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836
The Civil Rights Era
1954ndash1973Why It Matters
In the 1950s a tide of protest began to rise in America against deeply rooted attitudesof racism and discrimination The campaign for equality grew and gained momentum
in the 1960s Although the civil rights movement could not overcome all the obstaclesit achieved some great and long-lasting successes
The Impact TodayInspired by the movements of the 1950s and 1960s many Americans work to secure full
rights for all citizens
The American Journey Video The chapter 29 video ldquoBeyond Prejudicerdquoexamines what it was like to be a young adult during the civil rights movement
1954bull Brown v Board of Education ruling
1955bull Montgomery bus
boycott begins
1963bull President Kennedy assassinated
1964bull Civil Rights Act
passed
1954bull French forced
out of Vietnam
1959bull Fidel Castro seizes
power in Cuba
Eisenhower1953ndash1961
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
1955 1960 1965
Kennedy1961ndash1963
Johnson1963ndash1969
1962bull Algeria gains
independencefrom France
1964bull Nelson Mandela
receives life sentencein South Africa
null
43572304
837
1970bull Grape workers gain increased
pay and better conditions
1971bull Floppy disk introduced
1972bull Britain imposes direct rule
on Northern Ireland
bull Terrorists kill Israeli Olympic athletes
HISTORY
Chapter OverviewVisit tajglencoecom andclick on Chapter 29mdashChapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information
March on Washington On August 28 1963 more than 200000 peoplegathered to urge support for civil rights legislation
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
1970 1975
1967bull First heart transplant
performed in South Africa
1968bull Dr Martin Luther King Jr
assassinated
bull Indian Civil Rights Act passed
Nixon1969ndash1974
The Civil Rights EraWomenrsquos Rights
Hispanic AmericansNative Americans
Americans with DisabilitiesAfrican Americans
Step 1 Collect 3 sheets of paper and placethem about 1 inch apart
Identifying Main Ideas Study FoldableMake and use this foldable to identify the majorissues about the Civil Rights era and to classifyinformation under those topics
Reading and Writing As you read the chapterwrite (under each appropriate tab) what you learnabout the struggle for civil rights by differentgroups of Americans
Step 2 Fold up the bottom edges of the paperto form 6 tabs
Step 3 When all the tabs are the same sizefold the paper to hold the tabs in place andstaple the sheets together Turn the paper andlabel each tab as shown
Keep theedges straight
Stapletogether along
the fold
This makesall tabs thesame size
1954Supreme Court strikes downsegregation in education
1955Rosa Parks is arrestedMontgomery bus boycott begins
1957Dr Martin Luther King Jr heads SCLC Federal troops help integratea Little Rock high school
Main IdeaDespite obstacles African Americanspressed for equal rights
Key Termssegregation integrate boycott civildisobedience
Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readthe section re-create the diagrambelow and describe the roles thesepeople played in the civil rights movement
Read to Learnbull how a Supreme Court decision
helped African Americans in theirstruggle for equal rights
bull why Dr Martin Luther King Jremerged as a leader
Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesAfrican Americans organized in aneffort to secure equal rights
The Civil Rights Movement
Jackie Robinson could do everything on a baseball fieldmdashhit singles slam homeruns and speed from base to base Robinson was the first African American to playmajor league baseball When his team the Brooklyn Dodgers reached the WorldSeries in 1947 Robinson recalled ldquoI experienced a completely new emotion when theNational Anthem was played This time I thought it is being played for me as much asfor anyone elseldquo
Equality in EducationAfrican Americans had suffered from racism and discrimination in the
United States since colonial times As the nation entered the second half of thetwentieth century many African Americans believed that the time had come forthem to enjoy an equal place in American life They fought for equal opportu-nities in jobs housing and education They also fought against segregationmdashthe separation of people of different races
838 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Jackie Robinson baseball card
Roles
Linda Brown
Rosa Parks
Martin Luther King JrPreview of Events
Guide to Reading
1954 1955 1956 1957
null
62642128
839CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
