1.4.4 Discourse ................................................................................................15

1.4.5 Antecedents ...........................................................................................16

1.4.6 Citations and References .......................................................................17

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study ..............................................................17

1.6 Methodology .................................................................................................20

1.7 Research Progress and Structure of the Thesis .............................................24

2 Data Organization............................................................................................27

2.1 Journal Selection............................................................................................27

2.2 Database Queries ...........................................................................................31

2.3 Article Selection .............................................................................................34

2.4 Data Coding, Management And Analysis .....................................................44

3 Descriptive Analysis .........................................................................................46

3.1 Publication Activity ........................................................................................46

3.2 Authorship .....................................................................................................48

3.3 Distribution Among Publication Outlets.......................................................52

iii

3.4 Temporal publication pattern .......................................................................55

3.5 Summary ........................................................................................................56

4 Citation Analysis...............................................................................................58

4.1 Theoretical background.................................................................................59

4.1.1 Citation analysis .....................................................................................59

4.1.2 Co-citation analysis ................................................................................61

4.2 Citation Analysis of Strategic Marketing Discourse......................................62

4.2.1 Most Cited Articles and Books...............................................................63

4.2.2 Most Cited First Authors........................................................................73

4.2.3 Most Cited Journals ...............................................................................74

4.2.4 Temporal Profile of Cited References ...................................................76

4.2.5 Co-citation Analysis ...............................................................................76

4.3 Summary ........................................................................................................83

5 Discussion .........................................................................................................86

6 On Reliability and Validity ...............................................................................90

6.1 Data Selection ................................................................................................90

6.2 Analyses..........................................................................................................92

7 Conclusions.......................................................................................................93

8 References ........................................................................................................95

Appendix A: The article population and relevancy classifications ...................105

Appendix B: Co-citation coupling strengths ......................................................119

Appendix C: Co-citation cluster analysis results ................................................121

Appendix D: Co-citation network centrality analysis results............................123

iv

List of Figures

Figure 1. The structure of the StratMark research project. ...................................4

Figure 3. Distribution of articles across publication outlets. ...............................53

Figure 4. Temporal publication pattern of all 423 articles. .................................56

Figure 5. Inaccurate information in the citation database. .................................64

Figure 6. "Competitive Strategi" by Michael Porter. ...........................................65

Figure 7. Incorrect volume number for Harvard Business Review in 1977. .........65

Figure 8. The temporal distribution of cited articles and books. ........................76

Figure 9. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, average link method. ..........................................................................................................79

Figure 10. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, complete link method...........................................................................................79

List of Tables

Table 1. The intellectual foundations of marketing theory. ...............................14

Table 2. Journals and periodicals selected for bibliometric analysis. ..................30

Table 3. ISI SSCI article data output (example).....................................................32

Table 4. Classification levels and criteria for article assessment. .........................36

Table 5. Final article classification category counts. ............................................43

Table 6. Author counts and relevancy levels. .......................................................49

Table 7. Authors with most published articles in the article population. ...........51

Table 8. Most cited articles and books. ................................................................66

Table 9. Most cited first authors. ..........................................................................73

Table 10. Most cited journals. ...............................................................................75

Table 11. Co-citation clusters for the 28 most cited documents..........................80

Table 12. Descriptions of clusters formed from co-citation data.........................81

Table 13. Network centrality analyses. .................................................................82

1

1 Introduction

This chapter describes the background and context of the thesis; defines

the research problems, key objectives and concepts; discusses the scope

and limitations of the study and outlines the structure of this master’s

thesis.

1.1 Background

Strategic marketing is found everywhere. Yet, one will rarely come across

two identical definitions. Managers, leaders, researchers and business

apostles alike impose different meanings on the phrase. In usage, it

sprawls across the fields of marketing, product promotion, management,

and strategy. There is a distinct need for a clarification.

Finnish business has relied first on raw materials and then on advanced

technology for global competitive advantage. The sustainability of the

present situation is suspect. For increased global competitiveness, Finnish

companies must involve a new appreciation of marketing in their business

and ways of thinking. (Tikkanen 2006;Vassinen 2006)

2

This thesis addresses these issues with a processual mindset. The object is

to examine the origins of the present state of the “strategic marketing”1

discourse in a conceptual and metatheoretical manner.

A shared terminology would serve many purposes in clarifying the

scientific discourse, not to mention usage in business. To this end, the

author’s goal is to first map the phenomena referred to by “strategic

marketing”. Secondly, the author will reflect on that current nature of the

discourse in contrast to a specific understanding and definition of

strategic marketing as the key driver in any value-creating process.

1.2 The StratMark Project

The purpose of this thesis is to serve as a preliminary literature study to a

wider joint research project by the Helsinki School of Economics and the

Swedish School of Economics in Helsinki. Drawing on both public and

private funding, the long-term goal of the StratMark project is to enhance

the global competitiveness of Finnish companies by bringing strategic

marketing capability to par with technological competence.2 The research

group has an understanding of strategic marketing as a cross-functional

customer-centered mindset, originating at the highest stratum of

management. It is this understanding, which the group wishes to

1 In this study, the phrase strategic marketing will be enclosed in quotes when it refers to

the different understandings of the phrase and concept found in marketing discourse.

Without quotes, the phrase will most often refer to the defined StratMark understanding

of strategic marketing or the context or school of thought being examined. The StratMark

perspective is defined in section 1.4.3.

2 More information on the StratMark project is available via the Internet at

<http://www.stratmark.fi/>.

3

popularize on to achieve its goal. Strategic marketing should form the

core of leadership, based on which a company’s organization, activities

and relationship network are constructed and managed. For sustainable

competitive advantage, focus should be on effective strategic

commercialization, supported by a pervasive marketing spirit and solid

technological foresight. A company will need to have resolve and

boldness to be marketing-driven, not market-driven.

The Role of the Study within StratMark

The StratMark project is structured as two parallel working packages.

Both packages follow similar lines of research with their own set of goals.

The interaction between the working packages provides the interface to

promoting the overall goals of the project: sustained public discussion of

the state, nature, role and adoption of strategic marketing as the key

issue for top management.

Working package 1 focuses on the role, position and status of marketing

in Finnish business organizations. This is broken down to four areas of

research:

(i) Understanding the current state research into strategic marketing

and marketing performance

(ii) Benchmarking Finnish companies with international best practices

(iii) The role of marketing spirit in business: creativeness,

innovativeness, courage, innovativeness, vision and cognition

(iv) A critical reflection on “theory versus practice”

The outcomes of research in working package 1 can be summarized in the

form of a question: “In practice, what should happen in Finland?” The

second working package concerns the link between marketing and

business performance. Research is sub-divided as follows:

4

(i) Evaluating and defining the strategic role of marketing

(ii) Developing both qualitative and quantitative metrics for

marketing competence within a broader definition of strategic

marketing

(iii) Linking strategic marketing practices and business performance

(iv) Developing new tools for marketing and business performance

Again, research within the working package aims to answer a quesstion:

“How can marketing performance be managed in practice?” The parallel

nature of the work packages is illustrated in Figure 1. Research progresses

as interaction between the two work packages; this thesis falls in the first

component of working package, with a flexible interface to its co-topic in

working package 2.

1.3 Research Problem

This thesis purports that the understanding of strategic marketing

remains, to this date, fragmented. Several general understandings of the

Figure 1. The structure of the StratMark research project.

5

strategic role of strategic marketing can be identified in literature and,

perhaps with more visible results, the general and business press. An

interesting semantic elaboration is whether these represent streams of

thought within strategic marketing or merely three related topics that

share a common name in different schools of thought. An altogether

different issue is the performance implications of the different meanings:

How will a business perform, if its “strategic marketing” consists of

nothing but inconsistent promotional actions? Discussions with executives

consistently indicate, that misunderstandings about the role and

possibilites of well-organized, strategic marketing processes abound.

This reflection gives way to structured empirical assessment of scientific

research on strategic marketing. Through bibliometric analysis employing

citation analysis, co-citation coupling and network centrality analysis, an

attempt is made to address the nature of the streams of thought in what

is referred to as strategic marketing.

To these ends, the following main research question is called on:

What are the origins of the present understandings of strategic

marketing?

This question is divided into three sub-questions:

(1) What are the antecedents that have contributed to the present state

of the discourse on “strategic marketing”?

(2) What roles, organizational activities, processes and levels of decision-

making are attributed to “strategic marketing” in literature?

(3) What antecedents might prove useful starting points for framing

further research within the StratMark project?

6

The study is meta-theoretical in nature, as it concerns research on

research, as well as semantic in that it examines what terminology used in

discourse. The question of terminology usage is as important as that of

the content of those terms. Without shared language, it is difficult to

communicate concepts. Communication becomes even more difficult

when a term such as “strategic marketing” can be the trade name for any

sort of quick-fix hawkery. In this onslaught, the simple realities of

marketing are often lost behind useless rhetoric. Seemingly, the result of

ceaseless re-invention of the wheel and what to call it has been the

confused understanding of marketing by the wider audience. Affecting

management perspectives will require, first, both an assessment of the

current terminology and referencing as well as that of the discourse

content itself:

General knowledge about words, syntax, the world, spatial relations – in

short, general knowledge about anything – constrains the construction of

discourse representations at all levels. (Kintsch 1988, p. 163)

The first research question is meta-analytical in nature. It aims at

discovering what bodies of knowledge and research traditions are the

sources for the discourse in strategic marketing as it stands today. There is

also a semantic facet: Is the term “strategic markeing” used in a different

sense in different traditions and schools of thought? As general

observation would indicate that to be the case, can we point out the

origins of the conflict? Presumably, a rigid understanding of the key issues

would allow the project to better approach its goals.

The second research question is semantic in nature. It seeks to capture

what past and ongoing literature refers to by “strategic marketing”. It

rests on the premise that what is presented in literature will be reflected

in actual business management, addressing the question of whether there

are distinct variations in how "strategic marketing" is referred to in

7

literature, and what level of strategic and marketing thinking, processes

and organization is explicitly or implicitly attached to the term.

Furthermore, related concepts, presented under a variety of names, are of

interest, to provide a perspective into what extent such concepts

correspond with the proposed construct of strategic marketing.

The themes and streams of thought that are bear an influence on the

present state as well as future of how strategic marketing is understood

among the wider audience of marketing practitioners, in all levels of the

organization, are of interest. A key assumption is that the publics'

understanding of the term and associated structures is heavily influenced

by what basic and widely used and accessible academic textbook and

management literature has to say on the matter. The wide majority of

those exposed to marketing will not carry on to continue as researchers,

but will move on to business. To discover how strategic marketing is

perceived by the wider audience, we need to look at the foundation:

given a limited varying amount of marketing education within a

descourse, what perception will the future economic actor be left with? Is

“strategic marketing” a key top management issue or a functional,

operational-level detail?

The third research question moves from the meta-analytical to the

applied. The underlying assumption here is that one of the streams

identified in response to research question will be closely associated with

the StratMark understanding of strategic marketing. The research

question question seeks to establish some reference point for further

research and a firm intellectual and academic grounding for the

StratMark project. The final question, thus, asks how answers to the

previous questions can be applied to the wider context and social goals of

the research project.

8

1.3.1 Research Objectives

Proper addressing of the research questions implies a wide body of

literature. This leads to the questions on how a valid analysis can be

carried out across such a wealth of information, given restricted resources.

Answering the questions set above will require not only gathering

relevant information but also structuring it, investigating what is

pertinent and processing this into a comprehensible and consistent

response. This work aims to map the understandings of strategic

marketing as well as identify gaps, conflicts, interconnections and

academic orientations in strategic marketing research. In other words, we

need to identify what the world means by “strategic marketing”, what

we ourselves mean by strategic marketing, and how we best could work

to shape the general understanding of the topic while (and by) laying a

consistent framework of strategic marketing components and processes.

Secondly, the process aims at providing direction for further research into

developing, structuring and innovating within the discourse of strategic

marketing. Thirdly, a focus must always remain with the practical

applicability of all research, keeping in mind the goals of the StratMark

project – stimulation and support of both academic and public discussion,

general attitude change and ultimately, enhanced global competitiveness

for Finnish companies.

1.4 Key Concepts

This section defines key terms and concepts used in the study. First, the

used understandings of marketing and strategy are defined. Next, usage

of the phrase strategic marketing is reflected on. Explaining the usage of

discourse and antecedents. Finally, the definitions of citations and

references are discussed in light of bibliometric analysis.

9

1.4.1 Marketing

Marketing has been defined in a myriad of ways. Every marketing

textbook on marketing principles begins with a definition. The definitions

very commonly referred to are those of the American Marketing

Association (AMA 2004). The most recent version stands thus:

Marketing is an organizational function and a set of processes for

creating, communicating and delivering value to customers and for

managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization

and its stakeholders.

The AMA adopted this new definition in August 2004. The association’s

first definition from 1935 stated,

[Marketing is] the performance of business activities that direct the flow

of goods and services from producers to consumers.

A revision of this in 1985 changed this to:

[Marketing is] the process of planning and executing the conception,

pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create

exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.

Clearly, the focus of the term as reflected in AMA usage, has shifted

towards the strategic. This was also the stated goal of the AMA:

One thing academics can do is disseminate knowledge. This will filter

down into the textbooks and give us the opening to talk about marketing

at the strategic level. (AMA 2004)

This goal of including a more strategic approach to general

understanding of marketing coincides with goals of the StratMark project.

10

Usage of the term marketing in this study includes a long-term

perspective. Marketing will include strategic as well as operative

marketing; strategic marketing will comprise a sub-set of marketing.

When used without a limiting prefix, marketing will refer to the general

publics’ understanding of marketing, which will usually agree most with

the 1985 AMA definition and an operative and functional view of

marketing. Marketing will, thus, differ in this text from the StratMark

view of strategic marketing. A goal of the wider research effort is to

transform the public’s perception of marketing towards StratMark’s

strategic marketing.

1.4.2 Strategy

Definitions for strategy are as varied as for marketing. Long-term

planning is always at the core, and a difference is either made to the level

of decision-making – top management for strategy – or to the level of

detail involved, as a difference to tactics. Schendel (1985, quoted in

Thomas and Gardner 1985) develops Drucker’s distinction “doing things

right” and “doing the right things” to distinguish between operations

management and strategic management respectively (Drucker 1973, p.

481). Strategic management means creating a strategy to ensure future

viability of the firm,

…[A] determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an

enterprise, and adoption of courses of action and the allocation of

resources necessary for carrying out these goals. (Chandler 1962)

This definition of strategy as an organizational process has remained

dominant to this day. Wright et al define strategy as

Top management’s plans to attain outcomes consistent with the

organization’s missions and goals. (Wright, Kroll, and Pringle 1992)

11

Mintzberg et al (1998) make a difference between strategy as a plan

when ahead a pattern when behind – a realized and an intended

strategy. Besides the common definition of a plan and a pattern, they

offer a perspective to strategy as an emergent phenomenon, in contrast

to deliberate actions. Furthermore, they distinguish strategy as a position:

“Strategy is the creation of a unique and valuable position, involving a

different set of activities.” (Michael 1996, p. 61) Fourth, they introduce a

fifth definition of strategy, as a perspective: “As perspective, in contrast,

strategy looks in – inside the organization, indeed, inside the heads of the

strategists, but it also looks up – to the grand vision of the enterprise.”

Finally, Mintzberg &al offer the perspective of some schools of thought,

that of strategy as a ploy: maneuvers for outwitting competition.

(Mintzberg, Lampel, and Ahlstrand 1998)

For the purposes of this study, an agreement as to the best exact

definition for strategy is unnecessary. The term will in this thesis cover

both the traditional definitions based on long-range plans and their

fulfillment. However, since the StratMark perspective specifically includes

all components of the value network, the scope of strategy in this study

must cover long-range network-level plans of the top management for

operational, financial and managerial efficiency and effectiveness. Of the

five perspectives discussed by Mintzberg et al, the definition will mostly

exclude the “ploy” view to the domain of tactics. Strategy is seen as a

high-level process, involving the entire value network, initiated by top

management and heralded by every member of the organization as the

strategy it is realized as. There is little need for distinction between the

StratMark group’s view on strategy and strategic marketing: the

perspective of strategic commercialization integrates the two.

12

1.4.3 Strategic Marketing

Defining and redefining strategic marketing is a major component of this

study. Throughout the analysis, the definitions for and streams of thought

within strategic marketing will be reflected on in terms of a pre-set

understanding of strategic marketing, namely that of the StratMark

research group. This is done in order to comply with the role of this thesis

as a background study for the project’s other components – the shared

terminological and theoretical base on which to build.

The Initial StratMark Perspective to Strategic Marketing

Next, we define the StratMark idea of strategic marketing that the study,

as indeed the entire research project, begins with. The key goals for this

study are the further development of this initial understanding through

research into conceptual parallels and by the identification of related

streams of thought and theory.

StratMark derives their understanding of strategic marketing from what

have been presented as the corresponding perspectives to marketing and

strategy. In a sense, the StratMark perspective to strategic marketing

constitutes a theory of the firm: a goal-setting, strategic framework for

describing and analyzing a company.

The StratMark perspective to strategic marketing agrees with the

concerns put forth by Hayes and Abernathy (1980): Marketing’s role has

been overshadowed at higher levels of management by those of financial

managers and lawyers. Marketing skills need to be brought to basic

research, technology, product development and introduction. Hayes and

Abernathy recognize the developments brought on with the development

of the market concept, but criticize shunning the customer concept and

the emphasis on short-term cost reduction and what is nowadays referred

to as “quarter-to-quarter capitalism”:

13

By their preference for servicing existing markets rather than creating new

ones and by their devotion to short-term returns and “management by

numbers”, [managers] have effectively sworn off long-term technological

superiority as a competitive weapon. In consequence, they have abdicated

their strategic responsibilities. (Hayes and Abernathy 1980, p. 67 p. 68)

Hayes and Abernathy further contend that the general level of innovative

product and market development, and thus long-term competitive

advantage, is severely impeded by “market-driven strategies” and ROI-

oriented control systems. Moreover, they recognize that at the strategic

level, no problem will be exclusively of production, finance or marketing.

The StratMark perspective is based on this distinction: strategic marketing

is focused on the top management’s long-term vision for competitive

advantage through product innovation, other “functions” being fully

subservient to this process.

John A. Howard (1983, p. 90) describes structures the intellectual

foundations of marketing theory in a four-celled table (Table 1). Two

dichotomies are presented. The first is a descriptive-prescriptive

dichotomy of concept purposes; of goal phenomena and concepts

interfaces for indirect study and influence of those. The second dichotomy

is based on differences in the logical and philosophical foundations.

Howard focuses on developing a framework of normative descriptive

methods. As a benchmark, he refers to the well-established axiomatic

descriptive theory of competition in the field of industrial engineering.

The wide range of prescriptive concepts, both empirical and axiomatic, is

recognized. Howard’s concern is with widening the scope of marketing to

a theory-of-the-firm level: “The logic of marketing would be much surer if

an axiomatic approach so well-exemplified by economic theory were

available.” (Howard 1983, p. 90 p. 91)

14

Table 1. The intellectual foundations of marketing theory. Adapted from Howard (1983).

Purpose Descriptive Prescriptive

Empirical, normative, deductive

Customers Marketing Organization Financial Manufacturing R&D

Logical foundation

Axiomatic, positive, inductive

Competition Contribution Present value

Howard presents his “marketing theory of the firm” as consisting of four

descriptive concepts (demand and supply cycle, product hierarchy,

competitive structure, customer decision model) that input information to

prescriptive concepts in order to establish actionable strategic plans. Three

basic premises are long-term success are presented. The first is the

importance of being customer-driven instead of competition-driven in the

sense of e.g. Porter (1980). The next premise states, that process

innovation is requisite for successful product innovation. Thirdly, Howard

states that the underlying theory must be against what strategic plans are

evaluated against, as well as a part of the evaluation process itself.

