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7/24/2019 The Concept of Action in the Bhagvad-Gita
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THE CONCEPT OF ACTION IN THE BHAGVAD-GITA*
I
The Bhagvad Gita has been interpreted by its admirers in diverse
ways, and critical scholarship has estimated its worth in varying de-
grees. As a philosophico-religious document of ancient India it has
occupied a prominent place in the lives of millions. Scholars have
quarrelled over its central teaching. I t is not the intention of this
paper to enter into that controversy. This paper has the modest aim
of examining critically the Gita doctrine of Niskama-Karma as pro-
pounded in the text and then to offer an alternative theory which, in
my view, will be better suited to meet the demands and challenges of
a changing social situation.
In the light of the context and the setting in which the doctrine is
preached it is well-nigh safe to say that the Gita is an exhortation
to duty and a stirring call to action. Krishna undertakes the task of
persuading Arjuna to shake off inertia and perform his duty in a
manly way. This is supposed to be a moral persuasion because it is
aimed at convincing Arjuna and converting him on rational grounds.
The actual arguments may have a mixture of reason and emotional
appeal, but the impression given is that of rational justification for
moral action. I t is therefore set out as a philosophy of moral action.
However it is evident to any student of the Gita that moral action
there has not been conceived in isolation but is viewed in the larger
context firstly of a metaphysical commitment derived from proto-
Samkhya and Upanisadic doctrines and secondly of a theistic faith
in a personal God.
The Gita believes in status quo and sets a high value on social
stability. It accepts the established social order and derives the con
tent of duty from the caste structure and from the notion of differ-
ent stages of life. The ideal of lokasamagraha is held in high esteem
and Krishna appeals to Arjuna to act in its name. 111.
20 .
Its doc-
trine of Niskama-Karma or disinterested action can be understood
only in the light of the
ultimate end
which is conceived as Moksa.
Moksa means liberation of the empirical self from all bondage to
the not-self a total emancipation from the phenomenal world cul-
*Section I of this chapter appeared in the Quest no. 42 1964), 23-25 Calcutta, India,
under the title Doctrine of Niskama-Karma: An Alternative Interpretation. Reprinted
by permission of the editors of the Quest.
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6
PHILOSOPHY RESEARCHN D PHENOMENOLOGICAL
and void. Thus the Gita, in effect, encourages a kind of spiritual self-
consciousness which is inimical to moral action.
Secondly it is said that the Gita s doctrine of ethics is deonto-
logical since it e xh ~ r t s s to do our duties because they are duties
without regard to any consequences they lead to. This would work
only when we assume, as the Gita does, that the content of duty is
derived from the social organization and is in strict conformity with
svadharma
and
svabhava
However, in actual life moral situations are
always problematic and for their solution the existing code of duties
offers very little, if any, guidance at all. Such a problem is faced by
Arjuna as the opening Chapter of the Gita so ably dramatizes. Hence
the main issue is how to solve a moral problem and how to act
in a
moral situation. It appears to me that a rational appraisal and eval-
uation of the problem is called for in the light of the conditions
under which one is to act (here svadharma
and
svabhava
are rele-
vant) and in the light of the consequences which are likely to ensue
and which one thinks desirable or undesirable If this is admitted
then in order to resolve a moral problem one should act after a
proper appraisal of the situation to achieve the end or the goal which
rational reflection shows to be most desirable. In other words one
should have a firm commitment
to achieve the goal and should show
all the care and concern for its fulfilment. One would wonder what
exactly the Gita
means
by saying that one should not care for the
frui ts of one s actions (phalasa) in the performance of duty (11.
47,
48 .
If it means that one should not be commit ted to the fulfilment
of the goal then it is almost asking for the impossible as it would
undermine the very need for moral action.
It should not be forgotten that the Gita purports to offer
ui
dance in times of social and moral crisis. When one faces conflicting
obligations and is not able to decide between competing goods, and
in short, when one is confronted with a crisis of the spirit, one needs
to know what is the right thing to do. Arjuna faced such a crisis and
stood in need of enlightenment with respect to the right course to
follow in the specific situation portrayed in the Mahabharata. Now
it appears to me that while Arjuna s situation is revolutionary,
fraught with the gravest of consequences and is such that its moral
significance is uncertain and indeterminate, the advice given by
Krishna is in terms of a static code of duties determined by sva-
dharma. Certainly such a static code of duties is unfit to meet the
dynamic situation faced by Arjuna otherwise he would not have
asked for any moral advice at all. One has a feeling that the whole
tenor of the advice given by Krishna is in terms of a transcendental
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doctrine. Such an esoteric doctrine of an eternal Atman might have
been highly useful in infusing courage and in boosting up morale.