The Brown DecisionThe NAACP (National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People) had worked onbehalf of African Americans since its founding in1909 In the 1950s NAACP lawyers searched forcases they could use to challenge the laws allow-ing the segregation of public education
The Supreme Court had upheld segregationlaws in the past In 1896 in Plessy v Ferguson ithad ruled that ldquoseparate but equalrdquo public facil-ities were legal Thurgood Marshall the chieflawyer for the NAACP decided to challenge theidea of ldquoseparate but equalrdquo The NAACP beganto decide which among the nationrsquos segregatedschool districts to bring before the Court Seven-year-old African American Linda Brown wasnot permitted to attend an all-white elementary
school just blocks from her house The Brownfamily sued the school system but lost Marshalland the NAACP appealed the case all the way tothe Supreme Court
The case of Brown v Board of Education of Topeka Kansas combined with several simi-lar cases reached the Supreme Court in Decem-ber 1952 Marshall argued that segregatedschools were not and could not be equal towhite schools For that reason segregatedschools violated the Fourteenth Amendment
On May 17 1954 the Court unanimouslyruled in Brown v Board of Education of TopekaKansas that it was unconstitutional to separateschoolchildren by race The Brown decisionreversed the Courtrsquos decision in Plessy v Fergu-son (See page 997 for a summary of the Brown decision)
N
S
EW
500 kilometers0
500 miles0
Azimuthal Equidistant projection
100degW110degW 90degW 80degW
30degN
40degN
ATLaNTIC
OCEaN
PaCIFIC
OCEaN
Gulf ofMexico
WASH
OREGON
CALIF
NEVADA
IDAHO
MONTANA
WYOMING
UTAH
ARIZONA
COLORADO
NEWMEXICO
NORTHDAKOTA
SOUTHDAKOTA
NEBRASKA
KANSAS
OKLA
TEXAS
MINN
IOWA
MO
ARK
LA
WIS
ILL
MICH
IND OHIO
KY
TENN
MISS ALA GA
FLA
SC
NC
VAWVA
PA
NY
MAINEVTNH
MASS
RICONN
NJDELMD
CANADA
MEXICO
School segregation was treated differently in various parts of the United States1 Region In how many states were schools
segregated by law2 Analyzing Information In what region
was segregation predominant
Segregation in United States Schools 1950
Segregated by law
Local districts decided
Segregation prohibited
No specific legislation
null
9670425
840 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Integrating the SchoolsThe Courtrsquos decision in Brown v Board of Edu-
cation called on school authorities to make plansfor integratingmdashbringing races togethermdashinpublic schools The Court also ordered that inte-gration was to be carried out ldquowith all deliberatespeedrdquomdashas fast as reasonably possible
Some school systems integrated quicklyHowever in parts of the South local leadersvowed to keep African American children out ofwhite schools A clash between the federal gov-ernment and these states seemed unavoidable
Confrontation in Little RockIn 1957 a federal judge ordered Central High
School in Little Rock Arkansas an all-whiteschool to admit African American studentsArkansas governor Orval Faubus opposed inte-gration In September he called out the statersquosNational Guard to prevent African Americansfrom entering the high school
On the first day of classes armed members ofthe National Guard blocked the schoolrsquos entranceand turned away nine African American students
One of them 15-year-old Elizabeth Eckfordrecalled that when she tried to squeeze past amember of the guard
ldquoHe raised his bayonet and then the otherguards moved in and raised their bayonetsrdquo
For the first time since the Civil War a South-ern state had defied the authority of the federalgovernment Although Eisenhower had somedoubts about the Brown decision he believed itwas his duty to enforce the law The presidentwarned Faubus that if the governor did notadmit the students the federal governmentwould act
When a federal judge ruled that the governorhad violated federal law Faubus removed theNational Guard Eisenhower sent hundreds ofsoldiers to Little Rock to patrol the schoolgrounds and protect the students Shielded bythe federal troops the nine African Americanstudents entered the school
Explaining What did the SupremeCourt rule in Brown v Board of Education
Elizabeth Eckford (center) braves the insults ofwhite citizens to enter Central High School in LittleRock Arkansas How did President Eisenhowerrespond to the crisis in Little Rock
History
null
116869736
841CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
title FPO
Gains on Other FrontsWhile school integration continued African
Americans made other advances in securing theirrights More and more took part in a movementdedicated to securing fair and equal treatment
The Montgomery Bus BoycottOn the evening of December 1 1955 Rosa