Reflecting on Howard’s first premise of being “customer-driven” – or

“market-driven” to follow the terminology of Hayes and Abernathy –

clarifies StratMark’s position. Customers are at the core of all thinking, yet

the market should, in a sense, be allowed to dictate management actions

as little as management can dictate market responses (cf. the earlier

production concept and marketing concept). Innovation can stem from

the market; it must stem from the company. The second premise connects

well with this; StratMark holds it to imply the core role of innovation as

well as that of coherent, strategic, marketing-based thought that

pervades the entire organization from sales to the factory floor. Howard’s

third premise is retained as-is in the StratMark perspective.

15

1.4.4 Discourse

Discourse refers formal discussion of a topic. In a linguistic sense, discourse

is a connected series of utterances, reconstructed in terms of a larger unit

(van Dijk 1977 p. 3). Discourse in turn can be studied by deconstructing it

to macro-structures. Macro-structures are semantic characterizations –

compound sentences and discourse sequences – that can be accounted for

using notions like theme and topic. Dijk further argues (Ibid, 6-7), that

macro-structures are the result of cognitive processes of comprehension,

grounded in generalization, abstraction and reducing the discourse of

irrelevant information: “What is important information not only depends

on the semantic structure of the text but also on the pragmatic functions

of the discourse.” (Ibid, 243-4) This, of course, in parts justifies some

degree of subjectivity in analysis. As the focus of the conceptual analysis is

in determining the topics in a range of passages and discourses, all of

which use a grammatically similar but semantically different vocabulary,

establishing systematic relations between the semantic representations of

the passages and discourses and an assigned topic is left to creating

categories and comparing the attributes of the various sources to each

other.

Parker (1992) approaches discourse on a less linguistic level, with

somewhat different terminology: “a system of statements which

constructs an object”. Establishing the limitation of formal discourse to

written works that are not expressions of individuals’ opinions, discourse

(system of statements) would consist of specific concepts dubbed objects.

For scientific discourse, this would include both published (journal articles,

books, dissertations etc.) and unpublished (working papers, research notes

etc.) works. For the sake of this study, the range of discourse will include,

in the conceptual analysis stage, less academic material aimed at

managers. This is important, since the study rests on the premise that

more than one implicit and explicit definition for the studied terms will

16

exist. The limits of the greater discourse – what academic research and

teaching considers “strategic marketing” as well as what managers

consider “strategic marketing” – are difficult to establish.

In this study, usage of discourse will take advantage of both these

structural viewpoints. In conceptual analysis, discourse will have at it’s

core academic textbooks related to the subject, supplemented by popular

management literature and academic articles directly related to the

corresponding research questions. Relevant parts of these three types

comprise the texts (Dijk) or statements (Parker). The outcomes of the

analysis will be the range of semantic topics of discourse (Dijk) or systems

of statements (Parker) covered under the named linguistic topic (object)

of “strategic marketing”.

1.4.5 Antecedents

An antecedent refers to a reason, an explanation for a phenomenon. The

phenomenon in turn is often linked to an outcome. In this study,

antecedents refer to the reasons behind an action within the discourse

being studied, the original motivation behind the research. In the case of

an article discussing the performance implications of market-orientation

in an export context, for example, antecedents would thus include not

only discussion on market-orientation and international marketing but

also the outcome of the text being studied. While performance is certainly

an outcome or phenomenon within the context of the article, in

discussing the standing of the work in the general discourse, performance

would be the key underlying motivation for the research in question –

and thus a research antecedent. In wider usage in this study, an

antecedent can also refer to past research as a motivation behind a

temporally later object in the discourse.

17

1.4.6 Citations and References

The methodology used in this study involves extensive use of the concepts

of reference and citation. If a publication references another, this means

only that the work is somehow noted in the other, be it as source or

background material, suggested reading or an entry in the bibliography.

A citation, however, involves much more detail and depth, and specifically

requires that additional information beyond a mere reference is included.

This information would communicate to the reader what the relationship

between the two works is – if the newer publication draws on the

previous research, supports an idea, or is opposed to it. Small (1973, p.

265) proposed a technique known as co-citation coupling to address the

issue of co-occurrence of “opposed” work to some extent. According to

Shaw (1979), a citation “establishes a relation among authors which is a

measure of the extent to which they communicate through literature.”

Osareh (1996) defines the cited publication as a source of information in

support of a specific idea or fact. Egghe (1996), however, somewhat blurs

the distinction: an entry in a list of referenced indicates that a relationship

exists between the two documents. While certainly true, the definition

takes no stand on the nature of the relationship. As the mainstream (if

one can be said to exist) of bibliometric research focuses heavily on

analysis based on electronic citation data, the notion of specific citation

context is often lost. This is certainly the case with this study. The usage of

the two terms in this study is elaborated on in section 4.1.1.

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The research questions and preceding sections on objectives and key

concepts set the basic scope of the study. This section expands on those

themes to explicitly state the operational scope of the thesis, and

18

elaborate on research orientations and perspectives chosen for the study.

Furthermore, the limitations of the chosen scope are discussed.

As has been discussed, the definitions and discourses of strategy,

marketing and strategic marketing are overlapping and, at times, disjoint

even within themselves. Fortunately, this structure is the focus of the

study. The bibliographic data gathered for the study (on basis of a

keyword search) will thus reflect a multitude of understandings. The

bibliographic analysis considers the discourse employing the term

strategic marketing and its derivatives. Semantically, this means limiting

the scope to the intersection of strategy and marketing. Including other

keywords would no doubt serve the goals of the project in understanding

the structure of the wider discourse. This effort, however, is beyond the

practical scope of the thesis.

As for the perspective chosen for the study, it is primarily that of the

marketing scholar. This is due to the fact that the study is a preliminary

component in a wider assessment of the state and nature of marketing,

and will serve as a starting point for further research and influencing the

discourse. Since the wider goals of the StratMark project are in affecting

managerial practices and ways of thinking, the managerial perspective is

also important. While managerial practice and past academic discourse

are antecedents to the studied phenomena (the results and conclusions of

the study), to achieve its own goals, it must be possible to draw links

between the analyzed phenomena and the planned outcomes of the

StratMark project – in other words, influencing practice. Managerial

relevance must be present to justify further research. As the StratMark

research group rests on the premise of marketing encompassing the

entire value-adding process, phenomena in organization theory,

psychology, communications, product development and so on are within

scope. Similarly, no limits are imposed on the fields of practical

application of the results, or geographical scope.

19

The unit of analysis in this study is an object in the discourse; an individual

piece of scientific research. The object may in practice be a peer-reviewed

journal article, working paper, book, or a comparable publication. The

object consists of two parts: a contribution and an interface other objects.

The contribution is the actual substance of the publication, the

contribution it makes to the discourse by introducing new ideas and data,

or recombining previous research. The interface is directed towards the

temporally preceding objects that the work cites in the form of citations

and references.

Several criteria were set to limit the range on units of analysis. The

reasons behind the limitations are not only practical but serve to maintain

the focus on the study. The criteria for selecting the units of analysis can

be summarized as follows:

(i) Only articles published in high quality journals (to form an

accessible, internally consistent and academically relevant data set)

(ii) Articles that are satisfactorily related to strategic marketing, not

only in keyword but also substance

(iii) All established journals within the marketing discourse are

included

These reasons are elaborated on in Chapter 2. No theoretical limitations

were set on the results of bibliometric analysis (cited publications), but

practical issues excluded incomplete and ambiguous references from the

database, such as personal communication and articles in most of the

general and business periodical press.

The original data set of articles used as the source material for the

bibliometric analysis is not in fact a sample, but the entire population of

articles matching the defined characteristics and definitions. When the set

20

is later reduced via a classification scheme, these subsets still represent the

complete population of objects for a given relevancy level.

The temporal scope of the study was chosen as a combination of wanting

to reflect the present state of the discourse, as well as practical

considerations. The year 2005 was chosen as the upper limit for article

data, as this was the most recent year for which complete data was

available in the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) database. The lower

limit was set at the earliest possible year available in the SSCI database,

1986. However, as research progressed, it was noticed that the data from

prior to 1990 was entirely incomplete for assessment purposes. The lower

limit thus rose to 1990. The time period under observation was therefore

the 16 years from 1990 to 2005. It was felt that this scope provided

enough insight into the present state of the discourse as well as a large

enough set of data for analysis. The temporal scope used is somewhat

wider than that used in similar studies (Mattsson 2003;Parvinen 2003).

However, the size of the original data set nevertheless remains

proportionally and absolutely much smaller than in the referenced

studies. No temporal limit was imposed on the results of analysis into

linkages into past research.

1.6 Methodology

Meta-analytical bibliometric research used to address the research

questions. This section first presents an overview of the general research

approach, considering both meta-analytical research and bibliometric

methodology, and then discusses the bibliometric approaches used:

descriptive analysis, citation analysis, co-citation cluster analysis and

network centrality analysis.

21

Meta-analytical and Bibliometric Research

As the aims of the study are in influencing discourse and practice, an

understanding of the conceptual roots of the area of study is seen an

essential first step. Traditionally, such investigations have taken

advantage of meta-theoretical approaches, most often conceptual

analysis. Conceptual structures are approached perhaps most conveniently

(and traditionally) with a literature review, where judgment is used to

discover some general meaningful patterns. Discourse analysis, in turn,

investigates the selected types of communication in more detail. These,

and most other related methods rely heavily on qualitative judgment-

based assessment of the material. Statistical analysis of the discourse can,

however contribute much to meta-analytical research, in the form of a

quantitative and less subjective approach. (Parvinen 2003 p. 15)

Bibliometric research represents a newer form of meta-analytical research.

Bibliometric analysis has been applied in the social sciences to discover

“qualities which have been seen to have significance in the field.” (Puro

1996 p. 54) Discovering these qualities allows evaluation of the

philosophical backgrounds of the central influential theories.

Bibliometric analysis can rarely be fully valid or reliable. As in all social

sciences, there is a persistent subjective element to any assessment.

Bibliometric analysis will never by itself produce interpreted explanations

for the stated and structures of the discourse being analyzed.

Furthermore, there are practical limitations to performing exhaustive

analysis, originating from the requirement for a compromise between

scope and information technology flexibility. These limitations are

discussed in detail in Chapter 2.

22

Descriptive Analysis

Bibliometric descriptive analysis uses standard straightforward statistical

techniques for describing the data set. Discrete distributions of data across

journals, author activity as well as temporal and geographical dimensions

are examined. This aims at providing a structured reference frame on solid

ground for further reflection.

Citation Analysis

The next part of the bibliometric analysis focuses on citation data. Again,

distributions are drawn on the temporal profile of citations as well as

most cited works, first authors and journals.

Co-Citation Analysis

Co-citation analysis expands on basic citation analysis to discover

relationships between the key objects in the discourse. The method is

built on seminal work by Henry Small (1973), who first presented co-

citation analysis as a useful and highly objective technique for modeling

the structure of scientific discourse. Within co-citation analysis, cluster and

network centrality analyses are performed on the most cited works in the

bibliometric data set.

Co-citation cluster analysis in this study takes advantage of the model for

hierarchical clustering presented by Johnson (1967, p. 241): Given a

symmetric n by n matrix indicating the degree of similarity (co-citation

strength) between each of a set of n objects (articles), the hierarchical

clustering algorithm seeks nested partitions among the relationships.

Given the set of partitions, an identity partition is identified in which all

items are in different clusters. The two most similar items are then joined

to form a single entity. Next, the most similar pair of the remaining items

is picked out and similarly joined. The algorithm runs until all items have

23

been hierarchically joined into a single cluster. (Borgatti, Everett, and

Freeman 2002;Johnson 1967, p. 241)

There are a number of methods for combining the items and clusters into

new clusters. Two are used in this study. The average-link approach

calculates the similarity between cluster members by using the average

similarity between the members of those clusters. The complete-link

approach defines the between-cluster similarity instead based on the

maximum similarity between members of possible clusters. (Borgatti,

Everett, and Freeman 2002)

Measures of network centrality are indicators of the positions of theories

and antecedents in a discourse (Oliver and Ebers 1998, p. 549). Network

centrality analysis in co-citation analysis rests on the premise that a valued

graph can be formed from co-citation data represented as an n by n

matrix of co-citation strengths (Borgatti, Everett, and Freeman 2002). The

valued graph is then a network, where the objects of analysis correspond

to nodes and the co-citation strengths between them are inversely

proportional to the distance between nodes (Subhash 1996). Two kinds of

mathematical algorithms are applied in this study to measure network

centrality within the co-citation data:

(i) Bonacich Eigenvector Centrality – The measure of centrality used is

the eigenvector of the largest positive eigenvalue. The centrality of

a concept thus equals the sum of its connections to other concepts.

This measure, scaled to [0,1], reveals which nodes (concepts) are at

the core of the network. (Bonacich 1972, p. 113–120;Borgatti,

Everett, and Freeman 2002)

(ii) Freeman Betweenness Centrality – This measure tells the degree to

which a focal concept is located on the shortest connecting path

between any other concepts. Bridging ability refers to the ability

24

to connect to other nodes in the network that cannot connect

directly and thus indicates high betweenness centrality. A high

betweenness centrality means that a concept links two other

concepts that are disconnected individually. (Freeman 1979, p. 215)

Network centrality analysis allows assessing the interlinkages within the

co-citation network: Bonacich eigenvector centrality will indicate relative

importance, and betweenness centrality the degree of bridging a unit of

study achieves (the “relative cross-fertilizing ability”, according to

Parvinen). (Freeman 1979, p. 215;Parvinen 2003 p. 27-8)

The practical specifics of the nontrivial analysis methods are discussed in

detail as they are presented in conjunction with the practical data analysis

in section 4.2.

1.7 Research Progress and Structure of the Thesis

This section summarizes the process of research and the structure of the

thesis.

First, the study reviews the selection and organization of data for

descriptive and bibliometric analysis (Chapter 2). The justifications for and

practicalities in journal selection, article selection and classification, as

well as technical questions of data coding, management and analysis are

addressed. The chapter discusses the prerequisites for analysis of the

“streams” of strategic marketing discourse in terms if their internal

structure; for comparing and contrasting what the postulated different

schools of thought consider “strategic marketing”.

Next, bibliometric analysis techniques are applied on a comprehensive

selection of peer-referred journal articles to further, more systematically

and objectively, structure the discourse. This phase begins by a descriptive

25

analysis of the discourse, followed by citation analysis to point out the

intellectual bases and underlying research streams. Finally, co-citation

analysis techniques are employed to draw out the structures and

interlinkages in past research, that are reflected in the present state of

the strategic marketing discourse.

The role of the bibliometric analysis is to address the research questions.

Question 1, on the antecendents that have contributed to the present

discourse on “strategic marketing” is directly addressed by reflecting the

results of the bibliometric citation and co-citation analyses on the

structure of discourse at the present. The second research question, on the

roles that are attributed to “strategic marketing” is approached with

discussion of what the thoeretical antecedents to the discussion imply

about such roles.

Ultimately, the study will provide the StratMark project with a starting

point for developing a refined, sound theoretical and terminological base

and recommendations for further research within the group’s

understanding of strategic marketing. This is addressed with the final

research question, through subjective assesment of the discovered

antecedents to the discourse.

Chapter 1 sets the objectives and presents the wider context of the study.

The case for approaching the question set with the chosen methodologies

is made and these methods described.

Chapters 2 through 4 are devoted to bibliometric analysis. Chapter 2

describes the selection process and criteria of journals and articles,

followed by descriptive, citation and co-citation analyses in subsequent

chapters.

Chapter 5 draws together the results and discusses implications.

Correspondences and points of difference are discussed to form an overall

26

image of the validity of the results with respect to the research questions

and objectives. Chapter 6 addresses the issues of reliability and validity of

the research. Chapter 7 conclude the thesis with evaluation of the

contribution of the thesis to research in the topic area and assessment of

possible avenues for further research in the area both within the study’s

immediate context as well as in related fields of study.

27

2 Data Organization

This chapter explains the processes related to selecting the journals from

which to select the data for bibliometric analysis; the process of selecting

and retrieving the article data; classifying the article data by relevancy;

and, finally, how the data was coded, managed and analyzed from a

technical perspective.

2.1 Journal Selection

The first step in defining the data set used in bibliometric analysis is the

selection of journals from which articles are then considered for inclusion.

The selection journals as a first step allows us to efficiently set a clear

focus for the research and set first limits for topic areas with potential for

answering the set research questions. Selecting journals is in many ways a

more fully objective step, as there exists wide consensus (on an aggregate

level) in the scientific community as to which journals represent quality

research. Furthermore, relying on established criteria in assessing journal

impact the quality of the articles is efficiently controlled to the required

extent.

The fact being that the research questions aim at discovering the different

streams of thought that attribute themselves under “strategic marketing”

means that a broad selection of journals, however, must be taken into

consideration. Given the goals and framing of the research, it is essential

that any discourse that attributes strategy to marketing, semantically or

otherwise, be included in the sample. In a business context, it is impossible

28

and irrelevant for a manager to distinguish between different contexts

and terminology. Terminology itself should, of course, be largely

irrelevant. However, clear abstractions do seem to be at the core of

successful management (Vassinen 2006).

Preliminary general study of the most influential journals and periodicals3

indicated that the discussion on the relative rankings of journals within

the marketing scholar community is very much well and alive.

Consequently, articles analyzing the influence of marketing-related

journals provide a convenient and efficient basis for journal selection.

Bibliometric analysis of a field of study is firmly related to analysis of the

influence of different sources. Quite naturally, there is a range of journals

that bear a proportionally much larger influence on the discourse at large.

A study of streams of thought and research will require a restricted

sample set. Baumgartner and Pieters (2003, p. 123–39) present and apply a

thorough reasoning and a methodology for this.

The cross-sectional as well as longitudinal study of structure of influence

in a discipline is important for forming a systematic representation. Little

literature directly addresses this; some applying work exists nevertheless

in the field of marketing: Franke et al (1990, p. 243–253), Lukka and

Kasanen (1996, p. 755), Zinkhan et al (1992, p. 282). Baumgartner and

Pieters address the question of journal selection from the point of view of

3 Mainly, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Business Research, Management Science,

Harvard Business Review, Industrial Marketing Management and Marketing Science;

selected on basis of professional opinion. H. Tikkanen, Professor, Department of

Marketing, Helsinki School of Economics, Finland. Personal communication (2006):

29

citation analysis requirements. While their method builds on Salancik’s

proposed index of structural influence (1986, p. 194), the process of

journal selection is solid and applicable for the much-related purposes of

this study. Instead of assessing the structural influence of various journals,

our aim is to focus instead on a subset of the discourse that comprises that

network of influence exchange.

The journal selection method of Baumgartner and Pieters relies on the

most popular citation-based measure of journal influence, the annual

Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI). The SSCI assigns to each journal an

impact factor measuring the number of citations an average article in that

journal has received during a period of two years after publication. Thus,

journals rated high in the SSCI form a convenient base for constructing a

data set for analysis.