But it is evident that from the point of view of such metaphysical
heights all actions might be justified . Hence my contention is that
there is a disharmony between the changing character of a moral
situation and the unchanging eternal nature of the Reality in terms
of which advice is offered. Arjuna is not led by Krishna through a
rational reflection on the social and moral consequences of acting
one way or the other but is initiated in the mysteries of an esoteric
doctrine. And it is precisely because of this metaphysical intrusion
into the solution of a dynamic moral situation that the Gita preaches
a serene unconcern for and nonattachment to all consequences, per-
sonal or social. Is it because of an underlying assumption that a
right action must lead to right consequences?
On the other hand Krishna himself is deemed to have exhausted
all possibilities of a rapprochement in order to arrive a t an amicable
settlement between the contending parties. Having therefore con-
sidered the issue from all points of view and having weighed and
evaluated the consequences social and moral which might en-
sue by following the alternatives of fighting or not fighting, he should
have convinced himself of the superior worth and righteousness of
fighting the war in order to win it Unless therefore he was fully
committed to achieve the goal of winning the war and unless every-
thing was staked for bringing it to a successful conclusion there was
no point in fighting it and no hope for reestablishing dharma on
earth. We should not forget that Krishna, as tradition depicts him,
was a master strategist and a superb politician, and as such was
goal-oriented. The efficacy of persuading Arjuna to fight the war
and thus be goal-oriented on the basis of a doctrine which is highly
metaphysical and self-oriented is therefore highly doubtful.
This tension between the need for being goal-oriented and for
effective moral and social action to achieve a desirable social end on
the one hand, and the need for an ultimate concern for the serene
Atman on the other has characterised Indian culture ever since.
These have never been fully reconciled. In actual practice for the
vast mass of people it has meant either a lip service to the transcen-
dental self and a consequent withdrawal from the field of social and
moral action, or an opportunistic pursuit of selfish, individual goals.
In both cases it has been detrimental to effective social change for
the better and to some extent it accounts for the relatively static
character of Indian society.
Therefore a more sensible and fruitful interpretation of niskama-
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karma would be to hold that while we should be firmly
committed
to achieve the goal after a rational assessment of the situation, we
should not be so egoistically involved in the issue as to calculate
what, in terms of pleasure or pain, prosperity o r otherwise, will be
its likely effect on our personal fortunes. This is indeed the sine qua
non of all effective action as it brings out the best in human nature
and releases boundless sources of energy which might otherwise
have been frittered away in selfish calculations. Nonattachment in
this sense is certainly the most inspiring message we have from the
Gita. It is, I believe, an incorrect or at least a partial interpretation
of the doctrine of Niskama-Karma that has puzzled thinkers and
men of action alike who have drawn their inspiration from the Gita.
If the above distinction is kept in view then it will be perfectly legiti-
mate, nay morally indispensable to be
committed
to the fulfilment
of the goal and yet to be
detached
with respect to its effects on
personal fortunes.
This interpretation may not be wholly in line with the doctrine
as preached in the Gita but is certainly consistent with the practice
of Krishna a s mentioned in the
traditidnal texts.
I1
Let us now pass on to the general theory of action and the
related concepts of self and freedom as advocated by the Gita. Its
concept of duty or moral action is organically related to these other
concepts which function as a constant metaphysical backdrop to its
ethical doctrine. The Gita shares with all other traditional philosoph-
ical systems (with the sole exception of the
Carvaka
materialists) a
belief in what is known as the law of karma. It is amazing to find
that a popular version of the law of
karma
has become, through
the centuries, deeply embedded in the warp and woof of Indian
thought and culture. Briefly put, the doctrine of
karma
holds that
just as there is natural order where nothing happens without an
adequate cause, in the same way there is a moral order in which no
person can escape the consequences of one's actions
good, bad, or
indifferent. And this law is supposed to apply not only so long as a
man lives but it is operative in determining a person's future birth
after his death. Belief in a continuum of births and deaths samsara)
according to one's deeds is a pervasive one in Indian culture. Though
there has been no attempt at a rigorous rational justification or
proof f or the existence of such a law, there have been some consid'er-
ations which have led Indian thinkers to believe in such doctrine.