Parks boarded a bus in downtown MontgomeryAlabama Parks a seamstress was secretary ofthe local chapter of the NAACP She found anempty seat in the section reserved for whites
When white passengers entered the bus thedriver told Parks an African American tomove to the rear of the bus Parks refused Atthe next bus stop she was taken off the bus bypolice arrested for breaking the law and fined$10 The episode could have ended theremdashbutit did not
Rosa Parksrsquos arrest led African Americans inMontgomery to organize a boycottmdasha refusal tousemdashthe cityrsquos buses The boycott organizershoped to hurt the city financially and force it toalter its policies They had strength in num-bersmdashalmost 75 percent of the bus companyrsquosriders were African American
At a boycott meeting a young Baptist minis-ter came forward to speak Not widely known atthe time Dr Martin Luther King Jr made animpact on the crowd He declared
ldquoWersquore here because first and foremost weare American citizens and we are determined toacquire our citizenship to the fullness of itsmeaning We are tiredmdashtired of being segre-gated and humiliated tired of being kickedabout by the brutal feet of oppressionrdquo
The boycott upset many peoplersquos daily livesbut the African Americans of Montgomerypulled together to make it work Students hitch-hiked to school workers walked or rode bikes totheir jobs King helped organize car pools toshuttle people from place to place
The bus boycott lasted for more than a yearCity officials arrested King and other leaders atdifferent times but African Americans heldfirm The local bus company lost thousands ofdollars in fares and downtown businesses lostcustomers Finally the Supreme Court settledthe matter by ruling that the Montgomery bussegregation law was unconstitutional InDecember 1956 the boycott ended
After the Montgomerybus boycott Dr MartinLuther King Jr emergedas the leader of theAfrican American protestmovement What drovehim into this demandingrole in history
The son of a Baptistminister King attendedMorehouse College andwhen he was 18 years olddecided on a career in the
ministry By the time hefirst arrived in Mont-gomery in September1954 as pastor of the Dexter Avenue BaptistChurch he had also metand married Coretta Scott
From the beginning ofthe Montgomery bus boy-cott King encouraged his followers to use non-violent resistance Thismeant that those who
carried out the demon-strations should not fightwith authorities In spiteof his stand on nonvio-lence King often becamethe target of violence
In April 1968 Kingwas in Memphis Ten-nessee to support astrike of sanitation work-ers There the ministerwas shot while standingon a motel balcony
null
13546861
Nonviolent ProtestWith the victory in Montgomery King
became a leader of the civil rights movementHe followed the tactics of A Philip Randolphthe nationrsquos most prominent African Americanlabor leader King was also strongly influencedby Mohandas Gandhi who had used nonvio-lent protest to help India gain independencefrom Great Britain In keeping with his beliefsGandhi used protest methods based on civildisobedience or the refusal to obey laws thatare considered unjust
In January 1957 King and 60 other ministersstarted a new organization called the SouthernChristian Leadership Conference (SCLC)SCLC leaders emphasized nonviolent protestThey showed civil rights workers how to protectthemselves from violent attacks The SCLC alsodiscussed how to identify targets for protests andhow to organize people for support In takingthese steps the SCLC prepared African Ameri-cans for the struggle for equal rights
Describing How did the Montgomery bus boycott begin
842 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
May Dec Jan Sept 1954 1955 1957 1957
bull 1955 Rosa Parks is arrested
bull 1955 Montgomery bus boycottbegins
bull 1957 Conflict at Little Rock
bull 1957 SCLC is organized
bull 1960 Students stage sit-ins
bull 1963 March on Washington DC
bull 1962 James Meredith enrolls at University of Mississippi
bull 1967 Thurgood Marshall appointedto Supreme Court
bull 1968 Shirley Chisholm elected toHouse of Representatives
bull 1972 Barbara Jordan elected to Congress
African Americans faced many obstacles in their struggle for equal rightsAnalyzing Information What protest followed the arrest of Rosa Parks
Checking for Understanding1 Key Terms Use these terms in sen-
tences that explain important eventsin the civil rights movement segregation integrate boycottcivil disobedience
2 Reviewing Facts Name theSupreme Court decision that bannedsegregation in education
Reviewing Themes3 Civic Rights and Responsibilities