Baumgartner and Pieters’ study includes a total of 49 marketing and

marketing-related journals and periodicals, 26 of which were listed in the

SSCI at the time (2003, p. 123–39). The authors consider that, for their

purposes, assessing the importance of journals in the marketing discipline,

a journal base wider than that delimited by the SSCI was more relevant. In

the first stage of their selection process, Baumgartner and Pieters sampled

the top 40 marketing journals from the study by Hult, Neese and Bashaw

(1997, p. 37). Hult et al conducted a survey of 309 marketing faculty

members asking for their top ten journals. Answering was aided by a list

of 63 examples. As two journals were tied for the 40th place, Baumgartner

and Pieters included 41 journals in their sample set in the first stage of

selection (Table 2: group 1).

In the second stage of their journal selection process, Baumgartner and

Pieters added three further sets of journals: First, three journals

constituting the intersection of the Hult et al list of 63 journals and the

SSCI were added (Table 2: group 2a). Next, the authors looked at the top

30

listings Hult et al had attributed to different subgroups of respondents.

Four journals that appeared on these top 40 lists were added (Table 2:

group 2b). Finally, the Journal of Consumer Policy was added as it had

been included in an earlier study (Zinkhan, Roth, and Saxton 1992, p. 282)

(Table 2: group 2c).

In the three years since Baumgartner and Pieters’ study was published, a

further three journals from the set of 49 have been added to the SSCI, to

a total of 52. As this thesis is concerned with the content of the discourse

that is considered influential, rather than the distribution of that

influence, it is deemed justifiable to limit the scope of the Bibliometric

study to the 37 journals found in the SSCI. This limitation is further

justified by the convenience it allows in gathering and processing

bibliometric and citation data. The gathering and processing of the data

can be, to a large extent, automated, as it is available in a common

format ready for entering into analysis software. This process is described

in section 2.2.

For reasons of practicality analogous to journal selection, the bibliometric

sources used in this study are restricted to the time period of 1986 to

2005, or less in cases where a journal’s publication history is shorter. It is

deemed that this range is more than sufficient for avoiding instability due

to short-term fluctuations in discourse. Table 2 lists the journals selected

for this study.

Table 2. Journals and periodicals selected for bibliometric analysis.

# Journal Source Group

1 Advances in Consumer Research 2c 2 Business Horizons 1 3 California Management Review 1 4 Decision Sciences 1 5 European Journal of Marketing 1 6 Harvard Business Review 1 7 Industrial Marketing Management 1 8 International Journal of Research in Marketing 1

31

9 Journal of Advertising 1 10 Journal of Advertising Research 1 11 Journal of Business 1 12 Journal of Business Ethics 1 13 Journal of Business Research 1 14 Journal of Consumer Affairs 2a 15 Journal of Consumer Marketing 1 16 Journal of Consumer Policy 1 17 Journal of Consumer Psychology 1 18 Journal of Consumer Research 1 19 Journal of Economic Psychology 2a 20 Journal of Global Marketing 1 21 Journal of Health Care Marketing 1 22 Journal of International Business Studies 1 23 Journal of International Marketing 1 24 Journal of Marketing 1 25 Journal of Marketing Research 1 26 Journal of Product Innovation Management 1 27 Journal of Public Policy Marketing 1 28 Journal of Public Policy Marketing 1 29 Journal of Retailing 1 30 Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 1 31 Journal of the Market Research Society 2a 32 Management Science 1 33 Marketing Letters 1 34 Marketing Management 1 35 Marketing Science 1 36 Psychology Marketing 1 37 Sloan Management Review 1

2.2 Database Queries

Following the selection of journals, the next step was to query the ISI SSCI

online database for the actual data. The ISI Web of Science service4 allows

convenient polling of article data from journals in the SSCI from 1986 to

4 http://isiknowledge.com/

32

the present. Searches can be effectively narrowed according to temporal,

source and other criteria using the advanced search mechanism.

For the purposes of this study, the source journal set was defined as

required by the listing in the previous section. At this point, the temporal

constraint was set to include all matching articles for 1986 to 2005. To

draw out as wide as possible a range of discussion that might be relevant,

the search phrase was set as “marketing strateg* OR strategic market* OR

marketing's strateg*”, including all data of an entry in the search. The

search results from the ISI SSCI database consist of article entries, an

exemplar of which is presented in Table 3. The search query matched

every article, within the given constraints, that contained any of the three

search phrases in any of the fields listed in Table 3.

Table 3. ISI SSCI article data output (example).

Author(s): Neill, S; Rose, GM Title: The effect of strategic complexity on marketing strategy

and organizational performance Source: JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH, 59 (1): 1-10 JAN 2006 Language: English Document Type: Article Author Keywords: marketing strategy; organizational cognition;

performance; strategic complexity Keywords Plus: DECISION-MAKING; MEASUREMENT ERROR;

ORIENTATION; MODEL; DIVERSITY; QUALITY; SYSTEMS; IMPLEMENTATION; PERSPECTIVE; ENVIRONMENT

Abstract: While researchers have examined many antecedents of marketing strategy, there is scant research assessing the effect of organizational cognition. In this study, organizational cognition is examined in terms of the firm's strategic complexity, which is its capacity to integrate multiple environmental dimensions during marketing strategy making. The results from a sample of wholesale distributors reveal four strategic groups that differ based upon their degree of strategic complexity. Results support the proposition that strategic complexity is an organizational capability that enables more effective strategy making and produces superior firm performance. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Addresses: Univ Washington, Milgard Sch Business, Tacoma, WA 98402 USA

33

Reprint Address: Rose, GM, Univ Washington, Milgard Sch Business, 1900 Commerce St, Tacoma, WA 98402 USA.

E-mail Address: sneill@u.washington.edu; rosegm@u.washinton.edu Cited References: *FISTR RES ED FDN, 1998, FAC FORC CHANG 4 TRE.

AAKER DA, 2001, STRATEGIC MARKET M E, V6. ANDREWS J, 1996, J MARKETING RES, V33, P174. ASHBY WR, 1956, INTRO CYBERNETICS. BARR PS, 1998, ORGAN SCI, V9, P644. BOISOT M, 1999, ORGAN SCI, V10, P237. BOULDING W, 1994, MARKET LETT, V5, P413. CLARK LA, 1995, PSYCHOL ASSESSMENT, V7, P309. DAFT RL, 1984, ACAD MANAGE REV, V9, P284. DAY GS, 1988, J MARKETING, V52, P1. DAY GS, 1994, J MARKETING, V58, P31. DAY GS, 1994, J MARKETING, V58, P37. DESHPANDE R, 1993, J MARKETING, V57, P23. DESHPANDE R, 1994, MARKET LETT, V5, P271. DRIVER MJ, 1969, ADM SCI Q, V14, P272. FORNELL C, 1981, J MARKETING RES, V18, P39. GATIGNON H, 1997, J MARKETING RES, V34, P77. GREENLEY GE, 1997, J MANAGE STUD, V34, P259. HAIR JH, 1998, MULTIVARIATE DATA AN. HUBER GP, 1991, ORGAN SCI, V2, P88. JACOBSON R, 1987, J MARKETING, V51, P31. KOHLI AK, 1993, J MARKETING RES, V30, P467. LUSCH RF, 1996, J MARKETING, V60, P19. LYLES MA, 1992, J MANAGE STUD, V29, P155. MCGILL AR, 1994, PSYCHOL REP, V75, P1451. MENON A, 1999, J MARKETING, V63, P18. MILLER CC, 1998, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V19, P39. MILLIGAN GW, 1987, APPLIED PSYCHOL MEAS, V11, P329. MILLIKEN FJ, 1996, ACAD MANAGE REV, V21, P402. MINTZBERG H, 1976, ADM SCI Q, V21, P246. MOORMAN C, 1998, J MARKETING, V62, P1. MORGAN NA, 1998, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V26, P190. NAMAN JL, 1993, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V14, P137. NARVER JC, 1990, J MARKETING, V54, P20. NEGEMEYER RG, 2003, PROCEDURES ISSUES AP. NEISSER U, 1976, COGNITION REALITY. NOBLE CH, 2002, J MARKETING, V66, P25. PARASURAMAN A, 1985, J MARKETING, V49, P41. PHILLIPS LW, 1981, J MARKETING RES, V18, P395. PIERCY NF, 1998, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V26, P222. PRAHALAD CK, 1986, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V7, P485. RAYKOV T, 1995, STRUCTURAL EQUATION, V2, P289. SCHWENK CR, 1984, STRATEGIC MANAGE J, V5, P111. SCHWENK CR, 1988, J MANAGE STUD, V25, P41. SIGUAW JA, 1998, J MARKETING, V62, P99.

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SINKULA JM, 1994, J MARKETING, V58, P35. STREUFERT S, 1986, COMPLEXITY MANAGERS. STREUFERT S, 1989, INT REV IND ORG PSYC, P93. URBANY JE, 1998, MARKET LETT, V9, P285. VARADARAJAN PR, 1999, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V27, P120. VOSS GB, 2000, J MARKETING, V64, P67. WALKER OC, 1987, J MARKETING, V51, P15. WALLY S, 1994, ACAD MANAGE J, V37, P932. WALSH JP, 1988, ACAD MANAGE J, V31, P873. WALSH JP, 1995, ORGAN SCI, V6, P280. WEICK KE, 1983, ORG EFFECTIVENESS CO, P71. WEICK KE, 1995, SENSEMAKING ORG. WRIGHT P, 1991, J ACAD MARKET SCI, V19, P245.

Cited Reference Count: 58 Times Cited: 0 Publisher: ELSEVIER SCIENCE INC Publisher Address: 360 PARK AVE SOUTH, NEW YORK, NY 10010-1710 USA ISSN: 0148-2963 29-char Source Abbrev.: J BUS RES ISO Source Abbrev.: J. Bus. Res. Source Item Page Count: 10 Subject Category: Business ISI Document Delivery No.:

987DN

In total, the search yielded a set of 423 articles. A number of factors,

including but not limited to “keyword noise” – for example, articles from

an unrelated discussion flagged with “marketing strategy” – resulted in a

data set where only a certain part of the articles would directly contribute

to the analysis. A manual selection procedure to extract articles that are

relevant to the discourse would be required.

2.3 Article Selection

Given the set of 423 articles yielded by querying the ISI Web of Science

with the selected keywords, journal set and temporal restrictions, an

article-level assessment was necessary to ensure a data set appropriate for

addressing the research questions. The journal selection process addressed

the criteria of temporal scope, disciplinary coverage, source publication

quality and appropriate initial sample size. However, given the general

35

nature of the keywords, it was to be expected that they appear on a wide

range of articles, some of which would contribute little to an

understanding of the structure of the discourse. Furthermore, the

database queries yielded a number of articles for which complete data

was not available, usually in the form of missing abstracts. Also, the search

results included a number of duplicate entries that had to be removed.

To deal with these issues, a manual scanning of all 423 articles that

resulted from the keyword search was carried out. The manual scanning

process relied exclusively on the data for each article that was included in

the ISI SSCI listing. In cases of unclear or less specific information in the

result data, steps were not taken to, for example, retrieve the original

article in its entirety to aid in deciding about that article’s inclusion in the

data set. Likewise, articles (typically the older ones) and article-like

academic book reviews lacked an abstract in some cases. These, too, were

excluded without additional steps. It was reasoned that (i) if an article is

relevant to the discussion, or handles “strategic marketing” in a way that

would contribute to a general understanding, this would be apparent in

the title or abstract, and (ii) assessing some articles based exclusively on

SSCI data and some on a far more comprehensive level would to some

extent compromise the reliability of the method.

It was conjectured, that in examining terminology use and content

structure in a field of study, three general levels of relevancy in source

material might be distinguished. Firstly, any material that is meta-

theoretical in nature, or directly addresses the themes in question,

comprises the core theoretical foundation and direct antecedent material

of the study. A second stratum consists of articles that show some

disposition towards one or more, new or old, interpretations of the

subject matter. It is within these articles that streams of understanding

and discussion may be identified. The final set of material would include

articles that (a) present no assessable angle towards the subject matter,

36

(b) focus heavily on some technical or non-relevant subtopic, or (c) use the

terminology in conjunction with some modifiers5 that essentially shift the

focus away from what would be a contribution to the study.

The practical application of the three-level classification method begun

with a rapid assessment of circa half of the material. For each article, the

SSCI data was examined and note was made of a proposed classification in

one of the three levels. It soon became apparent, however, that this

procedure would yield little more than a rigid “approve or reject”

classification. Furthermore, several types of article and discussion were

notoriously difficult for making a decision on whether there was enough

discussion pertaining to “marketing strategy” for acceptance into the

final data set.

Thus, the framework was developed further. The initial assessment

indicated that six distinct levels would provide greater accuracy and ease

of classification. This way, more subtle themes might be included in the

classification criteria. Also, a larger number of levels would provide more

flexibility in further analysis, as there would be a wider range of cut-off

points to select articles by. The classification levels and criteria for

inclusion are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Classification levels and criteria for article assessment.

Classification level

Criteria for inclusion

-2 Duplicate entries, abstract missing or not at all relevant

5 For example, an article focusing on ”channel marketing strategy” would match the

database query in question here, but given the explicitly modified scope, be excluded from

analysis.

37

-1 Some possible orientation towards a discussion stream on some issues, but with little general relevance, or composite terms with modifying scope as keywords

+0 Some possible orientation towards and potentially shared sources with a discussion stream

+1 Distinct perspective to “strategic marketing”

+2 Discussion of “strategic marketing’s” role in organization, or discussion of a process resembling strategic commercialization

+3 Strategic marketing or marketing discussion meta-theory

In a second round of assessment, the articles were classified either to one

of the six levels, or as borderline cases. As the assessment progressed, the

criteria were further refined, the final result being those presented in

Table 4. Once the criteria were fixed, the SSCI data was given a third and

final read-through to push borderline cases into one or the other

classification level and ensure that the classification had been constant

during the second round. Less than twenty (5%) of articles had their

classification changed to an adjacent level, and none to a nonadjacent

level. Table 5 presents the final total numbers of articles classified under

each level.

Articles that received a “-2” classification either missed an abstract or

were completely out of the scope of the study. The majority of cases were

those of missing abstracts. These can be subdivided into articles for which

there never existed an abstract, and older articles for which the abstract

had not been entered in the SSCI database. Articles without abstracts

were mostly book reviews. An interesting case of duplicate entries

combined with missing abstracts was the inclusion in the SSCI database of

several independent books reviews for a certain title6. Reviews of the

6 Zaichkowsky, J.L. (1995) “Defending Your Brand Against Imitation: Consumer Behavior,

Marketing Strategies, and Legal Issues” Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

38

book appeared in 1996-1998 in the Journal of Public Policy and Marketing

(Simonson 1998, p. 143), the Journal of Marketing (Zinkhan 1997, p. 99),

and the Journal of Consumer Affairs (Garkey 1996, p. 505). All three

entries were classified “-2” despite the possible relevance of the work so

thoroughly scrutinized in quality publications. The majority of level “-2”

classifications consist, however, of articles published before circa 1990.

Although the SSCI database extends to 1986, few of the earlier entries

include an abstract in the SSCI data. Since they, however, do include

complete citation data; they are still useful in some analyses. Furthermore,

some articles were deemed to stray too far from the discourse to be

considered for inclusion under any circumstances. Indeed, it was

altogether interesting that these articles had had a “strategic marketing”

keyword attached to their publication information. One such article

examined changes in labor force ethnic diversity (Friedman and DiTomaso

1996, p. 54). Finally, one article was given a “-2” classification since the

keywords appeared only as a part of a list of terms, separated by a

comma: “Marketing, strategic planning, international business, and

business law were the four key learning issues […].” A total of 97 articles

were classified in the “-2” category.

The “-1” level included articles that were to some extent related to the

conjectured streams of strategic marketing discourse, but that focused on

a limited, specific sub-area, or used some derivative term modifying or

limiting the scope of the work. Firstly, some articles were outright outside

the bounds of the discourse the study focused on. For example, “A global

code of business ethics” by Payne et al discusses moral and ethical codes

to be developed and applied within multinational companies (Payne,

Raiborn, and Askvik 1997, p. 1727). While the theme is certainly within

the fields of both strategy and marketing, it is prohibitively difficult to

place such discussion in any specific core stream of strategic marketing

discourse. Another such example is Frazier and Lassar’s “Determinants of

39

distribution intensity” (1996, p. 39): although the article discusses a

generally recognized aspect of marketing strategy – agency theory in

combination with brand strategy and channel practices – it is difficult to

establish an implicit, reliable link between the authors’ construct and any

specific perspective on the role and scope of strategic marketing. The

second category of articles classified under “-1” differs, in the end, very

little from the first. The Moreau et al article “The manufacturer-retailer-

consumer triad: Differing perceptions regarding price promotions” (2001,

p. 547)discusses the effectiveness of promotional strategies. While the

article could be associated with a possible strategic marketing discourse

stream, the authors dissociate the work from direct references to the

general scope of strategic marketing by using modifiers such as “channel

marketing strategy”. Johnson’s “From understanding consumer behavior

to testing category structures” was likewise classified under “-1”; it

focused on “purchase marketing strategy” (Johnson 1999, p. 259).

Deciding whether an article was to be given a “-2” or a “-1” classification

was straightforward enough in most cases. The distinction between levels

“-1” and “+0” was, however, often finer. The Moreau et al article was one

such case; another example would be Luo et al’s “Entrepreneurial firms in

the context of China's transition economy: an integrative framework and

empirical examination”, which considered “strategic market factors” as a

component of their framework (Luo, Zhou, and Liu 2005, p. 277). The

framework itself, however, fell out of the scope of this study. Altogether

50 articles received a “-1” classification.

Classification level “+0” received the most entries of the six levels. Indeed,

in the classification process it acted as the starting point from where an

article was either “demoted” or “promoted” based on the relevance of

the available SSCI information to strategic marketing discourse. Articles

that were classified in the “+0” category represented a recognizable

contribution or perspective to the discourse. There had to be some

40

implicit indication that the authors were taking some stand on the role

and scope of “strategic marketing” – the nature of their perspective,

naturally, played no part in the selection process. Articles classified under

“+0” typically displayed their take on “strategic marketing” in one

implicit form or another; articles where the role of strategic marketing

was approached more directly, not to mention explicitly, were classified in

levels 1 through 3. In all, for inclusion in the “+0” category an article

would have to be potentially relevant to the issues being considered,

share a lowest common denominator with the discourse. Prior to actual

bibliometric citation analysis, one justification for including articles in the

“+0” category, that might not have qualified based solely on the abstract

and keywords, were the articles’ potential antecedents. That is, if an

article was seen as potentially sharing a substantial corpus of referenced

works with one or more conjectured streams of discourse, it was included

in the “+0” category. It was reasoned, that such articles might be placed

in a stream of discourse in bibliometric analysis later on. Distinguishing

these potentially relevant articles from those with little potential (and

classified under “-1”) was not always a straightforward task. Assessing the

degree of meta-theoretical approach outlined in the abstract to the

article offered one way to make this distinction. Taylor’s “Moving

international advertising research forward – a new research agenda”

(2005, p. 7) was one such case. Although that article’s focus was heavily on

advertising research, one could reason that an “examination of the

content of […] papers published in the journal of Advertising during the

past ten years” would be relevant to the scope of our study. Since the

focus, however, was not expressly on strategic marketing, level “+0” was

deemed the correct category for the article. In another case,

“International market segmentation: issues and perspectives” by

Steenkamp and Ter Hofstede (2002, p. 185), was initially considered for a

“-1” classification. However, although the abstract does not mention

“strategic marketing” as such, the article is essentially strategic marketing

41

meta-theory, reviewing segmentation literature and assessing past work

in the field. Thus, it was seen as potentially relevant to understanding the

general structure of strategic marketing discourse.