The most obvious factor in producing such a belief is the dramatic
sight of gross inequalities in the personal fortunes of human beings
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which could not; it was supposed, be accounted for b y known fac-
tors in their present lives. And therefore, -the law of karma with a
belief in a succession of bir ths and deaths was postulated to explain
the varying fortunes of various human beings. The Gita, not being a
systematic pMlosophica1 work, wavers between two possible inter-
pretations of the doctrine of karma,Some passages (IV.
9
and VI.
40-
45 suggest that the bonds of karma produce their effects automat-
ically by their own inherent potencies and that the present configur-
ation of the world is due to the effect of karma. Other passages (XVI.
19 point out that it is God who reward s and punishes bad deeds of
persons and brings out the good and bad births associated therewith.
The doctrine, shorn of its metaphysical overtones; derives its plausi-
bility from some obvious emyirical observations and considerations.
It is commonplace to find that our words, thoughts, and d d s a v e
an impress on our character and shape our destiny in some form. No-
body remains the,same for having said, thought, or done something.
Knowingly or unknowingly, wittingly or unwittingly, we are forging
our habits of thought and action. In this manner one cannot escape
the effect of one s thoughts and actions on one s life, and it is pure
fancy to think otherwise. Secondly, though all thoughts and actions
are personal and individual, they are embedded in a social situation
and have social consequences some of which are determiaable
while others remain nebulous and ambiguous. Therefore, in this
sense also our. deeds bring about natural and social consequences
including responses from other human beings. It may be legitimate
to hold that the consequences of our deeds, in these two senses, fol-
low us as naturally as the night follows the .day.
The question is whether these obvious empirical considerations
constitute an adequa te ground for sue
a
belief. In the absence of
decisive empirical evidence for remembering the experiences of one s
previous existence it is difficult to answer the question in the affir-
mative. Moreover, the supposed existence in previous births runs
into the difficult conceptual problems of the nature of the self, per-
sonal identity, and the mechanism of carrying memories from one
birth to another together with the problem of their mutual relation-
ship. This is not all. The hypothesis of karma has to sort out the
notions of good and bad deeds, right and wrong actions and relate
1
I am aware of the empirical research being done in various countries-of the world
on the alleged hypothesis of reincarnation. In connection with the whole field of psychi-
c l research a recent book Psychic Discoveries ehind the Iron Curtain by Sheila
Ostrander and Lynn Schroeder makes interesting reading. It has been published by
Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs N. J. in 1970.
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them to the jays and sorrows, pleasures and pains, and the various
ups and' downs of life. It has to disentangle and illuminate the intri-
cate web of human existence with its tragedies and comedies, and its
well-nigh unintelligible contingencies and vicissitudes. Faced with
such a stupendous task the Indian thinkers of the ancient past (in-
cluding the author of the Gita) adopted, on the one hand, a static
concept of right action in terms of conventional class duties and
caste duties (svadharma and svabhava), and on the other hand,
resorted' to a metaphysical explanation for the gross inequalities and
manifest injustices of human life in terms of the operation of a mys-
terious law of karma. Even the historical Buddha who rejected
traditional caste-ism and broomed away the mystical lore of Vedic
sacrifices, accepted uncritically the so-called law of karma. We can
therefore discern in traditional Indian thought and culture a peculiar
combination of static social morality with an individual quest for
transcendence of the whole social order for the attainment of ulti-
mate freedom (moksa or nirvana) which is supposed to terminate
the whole cycle of births and' deaths(samsara). Historically speaking
such a combination led to the total neglect of a historical and dynam-
ic analysis of society and morals. The sages of the Upanisads, the
author of the Gita and the historical Buddha truly recognized change
and flux as a pervasive feature of natural and social reality. But in-
stead of analyzing these changes in terms of natural and socio-
economic and historical factors so as to guide these towards con-
sciously adopted desirable goals, they ridiculed and devaluated the
whole flux of natural and social order as mere phenomenon to be
transcended by the attainment of ultimate freedom thus leaving
the changing world without an intelligent control and guidance. No
wonder they discovered the cause of man's varying fortunes and mis-
fortunes in his ignorance (avidya) of ultimate reality, of the trans-
cendent self or of nirvana. Thus a metaphysical cause (Ignorance of
reality) was substituted for a slow, careful, and painstaking analysis
of economic, political, social, and historical factors which determined
the fate of millions. They adopted a wholesale metaphysical remedy
for the evils of the temporal world of change namely, a withdraw-
al of personal involvement in social affairs together with the perfor-
mance of fixed static caste duties in a mechanical but nonattached
manner. This heightened and intensified awareness of one's own
transcendental freedom (moksa) meant in practica either sheer hypo-
crisy or a passive acceptance of one's fate according to the mysteri-
ous operation of the law of karma. Was such an attitude caused by
the tropical climate of India or by an inveterate metaphysical trait
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4
HECONCEPT BHAGVAD-GITA
F ACTIONIN THE
of the Aryan mind in search of ultimate intelligibility, or by a com-
bination of these factors? Or was it after all a result of a failure of
nerve in the face of rapid social and political changes involving mil-
lions of human beings? However it may have come about i t gave to
Indian thought and culture an unhistorical, static, and a transtempo-
ral character. The alleged individual pursuit of the ideal of a trans-
temporal freedom has diverted much-needed attention from the ur-
gent task of intelligent and cooperative action for bringing about de-
sirable social change.