How did the Montgomery bus boy-cott end
Critical Thinking4 Drawing Conclusions Why do you
think Dr Martin Luther King Jrbelieved nonviolent protest was themost effective course to gain civilrights
5 Sequencing Information Re-createthe time line below and list importantevents in the civil rights movement inthe 1950s
Analyzing Visuals 6 Examine the map on page 839 In
what states did local school districtsdecide whether schools were inte-grated or not In what states in thefar northwest was segregation prohibited
Descriptive Writing Write a songto be sung at a civil rights marchBase your lyrics on the story of RosaParks and her courage the night ofher arrest
Nonviolent ProtestWith the victory in Montgomery King
became a leader of the civil rights movementHe followed the tactics of A Philip Randolphthe nationrsquos most prominent African Americanlabor leader King was also strongly influencedby Mohandas Gandhi who had used nonvio-lent protest to help India gain independencefrom Great Britain In keeping with his beliefsGandhi used protest methods based on civildisobedience or the refusal to obey laws thatare considered unjust
In January 1957 King and 60 other ministersstarted a new organization called the SouthernChristian Leadership Conference (SCLC)SCLC leaders emphasized nonviolent protestThey showed civil rights workers how to protectthemselves from violent attacks The SCLC alsodiscussed how to identify targets for protests andhow to organize people for support In takingthese steps the SCLC prepared African Ameri-cans for the struggle for equal rights
Describing How did the Montgomery bus boycott begin
842 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
May Dec Jan Sept 1954 1955 1957 1957
bull 1955 Rosa Parks is arrested
bull 1955 Montgomery bus boycottbegins
bull 1957 Conflict at Little Rock
bull 1957 SCLC is organized
bull 1960 Students stage sit-ins
bull 1963 March on Washington DC
bull 1962 James Meredith enrolls at University of Mississippi
bull 1967 Thurgood Marshall appointedto Supreme Court
bull 1968 Shirley Chisholm elected toHouse of Representatives
bull 1972 Barbara Jordan elected to Congress
African Americans faced many obstacles in their struggle for equal rightsAnalyzing Information What protest followed the arrest of Rosa Parks
Checking for Understanding1 Key Terms Use these terms in sen-
tences that explain important eventsin the civil rights movement segregation integrate boycottcivil disobedience
2 Reviewing Facts Name theSupreme Court decision that bannedsegregation in education
Reviewing Themes3 Civic Rights and Responsibilities
How did the Montgomery bus boy-cott end
Critical Thinking4 Drawing Conclusions Why do you
think Dr Martin Luther King Jrbelieved nonviolent protest was themost effective course to gain civilrights
5 Sequencing Information Re-createthe time line below and list importantevents in the civil rights movement inthe 1950s
Analyzing Visuals 6 Examine the map on page 839 In
what states did local school districtsdecide whether schools were inte-grated or not In what states in thefar northwest was segregation prohibited
Descriptive Writing Write a songto be sung at a civil rights marchBase your lyrics on the story of RosaParks and her courage the night ofher arrest
null
66038086
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
Mrs Bertha Flowers was thearistocrat of Black StampsShe had the grace of con-
trol to appear warm in the coldestweather and on the Arkansas sum-mer days it seemed she had a pri-vate breeze which swirled aroundcooling her
She was one of the few gentle-women I have ever known and hasremained throughout my life themeasure of what a human beingcan be
Momma had a strange relation-ship with her Most often when she passed on the road in front ofthe Store she spoke to Momma inthat soft yet carrying voice ldquoGoodday Mrs Hendersonrdquo Mommaresponded with ldquoHow you SisterFlowersrdquo
Mrs Flowers didnrsquot belong toour church nor was she Mommarsquosfamiliar Why on earth did sheinsist on calling her Sister Flow-ers Shame made me want to hide
my face Mrs Flowers deservedbetter than to be called SisterThen Momma left out the verbWhy not ask ldquoHow are youMrs Flowersrdquo With the unbal-anced passion of the young Ihated her for showing herignorance to Mrs Flowers Itdidnrsquot occur to me for manyyears that they were as alikeas sisters separated only byformal education
Occasionally though Mrs Flow-ers would drift off the road anddown to the Store and Mommawould say to me ldquoSister you go onand playrdquo As I left I would hear thebeginning of an intimate conversa-tion Momma persistently using thewrong verb or none at all