Articles for which the SSCI information indicated a distinct perspective to

“strategic marketing” were classified into category “+1” – whatever the

understanding of or perspective to strategic marketing was. The articles,

typically, discussed a component of strategic marketing, past research into

such components, or referred to some distinct company actions as

manifestations or components of “marketing strategy”. The distinction

between classification levels “+0” and “+1” was often along a very fine

line; these constituted the majority of the hardest decisions as well as

third-round classification level changes. A typical example of a “+1” level

article would be Palmer and Miller’s “Segmentation: Identification,

intuition, and implementation”. The article discusses the implementation

of segmentation in a business-to-business context as a component of

marketing strategy (Palmer and Millier 2004, p. 779). Another example of

a level “+1” article classification is article by Forgas and Ciarrochi, which

asserts that “many marketing strategies rely on assertive manipulations to

influence a desire of ownership” (Forgas and Ciarrochi 2001, p. 239). Here,

the scope and nature of “strategic marketing” are presented somewhat

differently, yet distinctively. As for the set of articles where difficulties

were encountered in making a decision between levels 0 and 1, the article

“A taxonomy of differences between consumers for market

segmentation” by Bock and Uncles serves as an example. The article

certainly discusses themes pertinent to strategic marketing – forming,

appraising and optimizing segments – but takes no clear stance on the

relationship with or implications for strategic decision-making (Bock and

Uncles 2002, p. 215). Thus, the article was demoted from an original “+1”

classification to “+0” during the third review round for sake of

consistency. In all, 117 articles were classified under “+1”.

42

In order for an article to be elevated to a “+2” classification level, there

had to be explicit evidence of discussion of the role of strategic marketing

in an organization, or discussion explicitly focusing on themes prevalent in

the StratMark research group’s perspective on strategic marketing – that

is, the process of strategic commercialization. To be included in the first of

these subcategories, an article had to address the theme of the study

directly: What is the role of strategic marketing? What are its

components? Who in the organization is responsible for strategic

marketing? Whereas an implicit link to a perspective on “strategic

marketing” was sufficient for a level “+1” article, here the authors had to

be explicit. Stoelhorst and van Raaij’s 2004 piece “On explaining

performance differentials: Marketing and the managerial theory of the

firm” is a typical category “+2” article. It discusses a framework to

integrate performance differential understandings in managerial,

organizational and marketing theory, and how marketing can contribute

to the success of a firm (Stoelhorst and van Raaij 2004, p. 462). Similarly,

Zou and Cavusgil’s “The GMS: A broad conceptualization of global

marketing strategy and its effect on firm performance” is a clear-cut

category “+2” article, as it directly addresses the components of a global

marketing strategy and performance links therein (Zou and Cavusgil 2002,

p. 40). In most cases, articles falling into this category were very easily

identified. The second subcategory, articles that focus on what might be

considered strategic commercialization, accounted for less than half of

level “+2” articles. They were, however, just as readily identified. One

article, for example, that closely echoes the StratMark perspective to

strategic commercialization is “Seller-buyer interactions during the

commercialization of technological process innovations” by Athaide et al:

“[a] clear understanding of the buyer’s needs and environment is essential

thoughout the seller’s organization, not just in the sales and marketing

departments” (Athaide, Meyers, and Wilemon 1996, p. 406). In all, 33

articles were in the “+2” category.

43

The final classification level, “+3”, was instantiated as a way to make a

note of the few level “+2” articles that not only were relevant for

examining strategic marketing discourse, but in fact addressed the

research questions of our study. The four articles assigned the highest

relevancy level were:

(i) Wilkinson and Young: “Marketing theory in the next millennium -

Looking backwards and forwards” (2002, p. 81)

(ii) Varadarajan and Jayachandran: “Marketing strategy: An

assessment of the state of the field and outlook” (1999, p. 120)

(iii) Hunt and Menon: “Metaphors and competitive advantage -

evaluating the use of metaphors theories of competitive strategy”

(1995, p. 81)

(iv) Varadarajan and Clark: “Delineating the scope of corporate,

business, and marketing strategy” (1994, p. 93)

The final tallies of for the number of articles included in each relevancy

category are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Final article classification category counts.

Relevancy level # articles Cumulative total

3 4 4

2 33 37

1 117 154

0 122 276

-1 50 326

-2 97 423

The method of article selection presented here is relatively subjective. The

reliability and validity of the method are therefore questionable to some

extent. Manually selecting the articles, however, is likely the most reliable

and valid method that there is available, as selection criterain cannot be

44

numerical alone: above, we encountered multiple series and types of

articles, that justifiably were discarded, even though the objective

database queries indicated that they might comprise valid material.

Similarly, it it highly likely that some stream of thought is severy under-

represented, or even omitted, in this study due to its appearing under

completely different terminology in the general marketing discourse. The

method used, however, represents standard qualitative methodology,

widely accepted in the social sciences. The reliability and validity of the

method are elaborated on in Chaper 6. The presented compromise

between harder and softer criteria, however, serves the purposes of this

study with sufficient scientific integrity.

2.4 Data Coding, Management And Analysis

As described in the previous section, article data was retrieved from the

SSCI online database. The WWW interface of the service allowed for

complete data to be exported in a plain text file. This text file was

converted to two formats: a Microsoft Excel worksheet for rapid access

and descriptive analysis, and a Microsoft Access database for performing

the majority of the analyses.

The SSCI database dump was imported to Microsoft Access using a

bibliometric analysis software tool called Sitkis (Schildt 2002). Sitkis is a

Java-based toolkit designed for use with a Microsoft Access database

master. SSCI data is automatically parsed and transferred to the database

by Sitkis, after which analyses can be performed within Sitkis or Microsoft

Access. From Microsoft Access, data can be retrieved in virtually any

combination using Structured Query Language (SQL) and proprietary

commands with Visual Basic for Applications. Sitkis also allows analysis

results to be exported in a format compatible with the UCINET VI social

network analysis software package (Borgatti, Everett, and Freeman 2002).

45

The analyses in this study all used Microsoft Excel, except for the co-

citation analyses, which were carried out with Sitkis and UCINET VI.

All Microsoft software used was version XP; the version of Sitkis used was

1.6. All analyses were performed on the Microsoft Windows platform.

The SSCI data required a series of manual cleanup steps before analyses

could be performed. The steps taken to, for example, standardize

spellings and cited references, are discussed in conjunction with the

relevant analyses.

46

3 Descriptive Analysis

This chapter describes the structure of the data and techniques used for

the descriptive analysis. Basic descriptive techniques are applied, in the

form of standard statistical methods. The analyses carried out include

publication activity, authorship, distribution of publication outlets, and

the temporal publication pattern of the selected articles.

3.1 Publication Activity

The SSCI database search yielded 423 articles to do with strategic

marketing published in the selected journals in 1986 to 2005. This sample

size is quite small compared to similar studies. Although it is difficult to

compare publication activity or intensity directly with another discourse,

Parvinen’s bibliometric study of the structure of the mergers and

acquisitions (M&A) discourse consisted of 567 articles published in 65

journals during 1991–2001 (Parvinen 2003). Compared to that number,

the similar method employed here identified only approximately half that

number, when taking into account the wider temporal range. A similar

construct to Parvinen and the one used in this study polled the SSCI

database for articles on software development (Mathiassen et al. 2004, p.

9). The Mathiassen et al study limited the search to 68 leading journals

and a temporal constraint of 1990 to 2004. This resulted in 4,320 articles,

of which 97 were considered relevant by the authors.

Since articles classified in the “-2” level, as described in section 2.3, were

discarded as completely irrelevant, the publication activity changes

47

somewhat, although not as dramatically as in the Mathiassen et al study.

Furthermore, many of the discarded articles were from the earliest years,

in practice limiting the temporal range of the data set to circa 1991 –

2005. A total of 326 articles were classified “-1” or higher, the earliest of

these being from 1990. Compared to the M&A publication intensity that

Parvinen identified, this is less than half the number of articles per year.

However, the intensity of relevant article publication activity exceeds that

found in the Mathiassen et al study.

The SSCI index lists 32,240 articles published during the selected time

period in the selected journals. The 423 articles represent 1.3% of the

total. Taking into account the discarded articles classified under “-2” and

the consequently implied temporal range of 1990 to 2005, we are dealing

with 326 articles out of a potential set of 26,052 – again, approximately

1.3%. Limiting the search results with the keyword “marketing” limits the

number of article matches in 1990 to 2005 to 3,644. Our selection of 326

articles thus represents 8.9% of the discourse classified under marketing, a

far more reasonable estimate of the scope of the sample than the

preceding calculations including, for example, all articles published in the

Journal of Business Ethics.

The discourse included for consideration in this study represents but a

fraction of the overall marketing discourse. Marketing, however, is a wide

and varied discipline with a multitude of sub-fields and practitioners.

Strategic marketing, as the authors understand it, is one of those sub-

fields; one that is not very clearly delineated. Much material reached with

the given database query is directly relevant, but the nature of the study

and our definition of strategic marketing imply that there is plentiful

material within the scope of strategic marketing that is not included in

the article data. This is due to the fact that a wider understanding of

strategic marketing incorporates material from discourses that have

traditionally been outside the bounds of marketing: supply and demand

48

network management, organizational theory and governance, to mention

a few. Despite these shortcomings, it is felt that the apparent publication

activity closely represents that of an active implicit discourse, covering a

wide range of approaches and research topics, all with shared ground in

how the strategic role of marketing is approached.

3.2 Authorship

Each article was attributed to one or more authors in the SSCI database,

with the majority listing two or three people as authors. For each article

classification level, author data was extracted from the data corpus in

Microsoft Access and exported to Microsoft Excel for further analysis.

Before total authorship tallies could be formed, author names had to be

standardized. For example, an article by Sundar G. Bharadwaj appeared

with author name “Bharadwaj, S” whereas others were correctly labeled

as “Bharadwaj, SG”. A total of nine entries out of 326 were thus

corrected. Once this had been done, separate tables were formed for each

classification level. It should be noted, that this authorship analysis, as

well as all other unless otherwise stated, regard “classification level n”

articles as the union of all articles in that level n, and those in any levels

with a higher numerical distinction. The total number of articles is

therefore cumulative. The classification levels allow for a cut-off point to

be set where desired. Later, it will be demonstrated where the cut-off

point in actuality should lie for the clearest simplified representation of

the streams within the discourse: lower-level articles may provide deeper

insight in to more subtle undertones and articles classified higher might

over-simplify and disregard certain facets of the discourse.

For the base set of 326 articles, that included classification levels “-1” and

up, there were altogether 599 authors. This suggests a degree of

definition in the structure of the discourse the data samples. Naturally this

49

is to be expected, as the group of scholars actively publishing in

marketing journals is a limited set. As classification criteria are tightened,

authorship does not diverge to any meaningful extent: for articles

classified level “+2” and up, for example, a total of 37 articles carry 71

different author names. The author count totals and theoretical (non-

attributable) articles-per-author relationships are presented in Table 6.

Were it so that (given reasonably distributed data) the articles per author

ratio grew considerably as we moved up the levels, we could conclude

solely on that basis that a distinct group of scholars was focusing on the

issues at hand. However, as this was not the case, further investigation

was mandatory: a large number of authors are clearly involved in strategic

marketing discourse on all its levels from passing implication to direct

meta-theory.

Table 6. Author counts and relevancy levels.

Relevancy level

# articles Cumulative total

# authors involved

Articles-per-author

3 4 4 7 0,57

2 33 37 71 0,52

1 117 154 293 0,53

0 122 276 500 0,55

-1 50 326 599 0,54

-2 97 423 n/a n/a

For articles classified into relevancy levels “-1” through “2”, the most

published authors were extracted. Level “-2” was omitted as it contained

irrelevant and incomplete material. Level “3” was also not under special

scrutiny at this point as it contained only four articles and was more

effectively studied as a subset of level “2”.

Within each category, author rankings were drawn based first on the

number of publications as first author and then on the number of

publications as any author. There were some cases where a person’s

50

standing in the index jumped considerably between the two indices. For

example, in relevancy level “1”, S. Tamer Cavusgil places 14th with one

first-authorship and four other articles. When ranked by total number of

contributions, Cavusgil is second in the category. A more dramatic

example of a shift is that of the likes of James C. Ward in the “-1”

relevancy class. Ward has three publications to his name, but none are as

first author. This places him 294th. Were authors ranked by the total

number of appearances, he would stand in 15th place. For the most part,

however, this made no real difference. The top of the list invariably

contained familiar names. For each of the four relevancy classes

examined, the top twenty authors are presented in Table 7.

As can quickly be observed, no single person or persons dominate the

sampled discourse. P. Rajan Varadarajan heads the list on all relevancy

levels, followed by five to ten recurring scholars in varying order. In all,

these authors, although clearly central to the discussion, only account for

a maximum of around 20% of the discussion, the rest being spread out

quite evenly among the rest of the population. Varadarajan could at this

point be clearly identified as a key author. As for the others, not much

definite could be said until further analysis. A noteworthy tangent of the

relatively low numbers of articles needed to reach a high position in the

list is that given a field of concrete specialization, an aspiring marketing

scholar would inarguably be at the forefront of academic strategic

marketing research with but a handful of articles in key journals in a 15-

year period.

The placement of S. Tamer Cavusgil, as mentioned, was interesting to

observe: Cavusgil places high within the lower relevency level classes, but

gradually slides down the list from second place in the “-1” relevancy class

to 34th in level “2” (not shown on listing). Drawing on this notion, one

might presume that Cavusgil’s contribution to the discourse might be

characterized as somewhat significant, yet more implicit than explicit. The

51

analysis would seem to indicate, that he is fairly often involved in

discussion of “strategic marketing” but that his contribution does not

address the role of “strategic marketing” explicitly. Indeed, a check of

Cavusgil’s articles confirms this: papers such as “The framework of a

global company: A conceptualization and preliminary validation”

(Cavusgil, Yeniyurt, and Townsend 2004, p. 711) and “Exploring the

marketing program antecedents of performance in a global company”

(Townsend et al. 2004, p. 1) are both very much into the discourse this

study is concerned with. The first presents a conceptual framework, in

which marketing is given a role; the second discusses the key

phenomenon of marketing as a performance driver. Thus, both articles

are relevant to the discourse but neither addresses the issue of the explicit

role of “strategic marketing” in an organization. Based on this, our

passing hypothesis cannot be rejected upfront: the proposed relevancy

level classifications for articles in the discourse serve the aims of the study

set earlier in centering in on the main themes within the discourse.

Table 7. Authors with most published articles in the article population.

LEVEL -1 LEVEL 1

Author #1st #other #total Author #1st #other #total

VARADARAJAN PR 4 5 9 VARADARAJAN PR 3 4 7

CAVUSGIL ST 3 4 7 BHARADWAJ SG 2 2 4

SHARMA A 3 3 6 MENON A 2 2 4

CLARK T 2 3 5 ATHAIDE GA 2 1 3

SHOHAM A 3 1 4 FRANKWICK GL 2 0 2

MENON A 2 2 4 KNIGHT GA 2 0 2

COOPER LG 2 2 4 LUKAS BA 2 0 2

BHARADWAJ SG 2 2 4 PERRY ML 2 0 2

MOORMAN C 2 1 3 ROBERTS JH 2 0 2

GOOD DJ 2 1 3 SASHITTAL HC 2 0 2

BALASUBRAMANIAN S 2 1 3 SHOHAM A 2 0 2

BALACHANDER S 2 1 3 SMITH GE 2 0 2

ATHAIDE GA 2 1 3 WEERAWARDENA J 2 0 2

JAYACHANDRAN S 1 2 3 CAVUSGIL ST 1 4 5

WARD JC 0 3 3 CLARK T 1 2 3

WALKER BA 0 3 3 JAYACHANDRAN S 1 2 3

REINGEN PH 0 3 3 SHARMA A 1 2 3

LILIEN GL 0 3 3 ALLENBY GM 1 1 2

52

WEERAHANDI S 2 0 2 CONANT JS 1 1 2

ULAGA W 2 0 2 DICKSON PR 1 1 2

LEVEL 0 LEVEL 2

Author #1st #other #total Author #1st #other #total

VARADARAJAN PR 4 5 9 VARADARAJAN PR 3 1 4

SHARMA A 3 2 5 FRANKWICK GL 2 0 2

SHOHAM A 3 1 4 LUKAS BA 2 0 2

CAVUSGIL ST 2 4 6 BHARADWAJ SG 1 1 2

CLARK T 2 3 5 DICKSON PR 1 1 2

MENON A 2 2 4 HUNT SD 1 1 2

COOPER LG 2 2 4 MENON A 1 1 2

BHARADWAJ SG 2 2 4 ATHAIDE GA 1 0 1

MOORMAN C 2 1 3 ATUAHENE-GIMA K 1 0 1

GOOD DJ 2 1 3 CHIMHANZI J 1 0 1

ATHAIDE GA 2 1 3 CLAYCOMB C 1 0 1

PERRY ML 2 0 2 FLINT DJ 1 0 1

FRANKWICK GL 2 0 2 GATIGNON H 1 0 1

COUPEY E 2 0 2 HARKER M 1 0 1

CALANTONE RJ 2 0 2 HIGGINS SH 1 0 1

BHATTACHARYA CB 2 0 2 HOUSTON MB 1 0 1

BALASUBRAMANIAN S 2 0 2 JARRATT D 1 0 1

ATUAHENE-GIMA K 2 0 2 MALTER AJ 1 0 1

JAYACHANDRAN S 1 2 3 MANU FA 1 0 1

ZOU SM 1 1 2 MCCULLOUGH WR 1 0 1

3.3 Distribution Among Publication Outlets

As described in section 2.1, a total of 34 journals were selected for

inclusion in the bibliometric study. As with authorship in the previous

section, articles were tallied per publication, per classification level. The

counts are presented in Figure 3.

53

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

JOURNAL OF BUSINESS

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER POLICY

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY

JOURNAL OF HEALTH CARE MARKETING

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AFFAIRS

BUSINESS HORIZONS

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MARKETING

DECISION SCIENCES

MARKETING LETTERS

CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW

JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC PSYCHOLOGY

JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS STUDIES

JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

JOURNAL OF PUBLIC POLICY MARKETING

JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING

SLOAN MANAGEMENT REVIEW

JOURNAL OF THE MARKET RESEARCH SOCIETY

JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH

JOURNAL OF RETAILING

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT INNOVATION MANAGEMENT

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN MARKETING

ADVANCES IN CONSUMER RESEARCH

JOURNAL OF BUSINESS ETHICS

HARVARD BUSINESS REVIEW

MANAGEMENT SCIENCE

JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH

PSYCHOLOGY MARKETING

JOURNAL OF THE ACADEMY OF MARKETING SCIENCE

MARKETING SCIENCE

JOURNAL OF MARKETING

JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL MARKETING

INDUSTRIAL MARKETING MANAGEMENT

JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

level -1

level 0

level 1

level 2

level 3

Figure 3. Distribution of articles across publication outlets.

54

The six most often used publications stand out rather clearly, with 20 to

48 articles of level “-1” or higher each, representing 61% of the 326

articles in the category. These are followed by a series of nine journals

with approximately ten articles contributed each, representing 30% of

total volume. The remaining 9% are spread out across 11 journals,

whereas eight journals yielded no articles at all with the given keyword

search and article rejection process.

As for the distribution of different relevance classes of articles coming

from the selection of journals, there would seem to be a reasonable

correlation between the total volume of articles from a single source and

the proportion of those that are classified under different relevancy

levels, across the board.