No
wonder, the pace of social change in India
has remained to this day terribly and exasperatingly slow. This might
have given rise to its social backwardness and economic poverty
which in turn should have confirmed a fatalistic belief in the law of
karma
to explain away the miseries and misfortunes of an untold
number of people. Such a circular c a u s a 1 t y has become almost
chronic and vicious.
It will be seen that the foregoing analysis is justified in the light
of the concepts of self, action, and freedom as put forward by the
Gita. The Gita borrows from the Upanisads2 the concept of two selves
the empirical and the transcendental (11. 17 20, 22, 24, 25; XIII.
32). It holds that the empirical self
J iva )
is caught up in the causal
nexus and is subject to the cycle of births and d e t h s s amsa ra )
while the real self remains eternally free, transcendent, pure, and
unaffeoted by the temporal concerns of the former. While the Gita has
not worked out the theoretical problem of the relation between these
two selves (indeed it is doubtful whyther this problem in its tradi-
tional formulation can ever be solved satisfactorily) yet it says that
one should lift oneself by one's own efforts and should not degrade
oneself because one's own self is one's friend and one's own self is
one's enemy (VI. 5-6). The Gita, however, repeatedly points out that
though the ultimate ideal is the attainment of transcendent freedom,
yet there is no escape from the performance of one's social duties.
Traditional class duties cannot be circumvented and the social order
is
a
sine qua non of any quest for transcendence. In this manner the
Upanisadic
ideal of pure, and uncompromising transcendence has
been toned down by a recognition of the unavoidable importance of
the performance of social duties. As pointed out above it suggests
tha; one can attain such a freedom by performing one's class duties
in a spirit of nonattachment to the personal and social consequences
of the action. Whether such a combination of the contemplative and
the active ideals is possible or not is a practical question. But the ad-
Cf. Katha, 11. 18-20 20-5; 111. 3 4 7-8 10-15;
lso
Mundaka 111, 1. 1 3.
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vocacy of combining an individual quest for transtemporal freedom
with complete disregard of social consequences is fraught with the
g r e a t e s t danger. Nonattached performance of mechanically fixed
class duties may come into conflict with some universal duties
sa -
dharana dharma) such as eschewing needless violence to the inno-
cent. As a matter of faclt Arjuna sought the advice of Krishna specifi-
cally because he saw a conflict between the performance of the du-
ties of his class (which was to fight the war) and the common duty
of avoiding bloodshed on a vast scale. It is significant to note that
Krishna advises him to give preference to the performance of his
class duty to fight in a spirit of nonattachment to personal and social
consequences, and leave the rest to God. For, in the view of the Gita,
no harm can come to such a person. Nay, he attains his highest goal
liberation from the endless cycle of births and deaths. Thus it may
happen that such a hyperconsciousness and concern about one's indi-
vidual spiritual freedom can lead to the most tragic and violent con-
sequences. No wonder, in modern times Mahatma Gandhi interpreted
the Gita apologetically in a nonviolent way suggesting that the fratri-
cidal war as depicted in the Mahabharata is not an historical one b,=t
only a symbolic one i.e., between one's lower self and the higher
self.
What then is Gita's general theory of action? What is an act?
account of action in general is intertwined with its concept of ris.
action. I t says: He who perceives inaction in action and action in in-
action, has among men attained real knowledge; even while perform-
ing all action he is doing Yoga (IV. 18 . The first point to note here
is that it is the empirical self, strictly speaking, which is involved in
action or inaction. The transcendental self is eternally free from all
entanglements with action or inaction. The empirical self with the
mind, the senses, and the body, goes round and round in an endless
cycle of doing and undergoing reaping good or bad consequences.