I heard the soft-voiced MrsFlowers and the textured voice ofmy grandmother merging and melt-ing They were interrupted fromtime to time by giggles that musthave come from Mrs Flowers
She acted just as refined aswhitefolks in the movies and booksand she was more beautiful fornone of them could have come nearthat warm color without lookinggray by comparison
From I Know Why the Caged Bird Singsby Maya Angelou Copyright copy 1969 byMaya Angelou Reprinted by permissionof Random House Inc
Her World byPhilip Evergood
843
ANALYZING LITERATURE1 Recall and Interpret Describe
the relationship between Mommaand Mrs Flowers
2 Evaluate and Connect Do youthink you would like Mrs FlowersExplain
Interdisciplinary ActivityInformative Writing Write a one-page sketch describing an encounteryou had with a person who influ-enced your life in a positive way
Maya Angelou (1928ndash )Maya Angelouborn in 1928has writtenpoetry fictionand plays BornMargueriteJohnson
Angelou and her brother Bailey were raised by theirgrandmother Annie Hender-son the owner of a generalstore in Stamps Arkansas
READ TO DISCOVERIn the following excerpt fromAngeloursquos autobiography she isabout 10 years old Bright butpainfully self-conscious she hasbecome withdrawn and refusesto speak to anyone As youread pay attention to theactions of the characters
READERrsquoS DICTIONARYfamiliar close friend or
associate
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
Mrs Bertha Flowers was thearistocrat of Black StampsShe had the grace of con-
trol to appear warm in the coldestweather and on the Arkansas sum-mer days it seemed she had a pri-vate breeze which swirled aroundcooling her
She was one of the few gentle-women I have ever known and hasremained throughout my life themeasure of what a human beingcan be
Momma had a strange relation-ship with her Most often when she passed on the road in front ofthe Store she spoke to Momma inthat soft yet carrying voice ldquoGoodday Mrs Hendersonrdquo Mommaresponded with ldquoHow you SisterFlowersrdquo
Mrs Flowers didnrsquot belong toour church nor was she Mommarsquosfamiliar Why on earth did sheinsist on calling her Sister Flow-ers Shame made me want to hide
my face Mrs Flowers deservedbetter than to be called SisterThen Momma left out the verbWhy not ask ldquoHow are youMrs Flowersrdquo With the unbal-anced passion of the young Ihated her for showing herignorance to Mrs Flowers Itdidnrsquot occur to me for manyyears that they were as alikeas sisters separated only byformal education
Occasionally though Mrs Flow-ers would drift off the road anddown to the Store and Mommawould say to me ldquoSister you go onand playrdquo As I left I would hear thebeginning of an intimate conversa-tion Momma persistently using thewrong verb or none at all
I heard the soft-voiced MrsFlowers and the textured voice ofmy grandmother merging and melt-ing They were interrupted fromtime to time by giggles that musthave come from Mrs Flowers
She acted just as refined aswhitefolks in the movies and booksand she was more beautiful fornone of them could have come nearthat warm color without lookinggray by comparison
From I Know Why the Caged Bird Singsby Maya Angelou Copyright copy 1969 byMaya Angelou Reprinted by permissionof Random House Inc
Her World byPhilip Evergood
843
ANALYZING LITERATURE1 Recall and Interpret Describe
the relationship between Mommaand Mrs Flowers
2 Evaluate and Connect Do youthink you would like Mrs FlowersExplain
Interdisciplinary ActivityInformative Writing Write a one-page sketch describing an encounteryou had with a person who influ-enced your life in a positive way
Maya Angelou (1928ndash )Maya Angelouborn in 1928has writtenpoetry fictionand plays BornMargueriteJohnson
Angelou and her brother Bailey were raised by theirgrandmother Annie Hender-son the owner of a generalstore in Stamps Arkansas
READ TO DISCOVERIn the following excerpt fromAngeloursquos autobiography she isabout 10 years old Bright butpainfully self-conscious she hasbecome withdrawn and refusesto speak to anyone As youread pay attention to theactions of the characters
READERrsquoS DICTIONARYfamiliar close friend or
associate
null
18014236
Main IdeaJohn Kennedyrsquos New Frontier andLyndon Johnsonrsquos Great Society weregovernment programs to fightpoverty help cities and schools andpromote civil rights
Key Terms poverty line Medicare Medicaid
Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section re-create the diagrambelow and list four programs thatwere part of the War on Poverty
Read to Learnbull what the goals were for Kennedyrsquos
New Frontierbull what new programs were created
as part of the Great Society
Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Presi-dents Kennedy and Johnson pro-posed increased spending on socialprograms
Kennedy and Johnson
844 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
They stood together on the inaugural platform 43-year-old John F Kennedymdashtanned vigorous and coatless despite the subfreezing weathermdashand 70-year-oldDwight D Eisenhower wearing a muffler looking like a tired general The appearancesof the two men a generation apart in age symbolized the change of leadershipKennedyrsquos speech promised so much ldquoLet every nation know that we shall pay anyprice bear any burden meet any hardship support any friend oppose any foe toassure the survival and the success of liberty rdquo
Election of 1960By 1960 the crusade for civil rights had become a national movement
Against this background the nation prepared for a presidential election TheRepublican candidate Vice President Richard M Nixon pledged to continuethe policies of President Eisenhower The Democratic candidate John FKennedy promised new programs to ldquoget the country moving againrdquo
1960 presidentialcampaign items
War on Poverty
Jan 1961John F Kennedy takesoffice as president
Nov 1963Kennedy is assassinated
Jan 1964President Johnson announces war on poverty
July 1964Civil Rights Act of 1964 is passed
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
1960 1962 1964 1966
null
71314545
845CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
For much of the campaign polls showedNixon in the lead One reason for this was thefact that Kennedy was Roman Catholic NoCatholic had ever been president and manyAmericans feared that if Kennedy won he mightshow more loyalty to his church than to hiscountry Kennedy answered by stressing hisbelief in the separation of church and state
John F KennedyKennedy came from one of the countryrsquos
wealthiest and most powerful families Hisfather Joseph P Kennedy was a successful busi-ness leader and the American ambassador toBritain at the start of World War II
John Kennedy joined the United States Navyduring World War II and was assigned toactive duty in the Pacific When the Japanesesank the PT (patrol torpedo) boat he com-manded Kennedy saved the life of a crewmember by swimming to shore with theinjured man on his back The rescue effort ledto navy and marine medals for Kennedy butalso aggravated an old back injury he had Thestory of the rescue was later described inRobert Donovanrsquos book PT 109
Kennedyrsquos political career began in 1946when he won a seat in Congress from Massa-chusetts Six years later he was elected to theUnited States Senate The young senator wrote abook Profiles in Courage which described diffi-cult political decisions made by past UnitedStates senators The book became a best-seller
and received a Pulitzer Prize After easily win-ning reelection to the Senate in 1958 Kennedycampaigned for the presidency in 1960
A New PresidentThe turning point in the 1960 election came
when the candidates took part in the first tele-vised presidential debates Kennedy appearedhandsome and youthful Nixon who was recov-ering from an illness looked tired and sickKennedy spoke with confidence about thefuture Many viewers thought that Kennedymade a better impression
In November nearly 70 million voters turnedout to choose between Nixon and Kennedy Forthe first time the people of Alaska and Hawaiitook part in a presidential election The resultswere extremely close In the popular voteKennedy won 497 percent while Nixon received495 percent In the electoral vote Kennedy gaineda greater margin over Nixonmdash303 to 219 votes
Identifying Who were the presi-dential candidates in 1960
The New FrontierOn January 20 1961 snow covered Washing-
ton DC and icy winds whipped through thecity Still thousands of people streamed to theCapitol to see John Fitzgerald Kennedy becomethe thirty-fifth president of the United States (See page 995 for part of President Kennedyrsquos Inaugural Address)
In 1960 for thefirst time radioand televisionplayed a majorfactor in a presi-
dential campaign This advertise-ment for television sets focuses on thetelevised presidential debates
Richard Nixon and John Kennedy took part inthe first televised presidential debates in 1960
null
16833386
He offered the nation youth energy and hopeIn his Inaugural Address Kennedy spoke of anew era
ldquoLet the word go forth from this time andplace that the torch has been passed to anew generation of Americansrdquo
The young president promised to face thenationrsquos challenges with determination In closingKennedy roused the American people to action