As each article represents a discrete unit of scientific research, deemed

worthy in a peer-review or similarly vigorous process, the plain article

counts given here directly represent contributions to the discourse.

Whether those contributions are deemed worthy is an issue that will only

be resolved in time. Chapter 4 will approach the past discourse referenced

by these articles to evaluate the impact those works have had. A similar

study in ten year’s time could clarify differences in influence due to

publication outlet that are not apparent here.

It is interesting to note, that three of the articles flagged “+3” appear in

the top source publication, the Journal of Business Research. Furthermore,

the Journal of Business Research is, indeed, an interesting publication to

hold the first place in the outlet activity index, as it is not a marketing but

a more general business research journal.

Being that the sample set in this study was limited to marketing journals,

the results are not conclusive on publication outlet activity. A search of

the SSCI database with the same keywords but no journal constraints

55

matches 1,359 articles. In this result set, the top journals are nearly

identical, with the exception that International Marketing Review is

included in third place. This would indicate that in strategy journals, the

issues pertaining to our understanding of marketing strategy – and they

do figure heavily there – are addressed with different terminology.

Combined with the role of the Journal of Business Research, this notion of

the role of general strategy journals is fascinating. It may well be, that

more distinct differences in addressing the role of marketing might be

found in a wider assessment of journals, with focus on general

management instead of solely marketing itself. The perspective of how

marketing is handled in management and strategy discourse is one that

should be investigated further in subsequent research.

3.4 Temporal publication pattern

Figure 4 presents the publication activity of the entire source article set,

divided by year of publication. Again, all relevancy levels are combined

into the same figure, with the “-2” level outmost. The articles classified

under “-2” weigh heavily on the first five years, as was to be expected.

After 1991, the only year with a more significant portion of “-2” level

articles is 1997. The remainder of the years, from 1992 onwards, display a

fairly homogenous distribution of articles in all classification levels.

Although some increase in publication activity towards the present is

apparent on the diagram, the shortness on the temporal scope does not

allow a conclusion of statistical significance. Key factors to be considered

are the overall number of articles being published and the number of

journals actively publishing the said material. Both increase yearly.

What can be said for certain is that the discourse is very much alive and

shows no signs of decline. The most recent years all contain articles

directly addressing the role of strategic marketing and “strategic

56

commercialization” (relevancy level “2”), as well as articles classified

under levels “1” and “0”. Further bibliometric assessment in the form of

citation analysis will likely provide deeper insight into the temporal

publication activity in a wider context.

3.5 Summary

This section summarizes the key results of the chapter on descriptive

analysis of the article population.

The publication activity in the discourse has been relatively high, in terms

of articles published. However, this activity represents only a small

percentage of the total publication activity in the studied journal under

the period of observation. There may be a trend in increasing publication

activity of strategic marketing material, as demonstrated by the

comparably active final years.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

19

85

19

86

19

87

19

88

19

89

19

90

19

91

19

92

19

93

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

Year

Nu

mb

er o

f a

rti

cle

s

level -2

level -1

level 0

level 1

level 2

level 3

Figure 4. Temporal publication pattern of all 423 articles.

57

The classification scheme used to sort articles by their relevance with

respect to the StratMark perspective was found to be a useful tool for

structuring the discourse and selecting articles for citation analysis. The

temporal distribution of articles in all levels across the temporal scope was

relatively even. The same can be said of the distribution of different

relevancy levels across different publication outlets.

A number of authors are strongly represented in the article population.

The set of top authors becomes more distinct and clearly formulated as

lower relevance levels are dropped from the data set.

The top journals are chiefly journals in marketing with the notable

exception of the Journal of Business Management (ranked first). Eight of

the selected journals yielded no articles at all on any relevancy level. The

absolute majority of the article population came from only six journals.

This represents a fairly normal Gaussian distribution. The most prominent

author is Rajan Varadarajan, who tops the list on all relevancy levels.

The basic descriptive analysis gave a basic understanding of the state of

the discourse at the present and nature of the article population. Just as

importantly, the relevancy classifications gave a solid base to use as the

article population for citation analysis and co-citation analysis.

58

4 Citation Analysis

Citation analysis aims at developing an understanding of the structure of

the discourse underlying its most obvious manifestations in the present.

Citation analysis aims to identify the main contributors and contributions

that have most influenced and shaped the discourse we are interested in.

In essence, citation analysis performs the same descriptive analyses on

articles and books cited in the selected works as were performed on the

works themselves in the previous chapter. The set of articled drawn from

academic journals, therefore, acts as a starting point from where it is

possible to approach and dive deeper into “strategic marketing”

discourse, without significant temporal constraints. The following sections

first outline the theory behind citation analysis and then present the

results of descriptive analyses on the citation data: temporal publication

patterns, most cited articles and books, and most cited first authors and

journals. This descriptive analysis aims at uncovering which sources have

contributed most to the state of strategic marketing discourse as it stands

today. Finally, co-citation strength is examined via cluster and centrality

analyses of the citation data. Co-citation analysis aims at showing how

units of research are interlinked: the entire body of literature can be seen

as a set of nodes, which are linked together into a network by citations

and references. It is hoped, that uncovering and studying these networks

will contribute towards and understanding of the structure of strategic

marketing discourse and address the research questions of whether

distinct streams of thought can be identified within the discourse flagged

“strategic marketing”. After presenting the findings of the co-citation

analysis, the chapter ends with a summary of our findings.

59

4.1 Theoretical background

This section presents an overview of the theoretical background as well as

various practical issues underlying citation analysis and co-citation analysis

as bibliometric research methodologies.

4.1.1 Citation analysis

Virgil Diodato’s Dictionary of Bibliometrics (1994) defines citation analysis

as a major method in bibliometrics, concerned with citation to and from

documents. Leo Egghe (1990) extend the definition to define the

application areas of citation analysis: (i) quantitative and qualitative

analysis of scholars, publication outlets and scientific institutions, (ii)

modeling the historical development of science and technology, and (iii)

information search and retrieval. Citation analysis aims at identifying the

key contributors and contributions to the discourse (COLE and COLE

1973). The aim is reached by combining descriptive analyses of most-

published authors, the temporal profile of articles published and

publication outlet pattern of articles published with descriptive analysis of

most-cited first authors, most-cited texts (books and articles), temporal

pattern of articles cited, and publication outlet pattern of articles cited

(Parvinen 2003).

In extending descriptive analysis to citation data, the issues of first-

authorship versus other contribution to an article are no longer a practical

complication: the citation data that is readily available to us only includes

the first authors of any publication. Thus, tallying most-cited authors will

only take into account the first author. Although it is common in the

scientific community to list the main contributor to an article as the first,

alphabetic or rotational schemes are not unheard of. Since most-cited

author data will thus potentially understate the contribution of some

60

second or third authors. This raises some questions as to the reliability of

author citation data and subsequent analysis results.

Analysis of most-cited references is as important as identifying the main

contributors to strategic marketing discourse. If there, indeed, exist

seminal articles to which specific streams of thought can be traced back to

along the citation network, assessing the associated disciplinary traditions

and outlook towards our research agenda along the citation path can

provide valuable insight. Identifying individual articles, therefore, is

essential. At the single-article level, identification of key theoretical

messages and contributions becomes much more straightforward and

meaningful.

On an aggregate level, many publications lean towards some clear

disciplinary tradition, discourse or intellectual approach. Finding out what

outlets are behind which facets of the discourse can provide much insight

into the structure and origins of the said facets. Likewise, the temporal

pattern of the cited references can provide further insight. However, the

conclusions that can be drawn from temporal profiling can be limited. It is

generally known that an article’s cited references tend to emphasize the

5-6 years preceding publication (Parvinen 2003). Therefore, there a

complete backward profile will rarely be formed.

The issue of terminology also needs to be addressed. Section 1.4.6

discussed the distinction between “references” and “citations” in some

length. In bibliometric literature, the term “citation analysis” is used to

refer to analysis that is preformed on the references listed in

bibliographies and other reference sections of academic publications.

Actual citation analysis, taking into account the entire context that a

reference appears is, is rare – using reference analysis would usually be

more accurate. As it is the aim of this study to concentrate on changing

61

the world one term at a time, “citation analysis” is performed on

reference data due to well-established precedent. (Mattsson 2003)

4.1.2 Co-citation analysis

Henry Small (1973, p. 265) distinguishes between a number of types of

bibliographic citations. In addition to direct citations (citing of an earlier

document by a new document), these include bibliographic coupling, the

sharing of one or more references by two documents, and co-citation

coupling. Co-citation is “the frequency with which two items of earlier

literature are cited together by the later literature”. In order for a strong

co-citation coupling to exist, a large number of authors must cite the two

earlier works. Thus, co-citation patterns change as new literature is

published, unlike bibliographic coupling which is a fixed and permanent

relationship.

Small defines the strength of a co-citation link as the discrete number of

times that two works are cited together. Garfield extends the definition

of co-citation strength by taking into account the number of total

citations to both papers individually. Co-citation link strength S(A, B)

between papers A and B is thus given by:

!

S(A,B) =a" b

a + b # a" b,

where a represents the number of citations to document A, b the number

of citations to document B, and

!

a" b the number of co-citations of A and

B (non-normalized co-citation strength, as used by Small). (Garfield 1980,

p. 5–12;He and Hui;Small 1973, p. 265)

It is generally well accepted, that frequently cited individual works

portray key concepts within a discourse. If two documents are frequently

co-cited, it is practically prerequisite that they are also both frequently

cited as individual documents. Co-citation patterns can be used to map in

62

detail the links between key ideas or streams of thought. In addition,

changes in co-citation patterns allow an understanding of how the

discourse has developed or is developing (Small 1973, p. 265). Co-citation

analysis can readily be extended to author co-citation analysis for

examining how often given authors are cited together in literature.

Co-citation analysis shows great potential for assessing the structure of a

complex discourse. As Small concludes,

The pattern of linkages among key papers establishes a structure or map

for the specialty, which may then be observed to change over time.

Though the study of these changing structures, co-citation provides a tool

for monitoring the development of scientific fields, and for assessing the

degree of interrelationship among specialties. (Small 1973, p. 265)

Since the objective of this study is to assess the structure of strategic

marketing discourse and distinguish possible streams of thought within it,

co-citation analysis was seen as a well-justified tool for analyzing the data.

4.2 Citation Analysis of Strategic Marketing Discourse

This section presents the process and results of citation analysis on the

selected set of strategic marketing related articles. First, most-cited first

authors are analyzed, followed by the most cited journals. These two form

the core of the direct descriptive analysis, and are complemented by

analyses of the temporal profile of the cited works and an analysis of the

most cited journals. Lastly, the focus is shifted to analysis of co-citation

strength within the discourse, carried out by attempting to form clusters

in the literature of related works and centrality analyses of most cited

documents.

63

At this point, the decision was made to base citation analysis on data

contained in articles with a relevancy classification of “0” or above.

Articles classified under “-2” were considered unacceptable from the

beginning, and the criteria for inclusion in level “-1” (see section 2.3) were

felt to widen the scope to too many irrelevant articles. As was seen in the

analysis of top authors in the different levels, by level “0” the set of core

authors was already taking shape. This, combined with the criteria for

inclusion in level “0” (“some possible orientation towards and potentially

shared sources with a discussion stream”), gave enough assurance for

citation analysis to be based on this selection of 276 articles.

4.2.1 Most Cited Articles and Books

Before the actual analyses could be carried out, a source of error for

citation counts needed to be addressed. In some instances, the data in the

SSCI database is not entirely accurate: author names vary in spelling (often

in incomplete or mistyped initials), journal names can be corrupted,

journal years, volume and page numbers missing or mistyped. For

example, the entries for Michael Porter appeared in the citation database

as shown in Figure 5.

Given the large amount of data, it is impossible to rectify all such

instances, as in many cases this would mean having to gain access to the

original document or journal. Schildt ((2002)) recommends, that the

rectification process be carried out for articles by the top ranking authors.

In our case, the most cited authors were identified via a simple database

query. According to Schildt, correcting the citation data for the top 20-50

authors is sufficient for reliable and usable results. To be sure, we checked

the data for the 52 most cited authors, using 25 citations as a cut-off

point. Figure 6 illustrates a typical situation where citation data was

corrected. The entry with ID 7624 misspells the title of Porter’s book as

64

“Competitive Strategi”. Manually altering this rectifies the citation count

for that work.

Figure 7 illustrates another typical example where a correction was made.

There, a presumably less diligent author or database filler has mistakenly

given the volume number of Harvard Business Review in 1977 as 77,

volume 55 being correctly cited by others. Again, this manual change

allowed citations with identical data to be understood as the same

document when carrying our database queries. A total of circa 300

database entries were changed to a single uniform notation.

In all, after the corrections, the data set of 276 articles contained

references to 8,936 articles and books by 5,439 first authors. Table 8

presents the 28 most cited articles and books, the cut-off point being set

at 13 received citation

Figure 5. Inaccurate information in the citation database.

65

Figure 6. "Competitive Strategi" by Michael Porter.

Figure 7. Incorrect volume number for Harvard Business Review in 1977.

66

Table 8. Most cited articles and books.

Rank Author Journal Year Vol. # citations

1 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE STRATEGY 1980 [book] 45

2 DAY GS J MARKETING 1994 58 38

3 DAY GS J MARKETING 1988 52 30

4 KOHLI AK J MARKETING 1990 54 28

5 JAWORSKI BJ J MARKETING 1993 57 27

6 ARMSTRONG JS J MARKETING RES 1977 14 26

6 NARVER JC J MARKETING 1990 54 26

8 BARNEY JB J MANAGE 1991 17 23

8 BUZZELL RD PIMS PRINCIPLES 1987 [book] 23

9 CAVUSGIL ST J MARKETING 1994 58 21

10 WALKER OC J MARKETING 1987 51 20

11 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG 1985 [book] 19

11 WEBSTER FE J MARKETING 1992 56 19

13 DICKSON PR J MARKETING 1992 56 18

13 JAIN SC J MARKETING 1989 53 18

13 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1993 57 18

16 FORNELL C J MARKETING RES 1981 18 17

16 LEVITT T HARVARD BUS REV 1983 61 17

16 CHURCHILL GA J MARKETING RES 1979 16 17

16 SZYMANSKI DM J MARKETING 1993 57 17

20 SLATER SF J MARKETING 1995 59 16

21 HUNT SD J MARKETING 1995 59 15

22 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1989 53 14

22 RUEKERT RW J MARKETING 1987 51 14

22 PRAHALAD CK HARVARD BUS REV 1990 68 14

25 DESS GG STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT 1984 5 13

25 SAMIEE S J MARKETING 1992 56 13

25 WIND Y J MARKETING 1983 47 13

28 MORGAN RM J MARKETING 1994 58 12

28 DAY GS MARKET DRIVEN STRATE 1990 [book] 12

28 DAY GS J ACADEMY MARKETING 1992 20 12

28 VARADARAJAN PR J ACAD MARKET SCI 1999 27 12

28 SRIVASTAVA RK J MARKETING 1998 62 12

28 TEECE DJ STRATEGIC MANAGE J 1997 18 12

Next, we present an overview of the contents of some of the most cited

documents.

67

The document with overwhelmingly most received citations is Michel

Porter’s 1980 classic “Competitive Strategy”. Porter took his lead from the

industrial organization field of economics, presenting the “five forces”

model of competitive analysis. Furthermore, he stated that firms must

choose between two mutually exclusive strategies for achieving above-

average performance: cost leadership and differentiation. Combining

these with a focus of the scope of the desired competitive target. The

1980 preceded Porter’s 1985 book “Competitive Advantage”, which

expanded on these themes and presented the seminal value chain

framework. “Competitive Advantage” places 11th among most cited

works, and represents an angle on marketing that does not fit well with

our perception of the role of strategic marketing. The generic value chain

isolates “marketing and sales” in one of the five main functional primary

activities of a company. The value chain model was widely popularized

and continues to be actively referred to in most discussion of company

organization, operation and management. Although later research into

internal marketing and customer orientation has operated to some extent

outside this rigid context, Porter’s generic value chain in its incessant and

wide application seems one of the greatest impediments to transforming

the role of marketing in business and society. (Mintzberg, Lampel, and

Ahlstrand 1998;Porter 1980;Porter 1985)

George Day is another prominent figure on the list of most cited

documents. “The Capabilities of Market-Driven Organizations” (1994, p.

37) and “Assessing Advantage: A Framework for Diagnosing Competitive”

written with Robin Wensley (Day and Wensley 1988, p. 1). The first article

examines how an organizational orientation – more specifically, a market

driven orientation – can be achieved and sustained. Significantly, from our

perspective, Day presents a restructured and relabeled “value chain” of

customer order fulfillment, a chain of outside-in and inside-out

capabilities that would now be considered relationship-based (Tikkanen

68

2006). The second article presents a framework for connecting customer

perceived value to a company’s skill and resource base, in order to

introduce a more balanced competitive strategy consisting of both

customer and competitor perspectives.

Kohli and Jaworski also appear twice on the list in Table 8, demonstrating

the stated difficulty with citation data only including the first author:

“Market Orientation: The Construct, Research Propositions, and

Managerial Implications” (1990, p. 1) has Kohli credited as first author;

“Market Orientation: Antecedents and Consequences” (1993, p. 53) has

Jaworski. The articles reflect on previous literature on market orientation

to establish an integrated framework for market orientation. The

antecedents in their framework are internal and organizatorial, the

consequences both internal and external (business performance, mediated

by external factors).

Armstrong’s “Estimating Nonresponse Bias in Mail Surveys” (1977, p. 396)

is an example of an often-cited document that is a “standard

methodological reference” for many papers dealing with survey data

analysis. Fornell and Larcker’s “Evaluating Structural Equation Models

with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error” (1981, p. 39) is a

similar case, focusing on structural equations widely used in marketing

research. A third methodological article that is cited heavily is “A

Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs” by

Gilbert A. Churchill (1979, p. 64).

Narver and Slater have three articles that appear among the most cited.

The first (Narver and Slater 1990, p. 20) uses empirical findings to

demonstrate that market orientation has a substantial, positive effect on

business performance. Company culture is a factor in the orientation

process. The next article, “Does Competitive Environment Moderate the

Market Orientation-Performance Relationship?” (Slater and Narver 1994,

69

p. 46) addresses other researchers’ suggestions of the competitive

environment as a moderating factor between market orientation and

profitability. The authors debunk environmental conditions as transient,

emphasizing the long-term cost-effectiveness of a market orientation. The

finals article expands on a learning organization as a basis for competitive

advantage in a market orientation, echoing Kohli and Jaworski (Jaworski

and Kohli 1993, p. 53;Slater and Narver 1995, p. 63).

Jay Barney developed the resource-based view (RBV) of strategy

formation into a full-fledged theorey. The 1991 article “Firm resources

and sustained competitive advantage” appears among the most cited in

our study. The resource-based view is an internal prespective, playing on

the value, rareness, inimitability and sustainability of any and all physical

and nonphysical resources for creating a sustainable competitive

advantage. (Barney 1991, p. 99;Mintzberg, Lampel, and Ahlstrand 1998)

Prahalad and Hamel are also linked with organizational capabilities. “The

core competence of the corporation” (1990, p. 79) is one of their seminal

papers, considering strategic management a “collective learning process”.

The authors focus on core competencies, explicitly rejecting a product

focus and emphasizing the integrated functionality of a company.