It is caught up in the causal nexus and action cycle because it is a
part of
Prakrti
the primal matter, whose
gunas
(the characteristic
qualities) perform actions everywhere. It is through ignorance of the
true state of affairs and consequent false pride that one thinks him-
self to be an agent (111. 27; XIII. 29 . The real self never acts or un-
dergoes any change. Therefore when it exhorts us to perceive inac-
tion in action it means that we ought to renounce selfish involve-
ment and adopt an inner atti tude of mental equipoise and detach-
ment while we are actively engaged in pursuing in the most intense
manner the performance of our alloted duties. And when it asks us to
perceive action in inaction it means that when we are externally
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43
HECONCEPTF
CTION
I N T H E BHAGVAD-GITA
inactive (refraining from doing anything overtly) we may still be
mentally attached to selfish desires and may a l l ~ whem to run riot
without any internal control. Thus in this verse the author of the
Gita mixes a moral ought or an exhortation and recommendation
in the first part (in exhorting us to perceive inaction in action )
with a factual analysis of what may be happening when one is exter-
nally inactive in the second part (in asking us to perceive action in
inaction ). Such a mixing of a descriptive analysis of action with a
prescriptive advice as to what one ought to do is a pervasive feature
of the Gita's theory of action. It tells us time and again that the soul
(or the real self) never acts, nor is it concerned with the fruits of ac-
tion (V. 14; XIII. 32 . It maintains that in reality all actions including
reflex, instindive, impulsive, and intentionally willed ones are made
to happen primarily through the movements of the gunas of Prakrti
(primal matter)3 and secondarily through the c o 11 o c a t i o n of five
causes, viz., the body, the agent, the various sense organs, the various
sensorimotor activities, and the unknown objective causal elements
or tne power of God (XVIII. 14). It tells us that he, who has realized
that there is no agency other than the three qualities of Prakrti
(Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas) and has understood the nature of the
transcendent self beyond these qualities, ultimately attains commun-
ion with God (XIV. 19). Thus because of a metaphysical doctrine of
the real self derived from the Upanisads, the Gita blurs the distinc-
tion between reflex and instinctive behavioral reaction on the one
hand, and a willed intentional action on the other. Both are caused
by the gunas or the five factors. They are made to happen. The spon-
taneity, innovative initiative, and intentionality of an active self are
undermined. What becomes of human choice and freedom? As a mat-
ter of fact there is no analysis of the concept of freedom of the em-
pirical self at all. On the one hand it makes much of the eternal free-
dom of the transcendent self which, however, is irrelevant to the em-
pirical issues of the freedom to choose and act in the light of con-
sciously adopted ends; and on the other it subjects all activity of the
empirical self to the causality of the three gunas of primal matter.
And yet paradoxically it exhorts and persuades empirical selves to do
thdr alloted duties in the spirit o nonattachment. I t attempts to rea-
son out Arjuna from the mood of despondency and despair, and
rouse him to manly action. But the reason is not a moral one but a
metaphysical one, viz., that the issue has already been decided by
God in the light of the Karmas of the contestants. Arjuna has to be-
3 Gita V. 14; XIII. 30, 32; XIV. 5
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HECONCEPTF CTION
I N
T H E BHAGVAPGITA
they gave an innovating interpretation to the doctrine of the Gita. In
order to make the teaching of the Gita relevant to the problems of
controlled social change one should steer clear between the two ex-
tremes of radical and romantic freedom of the transcendent self, and
the rigid determinism of the empirical self. To be free to decide and
choose and act in a morally and socially significant sense is to take
note of the natural and social conditions of human existence and to
make use of one s own habits, tendencies, and capacities in order to
redirect natural and social processes towards the attainment of de-
sirable goals. It is in this sense of a dynamic awareness of the subjec-
tive and objective conditions alone that the self acquires a creative
edge and becomes a ceqter of spontaneity. I t truly gets poised to dis-
card much of the dead weight of the useless past, to separate the
kernel from the husk, and act in a responsible manner without com-
promising what is best in the past and the present in order to forge
the future that is full of promise and possibility. Reinterpreted in this
manner alone can the classical theory of action of the Bhagvad-Gita
be made relevant to the problems of contemporary India.
C MATHUR