Buzzell’s “PIMS Principles: Linking Strategy to Performance” (1987)

presented a framework for understanding and predicting the effects on

performance of strategic choices and market conditions. The PIMS, or

“Profit Impact of Market Strategy” system allowed managers to

essentially compare their company’s position with that of others using a

wide range of variables. Heavy on the external, PIMS has attracted some

criticism: “PIMS [seems] unable to distinguish ‘getting there’ from ‘being

there.’” (Mintzberg, Lampel, and Ahlstrand 1998 p. 99)

70

Cavusgil and Zou’s article “Marketing Strategy-Performance Relationship:

An Investigation of the Empirical Link in Export Market Ventures” (1994,

p. 1) is another document that explores the performance link. The

approach, however, is on an aggregate level, taking into account both

internal and external factors as marketing strategy antecedents. The role

of marketing within the company at large is not directly approached.

The two articles by Walker and Ruekert address the themes of this study

head-on. The first describes how and why marketing personnel interact

with personnel from other functional areas, building on social systems

theory and resource dependence models. Although the paper explores

linkages and shuns functional isolation, the scope of marketing is

implicitly functional (Walker Jr and Ruekert 1987, p. 15). The second

article by the co-authors focuses on the relationship between marketing

activity performance and overall business performance. The presented

typology of business strategy is based on Porter (1980). The role of

marketing is approached from a perspective of fit between marketing

programs and business strategy (Ruekert and Walker Jr 1987, p. 1).

Peter Dickson’s “Toward a General Theory of Competitive Rationality”

(1992, p. 69) presented a new proposition – based on information

economics, economic psychology and Austrian economics – in that “it is

competition that forces a customer or market orientation,” departing

from the discussion of a competition versus customer focus.

The article “Standardization of International Marketing Strategy: Some

Research Hypotheses” by Subhash C. Jain (1989, p. 70) proposes a series of

new research hypotheses in both external and internal sectors. Perhaps

most significantly in light of our research question, Jain advances the idea

of a marketing process (versus program), as introduced by Sorenson and

Wiechmann (1975, p. 38).

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Deshpande, Farley and Webster’s “Corporate Culture, Customer

Orientation, and Innovativeness in Japanese Firms: A Quadrad Analysis”

(1993, p. 23) found a positive correlation between flexibility in an

innovative company and business performance. A “market culture” was

seen as conducive. The second article with Deshpanade as first author,

“Organizational Culture and Marketing: Defining the Research Agenda”

(Deshpande and Webster Jr 1989, p. 3) preceded the first, aims explicitly

at paving the way for research into marketing that is centered on

organizational culture: “Contemporary work on marketing management

is grounded implicitly in a structural functionalist or contingency

perspective of organizatorial functioning.” The paper set a research

agenda in organizatorial context with marketing research implications. A

third article, by Webster alone, discusses “The Changing Role of

Marketing in the Corporation” (1992, p. 1). It presents marketing from a

relationship point of view, explicitly distinguishing strategic marketing

from operational-level marketing, stating culture and top management as

the foci of the former and 4P-type tactics as that of the latter.

Theodor Levitt, of Marketing Myopia fame, places among the most cited

instead with “The Globalization of Markets” (1983, p. 92). The article

attempts to remind managers of paying heed to the globally varying

consumer preferences, focusing on creating and keeping customers and

“shaping the vectors of technology and globalization into [the global

company’s] great strategic fecundicity.” The perspective is that of the

external environment.

An article in the Journal of Marketing, crediting David Szymanski as the

first author, places among the most cited. However, the trio Szymanski,

Bharadwaj and Varadarajan actually has articles in both the July and

October issues of the same year. Furthermore, being that they both also

begin on page 1, it is impossible to distinguish between the two given the

available citation data. For the purposes of this study, we will have to

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assume that the authors did not fundamentally change their perspective

on marketing during the summer months. The first of the two articles “An

Analysis of the Market Share-Profitability Relationship” (1993a, p. 1)

presents profitability as a function of market share, shaped by a variety of

largely internal 4P-type variables. The second article, “Standardization

versus Adaptation of International Marketing Strategy: An Empirical

Investigation” (1993b, p. 1) focus on the external environment. Neither

article provides a very distinctive take on the role of strategic marketing

in general.

Hunt and Morgan’s “The Comparative Advantage Theory of Competition”

(1995, p. 1) argues, that a new theory of competition better explains key

micro and macro level phenomena. This is evaluated by applying the

construct into assessing market orientation as a source of competitive

advantage. Market orientation, thus is viewed as a resource in the RBV

sense. The paper is fundamentally meta-theoretical in relation to

marketing theory, and provides a take on managing the marketing

process that is quite different from many others.

Dess and Robinson examine the usefulness of subjective performance

measures in “Measuring organizational performance in the absence of

objective measures: the case of the privately held firm and conglomerate

business unit” (1984, p. 265). While a common citation in general

performance discussion, the article does not as such address the role of

marketing, strategic or otherwise.

Samiee and Roth’s “The Influence of Global Marketing Standardization on

Performance” (1992, p. 1) continues the discussion of performance

implications of standardization, contributed to by the likes of Jain and

Buzzell. The perspective is that of competition and focuses noticeably on

the operational tasks attributed to marketing.

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The final article that is reviewed here out of the to citation recipients,

“Marketing Strategy: New Directions for Theory and Research” by Yoram

Wind and Thomas S. Robertson (1983, p. 12), presents an integrated

strategic marketing planning approach. Wind considered, as most

contemporary works, marketing to be a business function. However,

emphasis is placed on the linkages between marketing and other

functions as well as taking into account considerations from other

functions when developing marketing decision models. Wind and

Robertson explicitly consider a short-run focus as a key problem in

marketing practice.

4.2.2 Most Cited First Authors

Table 9 presents the citation profiles for the top 35 most cited first

authors in the article population. As discussed in the previous sub-section,

the tally is not entirely accurate in all senses: there clearly exist several

collaborating scolars, such as Narver and Slater, who both happen to place

highly on the list despite their cycling first-authorship. Were data readily

available on all authors for the cited references, such collarorators might

place even higher. One further source of error is the self-citing practiced

by some active authors. It is questionable whether such citations should

be included, if a reliable way was discovered for pinting them out. Due to

these problems, an exhaustive analysis of most cited first author data was

seen as unnecessary.

Table 9. Most cited first authors.

Rank Author # citations

1 DAY GS 153

2 PORTER ME 99

3 KOTLER P 59

4 DESHPANDE R 51

5 CAVUSGIL ST 50

6 HUNT SD 49

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7 SLATER SF 47

8 AAKER DA 46

8 MINTZBERG H 46

10 GATIGNON H 42

10 BUZZELL RD 42

12 KOHLI AK 40

12 JAWORSKI BJ 40

12 WEBSTER FE 40

15 DICKSON PR 39

16 DOUGLAS SP 38

16 DESS GG 38

18 BAGOZZI RP 37

19 ANDERSON JC 36

20 VARADARAJAN PR 35

20 BARNEY JB 35

20 WIND Y 35

23 FORNELL C 33

24 MOORMAN C 32

25 MILLER D 30

25 ARMSTRONG JS 30

25 LEVITT T 30

25 TEECE DJ 30

29 JAIN SC 29

30 WALKER OC 28

30 SHETH JN 28

30 WILLIAMSON OE 28

33 NARVER JC 27

34 RUEKERT RW 26

34 BONOMA TV 26

4.2.3 Most Cited Journals

The publication outlets that received most citations were identified. The

Journal of Marketing came clearly out on top with 1,286 received

citations. The runner-up was the Journal of Marketing Research with 679

citations. Other journals received 350 citations or less. This reflects the

dominant position of the two journals in the discipline. The third and

fourth ranking journals were the Strategic Management Journal and

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Harvard Business Review. This illustrates how the discourse into strategic

marketing also draws directly on business strategy research and business

management topics.

An interesting observation is that Porter’s Competitive Strategy comes

quite close to making it to the list of most cited journals, with 45 citations

to its name.

Table 10. Most cited journals.

Rank Journal # citations

1 J MARKETING 1286

2 J MARKETING RES 679

3 STRATEGIC MANAGE J 350

4 HARVARD BUS REV 291

5 MARKET SCI 289

6 IND MARKET MANAG 281

7 J CONSUM RES 264

8 MANAGE SCI 225

9 ACAD MANAGE REV 192

10 ACAD MANAGE J 179

11 J ACAD MARKET SCI 172

12 J BUS RES 152

13 J INT BUS STUD 146

14 STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT 87

15 INT J RES MARK 86

16 ADMIN SCI QUART 85

17 J ADVERTISING RES 82

18 SLOAN MANAGE REV 79

19 J MANAGE 71

19 AM ECON REV 71

21 ORGAN SCI 68

22 ADV CONSUM RES 67

22 J PROD INNOVAT MANAG 67

22 EUR J MARKETING 67

25 INT MARKET REV 66

26 ADM SCI Q 64

27 J RETAILING 59

28 J PERS SOC PSYCHOL 58

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29 ECONOMETRICA 57

30 J MANAGE STUD 56

4.2.4 Temporal Profile of Cited References

Figure 8 presents the temporal distribution of the reference data. The

most often cited data is from the years circa ten years before the present.

While it is natural that the most cited research is the recent research, the

peak of the graphical representation does precede the predicted six-to-

eight year lag by several years. Interestingly, many of the most cited

works in the discourse are from that specific period that shows as the

peak of activity.

The peak of the distribution falls rapidly after around 1997. Naturally,

present studies cannot have gathered as many citations that older ones

have.

Figure 8. The temporal distribution of cited articles and books.

4.2.5 Co-citation Analysis

The Sitkis software package by Henri Schildt (2002) was used to facilitate

co-citation analysis. Given that the data set of 276 had 11,608 individual

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citations to references, including all of them in a cluster analysis would

have been impossible. A threshold level for inclusion, therefore, had to be

set. Sitkis allows two types of threshold to be set when exporting co-

citation networks. First, a minimum number of citations to references can

be set. Setting this threshold at 18, for example, would include in the

network all articles that have received 12 or more citations – the 15

publications with ranks 13 and up in Table 8. There is no firm guidance

from literature for selecting a threshold value. The author of the Sitkis

package suggests finding a level, where incrementing the threshold value

does not significantly decrease the number of works included in the

network. Furthermore, Schild states that networks with more than thirty

nodes are difficult to work with. The second threshold value that Sitkis

allows to be set is the minimum number of citations to the citing articles.

This number is included in the data originally downloaded from the SSCI

database. Sitkis also allows constraining the temporal profile of the citing

articles at network export time. (Schildt and Sillanpää 2004;Schildt 2002)

Observing the most cited books and articles list in Table 8, setting the

threshold for minimum citations to references at 13 would limit the

number of books and articles in the co-citation network to 28. This is in

line with Schildt’s (2004) recommendation, that references that are cited

by at least 1% to 10% of all articles should be included, as well as the

practical guideline of a thirty-node maximum.

Since Small’s seminal article (1973) rests that co-citation strength

correlates with individual article significance, the “minimum number of

citations to citing articles” field was set at zero, in order to include all of

the top 28 most cited references. Since the temporal profile was already

constrained beforehand to 1990 – 2005, the default settings for

publication dates of citing articles (1900 – 2005) were acceptable. The

articles and books included in the analysis are those in Table 8 of rank 25

and above.

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Some issues relating to the reliability of co-citation analysis remain. Co-

citation strength is a measure of how often articles or books are cited

together. However, analysis often frames co-citation strength as a

measure of how similar two works are. A co-citation network is formed of

nodes representing individual articles and books, with the distance

between nodes representing co-citation strength. Co-citation strength in

this network perspective is easily associated with content similarity and

centrality within the network with centrality of the article in the

discourse. This is not entirely accurate in all cases. With respect to co-

citation strength, documents may often cite two works together because

they, for example, represent two conflicting perspectives. As for network

centrality, there may be a habit in the discourse of citing some standard

methodological paper or early seminal article that is no longer relevant to

the key themes. In this study, however, co-citation strength is assumed to

be a sufficient measure of subject similarity and co-citation network

centrality of centrality in the discourse, as numerous other studies have

arrived at useful results following this approach. (Mattsson 2003;Parvinen

2003)

Cluster Analysis

Figure 9 and Figure 10 present the hierarchical cluster dendrograms for

the co-citation networks formed by the 28 most cited documents (Johnson

1967, p. 241). Figure 9 uses the average link approach and Figure 10 the

complete link approach. Co-citation strength as defined by Garfield (1980,

p. 5–12) was used as the basis for measuring similarity. The strength values

are, therefore, normalized using the Jaccard method to produce values in

the range [0.0, 1.0]. The co-citation strength matrix, giving the co-citation

strength between each pair of articles, is given in appendix B.

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Figure 9. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, average link method.

Figure 10. Co-citation clustering of the 28 most cited books and articles, complete link method.

Extracting the clusters from the dendrograms was quite straightforward.

The documents are listed along the y-axis, while co-citation strength

decreases along the x-axis. The clusters had to be extracted manually from

the graphical representations, taking any major branch of the diagram as

a separate cluster. Given the somewhat trivial and flexible nature of the

task, no systematic criterion was applied with respect to a co-citation

strength threshold for cluster formation (Mattsson 2003 p. 62). In practice,

the major clusters for the complete link method all diverged at S=0.0, and

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for the average link method at S=0.06 to S=0.14. (Appendix C includes

both dendrograms in ASCII format, with co-citation strengths in a more

reader-friendly format.) In the average link case, one cluster was further

divided into two sub-clusters, at threshold level S=0.23 (clusters A3a and

A3b). In the complete link method clustering, all clusters were divided to

two or three sub-clusters at threshold values ranging from S=0.05 (clusters

C2a&b and C2c) to S=0.26 (clusters C3a and C3b). The clusters were

assigned codes for ease of discussion and analysis. Cluster C2a, for

example, refers to complete link method cluster 2, sub-cluster a; cluster A4

similarly refers to cluster 4 in the average link method dendrograms,

which has no sub-clusters. Table 11 lists the clusters attributed to each

document in the co-citation network.

Table 11. Co-citation clusters for the 28 most cited documents.

Although the two dendrograms seem quite different at first glance, the

clusters produced by both methods are in fact highly similar. This can

ID Author journal year volume #citations avg link cluster complete link cluster

6 ARMSTRONG JS J MARKETING RES 1977 14 26 A1 C1a

18 FORNELL C J MARKETING RES 1981 18 17 A1 C1a

17 CHURCHILL GA J MARKETING RES 1979 16 17 A1 C1b

26 DESS GG STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT 1984 5 13 A1 C1b

10 CAVUSGIL ST J MARKETING 1994 58 21 A2 C3a

20 SZYMANSKI DM J MARKETING 1993 57 17 A2 C3a

27 SAMIEE S J MARKETING 1992 56 13 A2 C3a

16 JAIN SC J MARKETING 1989 53 18 A2 C3b

19 LEVITT T HARVARD BUS REV 1983 61 17 A2 C3b

8 BARNEY JB J MANAGE 1991 17 23 A3a C2a

24 PRAHALAD CK HARVARD BUS REV 1990 68 14 A3a C2a

21 SLATER SF J MARKETING 1995 59 16 A3b C2a

2 DAY GS J MARKETING 1994 58 38 A3b C4a

4 KOHLI AK J MARKETING 1990 54 28 A3b C4a

5 JAWORSKI BJ J MARKETING 1993 57 27 A3b C4a

7 NARVER JC J MARKETING 1990 54 26 A3b C4a

14 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1993 57 18 A3b C4b

23 DESHPANDE R J MARKETING 1989 53 14 A3b C4b

1 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE STRATEGY 1980 0 45 A4 C2b

9 BUZZELL RD PIMS PRINCIPLES 1987 0 23 A4 C2b

12 PORTER ME COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG 1985 0 19 A4 C2b

3 DAY GS J MARKETING 1988 52 30 A5 C2c

15 DICKSON PR J MARKETING 1992 56 18 A5 C2c

22 HUNT SD J MARKETING 1995 59 15 A5 C2c

28 WIND Y J MARKETING 1983 47 13 A5 C2c

11 WALKER OC J MARKETING 1987 51 20 A6 C4c

13 WEBSTER FE J MARKETING 1992 56 19 A6 C4c

25 RUEKERT RW J MARKETING 1987 51 14 A6 C4c

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readily be seen by observing the cluster denotations in Table 12, with

clusters separated by thick horizontal lines and sub-clusters by thin

horizontal lines. The clusters represent arguably represent distinct

research fields within the strategic marketing discourse. Each cluster is

characterized by an intellectual base, upon which we will expound next. It

should also be noted, that concerns over often-cited methodological

papers possibly being ballast (as discussed in the preface to this section),

are reflected in those papers being neatly sorted into a cluster of their

own. Table 12 presents the clusters with general overviews of the material

contained in each cluster.

Table 12. Descriptions of clusters formed by average link and complete link methods from co-citation data.

Clusters Brief description Articles A1, C1a

6 (Armstrong) 18 (Fornell&Lacker)

A1, C1b

The “standard” methodological references. The C1a part of the cluster emphasizes rigid methodology, while C1b leans concentrates on developing measures for marketing constructs and organizational performance.

17 (Churchill) 26 (Dess&Robinson)

A2, C3a

10 (Cavusgil&Zou) 20 (Szymanski&al) 27 (Samiee&Roth)

A2, C3b

All five articles deal with marketing performance and standardization in an export context. In sub-cluster C3a marketing is approached as an operational tool; C3b articles are more general discussion.

16 (Jain) 19 (Levitt)

A3a, C2a 8 (Barney) 24 (Prahalad&Hamel)

A3b, C2a

The A3a cluster contains the two seminal works on resources and capabilities. Slater&Narver is loosely connected but carries a conflicting perspective.

21 (Slater&Narver)

A3b, (C2a,) C4a

21 (Slater&Narver) 2 (Day 1994) 4 (Kohli&Jaworski) 5 (Jaworksi&Kohli) 7 (Narver&Slater)

A3b, C4b

Cluster A3b outlines the seminal discourse on market orientation and its connection with business performance. The articles in sub-cluster C4b focus more heavily of culture.

14 (Deshpanade&al) 23 (Deshpanade&Webster)

A4, C2b The industrial environment perspective to (marketing) strategy.

1 (Porter 1980) 9 (Buzzell) 12 (Porter 1985)

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A5, C2c New customer-oriented frameworks for marketing organization and implementation.

3 (Day 1988) 15 (Dickson) 22 (Hunt&Morgan) 28 (Wind)

A6, C4c The role and strategic level of marketing in an organization: Webster’s typology conflicts Walker&Ruekert’s functional prespective.

11 (Walker&Ruekert) 13 (Webster) 25 (Ruekert&Walker)

Network Centrality Analysis

To address network centrality, Bonacich eigenvector centrality analysis

(Bonacich 1972, p. 113–120) and Freeman betweenness centrality

(Freeman 1979, p. 215) were conducted on the set of 28 most cited

documents. The results, showing the top twenty documents for each

analysis method, are presented in Table 13. The complete results are

included in Appendix D.

An immediate observation is the difference between the two lists. The

reason for this is in the difference between the methods in defining

assessing centrality. Eigenvector centality is a measure of how strongly a

document is linked to other documents as measured by co-citation

strengths between pairs. Betweenness centrality, in turn, describes

bridging ablitity, or how well the document form linkages in the co-

citation network between otherwise disjoint documents.

Table 13. Network centrality analyses.

Bonacich eigenvector centrality Freeman betweenness centrality

Rank ID Author Rank ID Author

1 7 DAY 1994 1 1 ARMSTRONG

2 2 BARNEY 2 2 BARNEY

3 15 JAWORSKI 3 3 BUZZELL

4 16 KOHLI 4 25 SZYMANSKI

5 24 SLATER 5 19 PORTER 1985

6 18 NARVER 6 6 DAY 1988

7 9 DESHPANDE 1993 7 7 DAY 1994

8 6 DAY 1988 8 28 WIND

9 21 PRAHALAD 9 26 WALKER

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10 20 PORTER 1980 10 20 PORTER 1980

11 26 WALKER 11 8 DESHPANDE 1989

12 19 PORTER 1985 12 12 FORNELL

13 1 ARMSTRONG 13 21 PRAHALAD

14 8 DESHPANDE 1989 14 4 CAVUSGIL

15 13 HUNT 15 5 CHURCHILL

16 25 SZYMANSKI 16 16 KOHLI

17 12 FORNELL 17 18 NARVER

18 11 DICKSON 18 23 SAMIEE

19 4 CAVUSGIL 19 22 RUEKERT

20 28 WIND 20 11 DICKSON

The eigenvector centrality ranking puts forth Day’s 1994 piece as the most

central document (and, referring to the numerical data in appendix D, by

a considerable margin). The most important observation to draw from the

eigenvector centrality ranking is the prominence of documents relating to

market orientation (Day 1994, Jaworski, Kohli, Slater, Narver). The central

role of these articles is pleasing, but seemingly contradictory with the

results of citations analysis: perhaps, then, market orientation is indeed

the established core of the strategic marketing discourse, but with other

works (Porter et al) being heavily represented as basic frames of

reference?

The rankings for betweenness centrality differ much from eigenvector

centrality. Here, the top spot is held by a document that is a

methodological reference – as was predicted. However, seminal works (in

their own areas) also feature high on the list, such as Day’s two articles,

the PIMS book and Michael Porter’s both books. The explanation for the

high bridging ability of these would lie in them being the strandard works

to refer to when entering the discourse.

4.3 Summary

This section summarizes the key results of the chapter on citation analysis.

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The analysis included a total of 11,608 citations to 8,936 sources by 5,439

first authors. These were found by analyzing a selection of 276 articles

drawn from the initial population of 423 articles by a relevancy

classification scheme.

The most cited books and articles were identified (Table 8), and the top

ranking works reviewed. The top ranking articles could be seen to reflect

several distinct fields and perspectives, including export marketing, the

resource-based view, the industrial environment / competition

perspective, and a selection of standard methodological references.

The most cited authors were identified. The list bore some similarities to

that of the most cited references. George Day was clearly the most cited

author, followed by Michael Porter and Philip Kotler, and then by

Deshpandé, Cavusgil, Hunt, Slater, Aaker and Mintzberg. Of these, Kotler,

Aaker and Mintzberg were prominent omission from the list of most cited

works, being well-known authors. There exist several problems with the

reliability of first author data.

Temporal analysis of the citation data was evidence for the natural

pattern of citing the most recent research, as well as that of the

formation, development and expansion of the marketing discipline.

However, a temporal scope limited to the most recent years was not

applicable to the most cited articles and books.

The publication outlets that received most citations were identified. The

Journal of Marketing came clearly out on top with 1,286 received

citations. The runner-up was the Journal of Marketing Research with 679

citations.

The co-citation strengths were calculated for the 28 most cited

documents. A hierarchical clustering algorithm was run over this data to

suggest a grouping of these documents into clusters. This was based on

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the premise that articles often cited together will be topically close, with

the intention that this would allow us to objectively identify the

structures built on by subsequent research. Four to seven clusters were

identified using alternative linking methods, suggesting the following key

bases in the discourse: operational marketing performance and

international growth; the resource-based view; market orientation and

performance; the industry environment perspective; customer-oriented

marketing frameworks; the role and strategic level of marketing.

Network centrality was assessed via two different measures. Market

orientation texts took a noticeably prominent position in Bonacich

centrality ranking, while methodological references and individual

seminal works featured high in their bridging ability as measured by

betweenness centrality.

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5 Discussion

The aim of this study is to provide insight into the structure of the

strategic marketing discourse, and thus advance the progress of the

overall StratMark research project. The main research question set asked,

where the origins of the present understandings of strategic marketing

lie. This question was divided into three subquestions for thorough

addressing. In carrying out the analysis to answer the subquestions, an

article population spanning 16 years and 423 individual documents was

first manually assessed for relevance, after which systematic biblimetric

analyses were performed on the data. Citation data was extracted and a

co-citation network formed to gain deeper insight in furtehr analysis.

This chapter attempts to synthesize the key findings by directly addressing

the research questions presented in section 1.3 in conjuction with

discussing the relationship of the answer to the objectives of the

StratMark project.

(1) What are the antecedents that have contributed to the present state

of the discourse on “strategic marketing”?

Generally, the range of precedents to the present state of discourse boils

down to four distinct groups of antecedents. The groups, identified via

descriptive citation analysis and co-citation clustering, are:

(A) The competitive environment

(B) Operational marketing performance and international growth

(C) The resource-based view

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(D) Market orientation and performance

The first of the groups embodies focus on the external competitive

environment that is commonly and widely dubbed “Porterian”. The key

concepts and frameworks in the discussion are those originationg from

Porter’s seminal, fabulously influential 1980 and 1985 books: the genaric

value chain and the “five forces” model of the industry environment.

While valuable tools for business analysis, they can both be seen as

detrimental towards our goals. In all their influence, it seems the models

and associated discourses have managed to instate a near-monopoly as

the groundwork of managerial thought. Although there certainly are

success stories, the frame of reference itself contradicts two fundamental

postulates of the StratMark vision: (a) the role and scope of marketing is

explicitly funtional instead of a continuous core process, and (b) focus is

overly on the competition instead of the customer. Group A type

antecedents are, thus, seen a fundamental but flawed component of the

present state of strategic marketing discourse.

The discussion reflected in antecedent group B is, out of the four, the

most adjacent to the Porterian perspective is the one an international

marketing context where marketing is, by implication, given an

operational scope with clearly defined business performance outcomes.

While an operational scope is often evident is usage today, the invariable

connection with export operations within the group of objects came as a

surprise. The connection is in the form of the standardization versus

adaptation debate, which understandably gives rise to operational

questions. However, since this is still pitched under the rubrik of “strategic

marketing”, we may presume that the usage, even in this limited context,

has had an effect on definitions and understandings in the more recent

discourse.

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The third group of antecedent to the discourse, C, included the seminal

works putting forth the resource-based view of the company. The

thinking behind the view is reflected in much of thee discourse one

encounters today, although not often in a very explicit manner. The view

can easily be apllied to the StratMark perspective, the networked

resources of a company being combined to form sustainable marketing

competence.

The fourth and final group of antecedents outlines the seminal discourse

on market orientation and its connection with business performance.

Issues of corporate culture as they relate to marketing are also laid the

groundwork for. This stream within the discourse is one that appears as a

disctinct undercurrent: it is also the key background behind the StratMark

understanding of stratgic marketing.

In addition to these four fields within the discourse, two clusters of

methodological research featured prominently: framework-building

(chiefly customer-oriented marketing frameworks) and sociological

practical marketing research (the shared research and analysis methods).

Finally, antecedents dealing directly with the role and strategic level of

marketing could be identified.

(2) What roles, organizational activities, processes and levels of decision-

making are attributed to “strategic marketing” in literature?

Strategic marketing is sometimes seen in a functional context, at other

times as a more all-encompassing process or phenomenon. In the

functional scope, as is reflected in and by the previously chracterized

antecedent groups A and B, “strategic marketing” is an operational

activity, with either a specific stage in the value-adding process, or tactical

nature attached to it. In a wider context, as reflected in and by

antecedent groups C and D, strategic marketing is seen as a merket

oriented, long-term process, attributed to a higher level of busines

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planning, management, and organizatory structure than is the case with

the other viewpoint. Again, the latter attributions correspond more

closely with the perspective of the StratMark research group.

This, of course, is an overt simplification of the nature and structure of the

discourse. Oftentimes, objects in the discourse move somewhere in

between, sometimes not taking a stance at all – and at others, mmoving

between perspectives more or less easily.

(3) What antecedents might prove useful starting points for framing

further research within the StratMark project?

The last research question concretely related the study to its objectives as

a component of the StratMark research project. Pointing out what

antecedents represent similar and conflicting views to the StratMark

perspective will provide a starting point for further reaserch and disocurse

influencing within the field of study.

The points of view and research fields that most closely corresponded

with the StratMark perspective were the ones reflected and originating in

the antecedent groups C and D described above. In further bibliometric

and conceptual analysis of the themes raised in this study, attention

should be paid to how the apparent dichotomy in the discourse can best

be taken advantage of. The view represented by antecedent groups A and

B is well justified in another managerial context. It is also very well

established in current management thinking and practice, and proven a

useful set of tools. The other stream of thought is seen differently and

often shunned. The reasons behind this phenomenon need to be

investigated. Analyzing the academic discourse as well as managerial

thought and practice in light of the dichotomy and theoretical stances

that can be drawn from it can provide a fruitful path for future research

into the area and towards the goals of the research project at large.

90

6 On Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity have been intermittently addressed in the study as

methodology was presented and analysis carried out. This chapter aims to

provide a more comprehesive discussion of these issues. First, the process

of selecting journals and selecting and classifying articles is addressed.

Then, the analysis methods and processes themselves are reflected on in

terms of reliability and validity.

6.1 Data Selection

The journal selection process was a compromise between the practical

limits of material that could be dealt with and the breadth of analysis.

Only journals clearly found to be within the scope of what is generally

understood to be marketing discourse were included. The methodology

used for selecting the journals combined a thoroughly and rigorously

peer-reviewed selection process presented by Baumgartner and Pieters

(2003, p. 123–39) – the scientific quality of which is sufficietly

demonstrated by its publication in the Journal of Marketing, generally

considered the leading journal in the field. For the sake of making it

possible to carry out the bibliometric research, the Baumgartner and

Pieters approach was combined with convenience sampling, selectiong

only those journals from their set for which article data was available in

the SSCI. A more comprehensive picture of the state of the discourse

would have been achieved by including other forms of scientific

publications in the analysis, including books, doctoral dissrtations and

working papers. Finding and selecting these would, however, have been a

91

massive task, if at all possible in light of subsequent validity. Therefore,

the limited but justified approach used was selected. The number of

journals was deliberately fairly high, as well as the temporal scope. These

both serve to increase validity by reducing the likelihood of excluding

some major field of research from the analysis. While the chosen selection

of journals may not reflect the fullest extent of marketing discourse, it is

sufficiently valid and allows for maximally reliable analysis within it.

The article selection process within the study offers another chance to

assess reliability – validity is not an issue, since we were dealing with the

entire population referred to by the research questions and limited only

by the selection of journals. The key issue in article selection reliability is

the relevancy classification process described in section 2.3. Manual

assessment of the material was absolutely necessary. The raw population

could be seen to include articles that had nothing to do with the theme of

“stratgic marketing” or roles attributed to it. Reasons for rejecting articles

(categories “-2” and “-1”), consisted of:

• Duplicate entries or incomplete SSCI data

• Complete relevance, such as with false matches

• Little general relevance, or composite terms with modifying

scope as keywords

Subjective but structured subjective assessment of qualitative data is a

normal practice in social sciences research. The classification scheme used

for assessing article relevance is felt well fall within this definition and

practice. While it could certainly be improved by, for example,

systematical assessment of the same material by different researchers

employing identical agreed-upon criteria, the article selection process is

deemed reliable enough for the purposes of this study.

92

6.2 Analyses

The study involved a number of descriptive statistical techniques and a

range of bibliometric analyses, using both citation and co-citation data.

The metohds used are, for the most part, very basic, supplemented by

some established and widely employed, more complex network analyses.

In general, it can be asserted that the statistical methodology used in this

study poses no concerns when it comes to reliability and validity. It should

be notes, that since the article sample used in the study is infact the entire

article population, there is no need or meaningfulness for tests of

statistical significance.

Several points relating to the analyses need, however, to be briefly

approached. Firstly, the issue of co-citation strength: the problematics

associated with co-citation strength as a measure of similarity were

discussed in Chapter 4. Co-citation strength is not a direct measure of

similarity, but only a proxy. Futhermore, the fact that two documents

often cited together might even represent completely opposing

viewpoints must be remembered. These notions do not, however,

undermine the results of the study, as the effects were known and

allowed for appropriate interpretation of the results of, for example, the

cluster analysis.

It can, thus, be concluded that the analyses performed in this study are, in

general, sufficiently valid and reliable.

93

7 Conclusions

It may be concluded, that the research questions and objectives set in

section 1.3 have been properly addressed in this study. The analyses

performed on the data, not to mention the process of familiariazation

with and classification of the article base, provided many insights into the

state, nature and antecedents of the wide and varied discourse cundunted

under the label of “strategic marketing”.

This study has contributed to the body of knowledge by systematically,

objectively and reliably revealing

(i) The manifestation of the discourse in a structured form

(ii) The origins of prevalent facets in the discourse

(iii) The configurations and interlinkages of key theories and

antecedents in the discourse

(iv) Practical paths for subsequent research

It is argued that light has been shed on both areas in the discourse that

are well-explored, as well as those not yet exposed. This has been done in

a reliable and valid manner, paying respect to the philosophy of scientific

research.

Reflecting on the objectives set for the research in section 1.3.1 (p. 8), the

study aimed firstly to identify “what the world means by strategic

marketing.” This, it is argued, is successfully demonstared in the acedemic

context, under the proxy that academic discussion eventally filters

94

through to the deomain of management via universities and other

educational insitutions. The second objective required directions to be set

for further research, enabling the wider StratMark research project to

eventually move along the “stage-gate” progress structure presented in

Figure 1. This has been achieved by identifying a key dichotomy in the

discourse. This enables linkages to be made to both of the adjacent

research stages of international benchmarking (i.e. what to benchmark,

what perspectives to take into account) and the evaluation and definition

of the strategic role of marketing (by pointing to a substructure in the

discourse that would form the basis for formally and structurally defining

strategic marketing in an operational context). The third and final

objective set was that of maintaining focus on the overall goals of the

StratMark project and the eventual practical manegerial applicability of

the results. By paying heed to those wider objective througout the data

gathering, assessment and analysis processes, and successfully fulfilling

the other two research objectives, the third can also be argued to have

been successfully addressed.

Finally, directions for subsequent research in the scope of the first

element of working package 1 (p. 2) as well as linkages to the other

elements in the overall construction are briefly looked into. First of all, a

more detailed image of the temporal chages and developments in the

discourse would be attained by expanding the bibliometric analysis to

include any of the following: a wider range of journals; conceptual

network analysis of theories, methods and facets; a structured,

comprehensive review of management and marketing education

literature; and a review of actual management communication around

the phenomena in question. Some or all of this research is upcoming

within the StratMark project. The subsequent research topics in the

project will include assessment of the themes in a practical perspective.

The discourse in strategic marketing is as varied and wide as its practice.

95

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Appendix A: The article population and relevancy classifications

This appendix lists the 423 documents used as the base journal article population.

The integer preceding each entry indicates the relevancy level the article was

classified with (see section 2.3).

[1] Abratt R, Cowan D (1999) 'Client-agency perspectives of information needs for media planning'. Journal of Advertising Research 39(6).

[0] Agarwal MK (2003) 'Developing global segments and forecasting market shares: A simultaneous approach using survey data'. Journal of International Marketing 11(4).

[1] Albaum G, Tse DK (2001) 'Adaptation of international marketing strategy components, competitive advantage, and firm performance: A study of Hong Kong exporters'. Journal of International Marketing 9(4).

[1] Allenby GM, Arora N, Ginter JL (1998) 'On the heterogeneity of demand'. Journal of Marketing Research 35(3).

[-2] Amine LS, Cavusgil ST (1986) 'Export marketing strategies in the british clothing industry'. European Journal of Marketing 20(7).

[-2] Andrus DL (1997) 'Inside the Tornado: Marketing strategies from Silicon Valley's cutting edge - Moore,GA'. Journal of Marketing 61(2).

[-1] Arnett DB, Laverie DA, Meiers A (2003) 'Developing parsimonious retailer equity indexes using partial least squares analysis: a method and applications'. Journal of Retailing 79(3).

[1] Arnold D (2000) 'Seven rules of international distribution'. Harvard Business Review 78(6).

[0] Arnold KA, Bianchi C (2001) 'Relationship marketing, gender, and culture: Implications for consumer behavior'. Advances in Consumer Research 28(0).

[0] Arnould EJ, Wallendorf M (1994) 'Market-oriented ethnography - interpretation building and marketing strategy formulation'. Journal of Marketing Research 31(4).

[2] Athaide GA, Meyers PW, Wilemon DL (1996) 'Seller-buyer interactions during the commercialization of technological process

innovations'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 13(5).

[1] Athaide GA, Stump RL (1999) 'A taxonomy of relationship approaches during product development in technology-based, industrial markets'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 16(5).

[0] Atuahenegima K (1993) 'Determinants of inward technology licensing intentions - an empirical-analysis of australian engineering firms'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 10(3).

[2] Atuahene-gima K, Murray JY (2004) 'Antecedents and outcomes of marketing strategy comprehensiveness'. Journal of Marketing 68(4).

[0] Avlonitis GJ, Karayanni DA (2000) 'The impact of Internet use on business-to-business marketing - Examples from American and European companies'. Industrial Marketing Management 29(5).

[0] Baker WE, Sinkula JM (2005) 'Environmental marketing strategy and firm performance: Effects on new product performance and market share'. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 33(4).

[-1] Balachander S (2001) 'Warranty signalling and reputation'. Management Science 47(9).

[0] Balachander S, Srinivasan K (1994) 'Selection of product line qualities and prices to signal competitive advantage'. Management Science 40(7).

[1] Balasubramanian S, Bhardwaj P (2004) 'When not all conflict is bad: Manufacturing-marketing conflict and strategic incentive design'. Management Science 50(4).

[0] Balasubramanian S, Konana P, Menon NM (2003) 'Customer satisfaction in virtual environments: A study of online investing'. Management Science 49(7).

106

[0] Baldauf A, Dockner EJ, Reisinger H (2000) 'The effects of long-term debt on a firm's new product pricing policy in duopolistic markets'. Journal of Business Research 50(2).

[0] Banerjee B, Mckeage K (1994) 'How green is my value - exploring the relationship between environmentalism and materialism'. Advances in Consumer Research 21(0).

[-1] Bang HK, Ellinger AE, Hadjimarcou J, Traichal PA (2000) 'Consumer concern, knowledge, belief, and attitude toward renewable energy: An application of the reasoned action theory'. Psychology & Marketing 17(6).

[-2] Banks S (1987) 'Toward better media marketing strategies'. Journal of Advertising Research 27(1).

[0] Batra R (1997) 'Executive insights: Marketing issues and challenges in transitional economies'. Journal of International Marketing 5(4).

[0] Bayus BL (1992) 'Brand loyalty and marketing strategy - an application to home appliances'. Marketing Science 11(1).

[1] Bei LT, Simpson EM (1995) 'The determinants of consumers' purchase decisions for recycled products: An application of acquisition-transaction utility theory'. Advances in Consumer Research 22(0).

[-2] Bernhardt KL (1986) 'Legal-aspects of marketing strategy - antitrust and consumer-protection issues - stern,lw, eovaldi,tl'. Journal of Marketing 50(3).

[1] Bharadwaj S, Clark T, Kulviwat S (2005) 'Marketing, market growth, and endogenous growth theory: An inquiry into the causes of market growth'. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 33(3).

[2] Bharadwaj SG, Varadarajan PR, Fahy J (1993) 'Sustainable competitive advantage in-service industries - a conceptual-model and research propositions'. Journal of Marketing 57(4).

[0] Bhattacharya CB, Rao H, Glynn MA (1995) 'Understanding the bond of identification - an investigation of its correlates among art-museum members'. Journal of Marketing 59(4).

[1] Bhattacharya CB, Smith NC, Vogel D (2004) 'Integrating social responsibility and marketing strategy: An introduction'. California Management Review 47(1).

[0] Bock T, Uncles M (2002) 'A taxonomy of differences between consumers for market segmentation'. International Journal of Research in Marketing 19(3).

[0] Bolton RN, Bronkhorst TM (1995) 'The relationship between customer complaints to the firm and subsequent exit behavior'. Advances in Consumer Research 22(0).

[1] Bowman D, Gatignon H (1996) 'Order of entry as a moderator of the effect of the marketing mix on market share'. Marketing Science 15(3).

[0] Bradley F, Gannon M (2000) 'Does the firm's technology and marketing profile affect foreign market entry?'. Journal of International Marketing 8(4).

[0] Brookes R (1995) 'Recent changes in the retailing of fresh produce - strategic implications for fresh produce suppliers'. Journal of Business Research 32(2).

[-1] Brouthers LE, Werner S, Matulich E (2000) 'The influence of Triad nations' environments on price-quality product strategies and MNC performance'. Journal of International Business Studies 31(1).

[1] Calantone RJ, Cavusgil ST, Schmidt JB, Shin GC (2004) 'Internationalization and the dynamics of product adaptation an empirical investigation'. Journal of Product Innovation Management 21(3).

[-2] Calantone RJ, Dibenedetto CA (1990) 'Defensive industrial marketing strategies'. Industrial Marketing Management 19(3).

[0] Calantone RJ, Schatzel KE (2000) 'Strategic foretelling: Communication-based antecedents of a firm's propensity to preannounce'. Journal of Marketing 64(1).

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Appendix B: Co-citation coupling strengths

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11

0.1

94

0.0

27

0.0

29

0.1

07

0.1

03

0.1

95

0.0

00

0.2

92

0.0

80

0.1

03

0.0

00

0.1

11

0.0

32

0.2

06

15

DE

SH

PA

ND

E0.1

03

0.2

50

0.0

51

0.0

00

0.0

97

0.0

70

0.4

44

0.2

92

0.0

00

0.0

34

0.0

94

0.1

00

0.1

00

0.0

00

0.2

57

28

DE

SS

0.1

47

0.1

61

0.0

28

0.1

33

0.1

54

0.1

35

0.0

91

0.0

80

0.0

34

0.0

00

0.0

69

0.1

15

0.0

74

0.0

33

0.0

81

2D

ICK

SO

N0.0

48

0.2

42

0.0

77

0.0

26

0.0

00

0.1

46

0.1

78

0.1

03

0.0

94

0.0

69

0.0

00

0.0

97

0.2

59

0.0

29

0.1

25

3F

OR

NE

LL

0.2

73

0.1

82

0.0

53

0.1

21

0.1

00

0.1

25

0.2

75

0.0

00

0.1

00

0.1

15

0.0

97

0.0

00

0.1

03

0.0

63

0.1

32

1H

UN

T0.0

77

0.2

19

0.0

53

0.0

28

0.0

00

0.2

86

0.1

59

0.1

11

0.1

00

0.0

74

0.2

59

0.1

03

0.0

00

0.0

00

0.1

03

22

JA

IN0.1

28

0.0

79

0.1

35

0.3

00

0.0

29

0.0

68

0.0

39

0.0

32

0.0

00

0.0

33

0.0

29

0.0

63

0.0

00

0.0

00

0.0

00

4JA

WO

RS

KI

0.1

78

0.2

82

0.0

85

0.0

43

0.1

28

0.1

91

0.6

76

0.2

06

0.2

57

0.0

81

0.1

25

0.1

32

0.1

03

0.0

00

0.0

00

17

KO

HLI

0.1

04

0.1

90

0.0

41

0.0

67

0.0

73

0.1

91

0.5

12

0.2

42

0.3

75

0.0

26

0.1

25

0.0

49

0.1

32

0.0

00

0.3

50

27

LE

VIT

T0.1

00

0.0

51

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35

0.2

58

0.0

29

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44

0.0

19

0.0

32

0.0

00

0.0

00

0.0

00

0.0

30

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00

0.5

65

0.0

00

14

NA

RV

ER

0.1

33

0.2

63

0.0

65

0.0

70

0.1

05

0.1

74

0.3

64

0.1

47

0.3

13

0.0

86

0.1

32

0.1

08

0.1

39

0.0

00

0.3

33

12

PO

RT

ER

0.0

71

0.2

00

0.1

94

0.1

11

0.0

29

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43

0.2

27

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00

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67

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21

0.0

61

0.2

07

0.0

88

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50

21

PO

RT

ER

0.1

45

0.2

14

0.2

11

0.1

38

0.1

07

0.1

56

0.2

31

0.0

93

0.1

27

0.0

94

0.1

05

0.1

30

0.0

89

0.0

68

0.2

00

6P

RA

HA

LA

D0.1

43

0.3

70

0.1

18

0.0

61

0.0

33

0.1

94

0.2

56

0.0

77

0.1

92

0.0

00

0.1

43

0.1

54

0.1

54

0.0

67

0.1

08

26

RU

EK

ER

T0.0

81

0.0

88

0.0

56

0.0

61

0.0

33

0.1

03

0.0

89

0.1

20

0.0

69

0.0

00

0.0

32

0.0

34

0.0

00

0.0

32

0.1

08

10

SA

MIE

E0.1

14

0.1

25

0.1

21

0.4

17

0.0

34

0.0

77

0.0

67

0.0

38

0.0

00

0.0

83

0.0

69

0.0

74

0.0

36

0.5

50

0.0

26

11

SLA

TE

R0.1

08

0.2

67

0.0

83

0.0

59

0.0

67

0.1

89

0.4

71

0.1

60

0.2

31

0.0

37

0.0

65

0.0

69

0.1

48

0.0

00

0.2

35

25

SZ

YM

AN

SK

I0.1

62

0.2

12

0.2

42

0.3

57

0.0

30

0.0

70

0.1

30

0.0

33

0.0

30

0.0

71

0.0

61

0.1

00

0.0

65

0.3

46

0.1

00

8W

ALK

ER

0.2

16

0.1

67

0.0

49

0.1

11

0.1

61

0.1

71

0.2

86

0.1

79

0.1

25

0.1

03

0.0

88

0.1

29

0.0

61

0.0

28

0.3

14

20

WE

BS

TE

R0.0

23

0.0

50

0.0

75

0.0

26

0.0

29

0.1

43

0.0

80

0.1

00

0.0

59

0.0

00

0.1

21

0.0

00

0.0

94

0.0

28

0.0

95

24

WIN

D0.0

26

0.1

25

0.1

21

0.0

30

0.0

34

0.2

35

0.1

16

0.0

80

0.0

71

0.1

30

0.1

48

0.0

74

0.1

60

0.0

69

0.1

43

120

17

27

14

12

21

626

10

11

25

820

24

JAIN

JAWORKOHLILEVIT

NARVEPORTEPORTEPRAHARUEKESAMIE

SLATESZYMAWALKE

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

-----

7ARMSTRONG

0.104

0.100

0.133

0.071

0.145

0.143

0.081

0.114

0.108

0.162

0.216

0.023

0.026

16BARNEY

0.190

0.051

0.263

0.200

0.214

0.370

0.088

0.125

0.267

0.212

0.167

0.050

0.125

19BUZZELL

0.041

0.135

0.065

0.194

0.211

0.118

0.056

0.121

0.083

0.242

0.049

0.075

0.121

23CAVUSGIL

0.067

0.258

0.070

0.111

0.138

0.061

0.061

0.417

0.059

0.357

0.111

0.026

0.030

5CHURCHILL

0.073

0.029

0.105

0.029

0.107

0.033

0.033

0.034

0.067

0.030

0.161

0.029

0.034

13DAY

0.191

0.044

0.174

0.143

0.156

0.194

0.103

0.077

0.189

0.070

0.171

0.143

0.235

9DAY

0.512

0.019

0.364

0.227

0.231

0.256

0.089

0.067

0.471

0.130

0.286

0.080

0.116

18DESHPANDE

0.242

0.032

0.147

0.100

0.093

0.077

0.120

0.038

0.160

0.033

0.179

0.100

0.080

15DESHPANDE

0.375

0.000

0.313

0.200

0.127

0.192

0.069

0.000

0.231

0.030

0.125

0.059

0.071

28DESS

0.026

0.000

0.086

0.067

0.094

0.000

0.000

0.083

0.037

0.071

0.103

0.000

0.130

2DICKSON

0.125

0.000

0.132

0.121

0.105

0.143

0.032

0.069

0.065

0.061

0.088

0.121

0.148

3FORNELL

0.049

0.030

0.108

0.061

0.130

0.154

0.034

0.074

0.069

0.100

0.129

0.000

0.074

1HUNT

0.132

0.000

0.139

0.207

0.089

0.154

0.000

0.036

0.148

0.065

0.061

0.094

0.160

22JAIN

0.000

0.565

0.000

0.088

0.068

0.067

0.032

0.550

0.000

0.346

0.028

0.028

0.069

4JAWORSKI

0.350

0.000

0.333

0.150

0.200

0.108

0.108

0.026

0.235

0.100

0.314

0.095

0.143

17KOHLI

0.000

0.023

0.405

0.150

0.143

0.171

0.108

0.026

0.355

0.048

0.150

0.150

0.111

27LEVITT

0.023

0.000

0.024

0.057

0.068

0.032

0.032

0.409

0.000

0.296

0.028

0.000

0.033

14NARVER

0.405

0.024

0.000

0.100

0.129

0.114

0.083

0.027

0.212

0.077

0.158

0.100

0.056

12PORTER

0.150

0.057

0.100

0.000

0.280

0.222

0.031

0.103

0.172

0.091

0.086

0.086

0.185

21PORTER

0.143

0.068

0.129

0.280

0.000

0.157

0.073

0.074

0.176

0.148

0.143

0.085

0.137

6PRAHALAD

0.171

0.032

0.114

0.222

0.157

0.000

0.037

0.080

0.261

0.069

0.100

0.100

0.125

26RUEKERT

0.108

0.032

0.083

0.031

0.073

0.037

0.000

0.038

0.115

0.033

0.222

0.222

0.038

10SAMIEE

0.026

0.409

0.027

0.103

0.074

0.080

0.038

0.000

0.000

0.429

0.067

0.032

0.040

11SLATER

0.355

0.000

0.212

0.172

0.176

0.261

0.115

0.000

0.000

0.067

0.063

0.172

0.077

25SZYMANSKI

0.048

0.296

0.077

0.091

0.148

0.069

0.033

0.429

0.067

0.000

0.091

0.029

0.034

8WALKER

0.150

0.028

0.158

0.086

0.143

0.100

0.222

0.067

0.063

0.091

0.000

0.118

0.143

20WEBSTER

0.150

0.000

0.100

0.086

0.085

0.100

0.222

0.032

0.172

0.029

0.118

0.000

0.103

24WIND

0.111

0.033

0.056

0.185

0.137

0.125

0.038

0.040

0.077

0.034

0.143

0.103

0.080

121

Appendix C: Co-citation cluster analysis results Method: AVERAGE Type of Data: Similarities HIERARCHICAL CLUSTERING C D A F C J L S S R W W B P P D B P D D J K N S D D H W H E R O A A E A Z U A E U O O E A R E A A O A L I A U I U S M R V I V M Y E L B Z R R S R A S Y W H R A C Y N N R S S N U N I I M K K S Z T T H N H H O L V T K T D C T E S T E A E E T E E E P E A P G R I E E S G H G R L G S T E N R R E L R R A Y L A S S R R O S S Y I G O L I C S T R L N A N - K A N - D - L - N L - T S K O M M D J D D J I K J S J - J L S G C J - - I R C F R E E E B E - C F P J T - S H J W - E D - - - C M B J - - R M M G R J J T M A D - J - - C C R J K R A J J J - A M A A A S - A R M M J J P O O - - - R - M J R A R - T - M J R V A - M I M M J M H J K J A M M K R K J E J A K A R J M A M M P P A A E R A A M E K E G R M E R K A R A S E E M N R M T M K R R A T E T 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 Level 5 0 1 2 4 4 7 3 5 2 6 7 3 9 0 8 2 1 9 7 5 6 8 4 1 6 3 8 ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6757 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . 0.5652 . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . 0.4561 . . . . . XXXXX . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . 0.4054 . . . . . XXXXX . . . . . . . . . . . XXX XXX . . . . . 0.3823 . . . . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . . . . . XXX XXX . . . . . 0.3704 . . . . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX . XXX XXX . . . . . 0.3636 . . . . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX . XXXXXXX . . . . . 0.3579 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX . XXXXXXX . . . . . 0.3287 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . . 0.2857 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . . . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . XXX . 0.2800 . . . . XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . XXX . 0.2727 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . XXX . 0.2699 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXX XXXXXXXXXXX . XXX . 0.2285 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX . . . . XXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX . XXX . 0.2222 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . . XXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX . XXX . 0.2216 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . . XXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX . 0.2052 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX . 0.1759 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX . XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1672 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1538 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1525 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1417 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1316 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1172 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.1074 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.0942 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.0609 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

122

Method: COMPLETE_LINK Type of Data: Similarities HIERARCHICAL CLUSTERING C D A F J L C S S D D J D K N R W W B P P B P S D D H W H E R O A E A A Z E E A A O A U A E U O O A R L I A U I U S M R I V V M Y S S W Y H R E L B Z R R R A A C Y N N R S S N N I U I M H H O L V K K S Z T T N H T K T D C T E T S E A P P R G I E E E T E E E E A E S G H G R L S T G E N A A S S R R R E L R R Y L R O S S Y I G O L C I S N N K - A T R L A N - D - L - N - T L S K D D I J K J O M M J D S J - J L S G C J - - I E E - C R C F R E E B F P J T - H S J B M J - W - E D - - - C - R M M G R J J M A T D R R J A J - J - - C C J K J - A M A A A S A R - M M - - - R M J J P O O - J R A R - T - M R V J A - J J J K A M M I M M M H M K R K J E J A K A R J E R A M A M M P P A A A M E K E G R E R M K M M M T K R A R A S E E N R R A T E T 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 Level 5 0 1 2 4 7 4 3 5 8 9 5 7 6 8 2 6 7 3 9 0 2 1 4 1 6 3 8 ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6757 . . . . . . . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5652 . . . . XXX . . . . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4286 . . . . XXX . XXX . . XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4054 . . . . XXX . XXX . . XXX XXX . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3704 . . . . XXX . XXX . . XXX XXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.3571 . . . . XXX XXXXX . . XXX XXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.3333 . . . . XXX XXXXX . . XXXXXXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.2917 . . . . XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . . . XXX . . . . . 0.2857 . . . . XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . . . XXX . . XXX . 0.2800 . . . . XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXX . . XXX . 0.2727 . . XXX XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXX . . XXX . 0.2609 . . XXX XXX XXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.2581 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX . . . . XXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.2222 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . . XXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.1944 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXX . 0.1600 . . XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXXXX 0.1538 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXXXX 0.1471 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX . XXXXX 0.1463 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXX . XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1176 XXX XXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX 0.1000 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXX 0.0833 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.0588 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXX 0.0526 XXXXXXX XXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 0.0000 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

123

Appendix D: Co-citation network centrality analysis results BONACICH CENTRALITY ------------------------------------------------------------ Method: Slow Bonacich Eigenvector Centralities 1 2 Eigenvec nEigenvec --------- --------- 1 ARMSTRONG JS-J MARKETING RES-1977 0.187 26.399 2 BARNEY JB-J MANAGE-1991 0.276 38.962 3 BUZZELL RD-PIMS PRINCIPLES-1987 0.136 19.279 4 CAVUSGIL ST-J MARKETING-1994 0.146 20.676 5 CHURCHILL GA-J MARKETING RES-1979 0.104 14.680 6 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1988 0.219 31.017 7 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1994 0.368 52.065 8 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1989 0.167 23.673 9 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1993 0.223 31.501 10 DESS GG-STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT-1984 0.104 14.751 11 DICKSON PR-J MARKETING-1992 0.148 20.899 12 FORNELL C-J MARKETING RES-1981 0.151 21.375 13 HUNT SD-J MARKETING-1995 0.158 22.274 14 JAIN SC-J MARKETING-1989 0.109 15.422 15 JAWORSKI BJ-J MARKETING-1993 0.275 38.825 16 KOHLI AK-J MARKETING-1990 0.255 36.054 17 LEVITT T-HARVARD BUS REV-1983 0.090 12.781 18 NARVER JC-J MARKETING-1990 0.228 32.311 19 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG-1985 0.188 26.556 20 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE STRATEGY-1980 0.195 27.615 21 PRAHALAD CK-HARVARD BUS REV-1990 0.198 28.005 22 RUEKERT RW-J MARKETING-1987 0.102 14.480 23 SAMIEE S-J MARKETING-1992 0.130 18.318 24 SLATER SF-J MARKETING-1995 0.229 32.360 25 SZYMANSKI DM-J MARKETING-1993 0.155 21.990 26 WALKER OC-J MARKETING-1987 0.190 26.834 27 WEBSTER FE-J MARKETING-1992 0.110 15.621 28 WIND Y-J MARKETING-1983 0.140 19.819 FREEMAN BETWEENNESS CENTRALITY ------------------------------------------------------------------ Un-normalized centralization: 8.998 1 2 Betweenness nBetweenness ------------ ------------ 1 ARMSTRONG JS-J MARKETING RES-1977 1.178 0.336 2 BARNEY JB-J MANAGE-1991 1.178 0.336 3 BUZZELL RD-PIMS PRINCIPLES-1987 1.178 0.336 25 SZYMANSKI DM-J MARKETING-1993 1.178 0.336 19 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE ADVANTAG-1985 1.178 0.336 6 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1988 1.178 0.336 7 DAY GS-J MARKETING-1994 1.178 0.336 28 WIND Y-J MARKETING-1983 1.178 0.336 26 WALKER OC-J MARKETING-1987 1.178 0.336 20 PORTER ME-COMPETITIVE STRATEGY-1980 1.178 0.336 8 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1989 1.095 0.312 12 FORNELL C-J MARKETING RES-1981 0.997 0.284 21 PRAHALAD CK-HARVARD BUS REV-1990 0.989 0.282 4 CAVUSGIL ST-J MARKETING-1994 0.975 0.278 5 CHURCHILL GA-J MARKETING RES-1979 0.879 0.250 16 KOHLI AK-J MARKETING-1990 0.870 0.248 18 NARVER JC-J MARKETING-1990 0.870 0.248 23 SAMIEE S-J MARKETING-1992 0.824 0.235 22 RUEKERT RW-J MARKETING-1987 0.783 0.223 11 DICKSON PR-J MARKETING-1992 0.705 0.201 27 WEBSTER FE-J MARKETING-1992 0.574 0.164 10 DESS GG-STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT-1984 0.569 0.162 15 JAWORSKI BJ-J MARKETING-1993 0.483 0.138 14 JAIN SC-J MARKETING-1989 0.420 0.120 24 SLATER SF-J MARKETING-1995 0.394 0.112 9 DESHPANDE R-J MARKETING-1993 0.350 0.100 13 HUNT SD-J MARKETING-1995 0.305 0.087 17 LEVITT T-HARVARD BUS REV-1983 0.135 0.039