ldquoAnd so my fellow Americans ask not whatyour country can do for youmdashask what you cando for your countryrdquo
Domestic PoliciesKennedy drew up plans for the New Frontier
a group of proposals involving social programsOne bill he sent to Congress called for more fed-eral funds for education Another bill aimed tohelp poor people get jobs Reluctant to committo Kennedyrsquos expensive programs Congressfailed to pass most of these bills
Another area of concern for Kennedy was civilrights The president wished to help AfricanAmericans in their fight for equal rights At thesame time he worried that moving too quicklywould anger Southern Democrats in Congresswhose support he needed to enact legislation
In 1963 Kennedy decided to ask Congress topass a bill guaranteeing civil rights The Houseapproved the measure but it stalled in the Sen-ate Meanwhile the president left for a cam-paign trip to Dallas Texas
Kennedy AssassinatedOn November 22 1963 Kennedy arrived in
Dallas with his wife Jacqueline As the presi-dent and the First Lady rode through the streetsin an open car several shots rang out Kennedyslumped against his wife The car sped to a hos-pital but the president was dead Shortly after-ward Vice President Lyndon B Johnson tookthe oath of office as president
The assassination stunned the nation Televi-sion networks broadcast the news almost with-out interruption for the next few days Millionsof Americans numbly watched the funeral
In the midst of the grief came another shockThe day of Kennedyrsquos shooting Dallas policehad arrested Lee Harvey Oswald and chargedhim with killing the president Two days lateras police moved Oswald from one jail toanother Jack Ruby jumped through the circleof police officers and journalists and shot andkilled Oswald
Rumors that a group of enemies had plottedthe assassination swirled around the countrySoon afterward President Johnson appointedEarl Warren chief justice of the United States tohead a commission to investigate the Kennedyshooting After months of study the WarrenCommission issued its report Oswald had actedon his own it said The report did not satisfyeveryone however Many people believed theassassination was a conspiracy or secret plot
Describing What happened onNovember 22 1963
The ldquoGreat SocietyrdquoSoon after becoming president Lyndon B
Johnson outlined a set of programs even moreambitious than Kennedyrsquos New Frontier Hecalled his proposals the ldquoGreat Societyrdquo In aspeech he explained his vision of America
846 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Lyndon Johnson takes the oath of office aboard AirForce One after the assassination of President Kennedy
null
19968385
Checking for Understanding1 Key Terms Use each of the follow-
ing words in sentences about theGreat Society poverty lineMedicare Medicaid
2 Reviewing Facts What was the pur-pose of the Job Corps
Reviewing Themes3 Government and Democracy
Describe Johnsonrsquos policies towardcivil rights
Critical Thinking4 Drawing Conclusions Should tele-
vised debates influence how Ameri-cans choose their president Explainyour reasoning
5 Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and identify threeproposals that Kennedy asked Con-gress to act on
Analyzing Visuals6 Analyzing Artifacts Examine the
campaign items on page 844 Whatare the ideas that each is trying topresent to voters Compare theseitems to current campaign buttonsand posters you have seen
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era 847
Citizenship Choose one of Presi-dent Kennedyrsquos or President John-sonrsquos programs and create a postersupporting or opposing it
ldquoIn a land of great wealth families must notlive in hopeless poverty In a land rich in har-vest children must not go hungry In a greatland of learning and scholars young peoplemust be taught to read and writerdquo
Johnson had acquired great skill as a legisla-tor during his 22 years in Congress He used thisskill to persuade Congress to launch programsthat would make the Great Society real
The War on PovertyIn January 1964 President Johnson declared
ldquoan unconditional war on poverty in AmericardquoThe first part of his plan for a Great Society consisted of programs to help Americans wholived below the poverty linemdashthe minimumincome needed to survive A program calledHead Start provided preschool education forthe children of poor families Upward Boundhelped poor students attend college The JobCorps offered training to young people whowanted to work Volunteers in Service to Amer-ica (VISTA) was a kind of domestic peace corpsof citizens working in poor neighborhoods
Among the most important laws passedunder Johnson were those establishingMedicare and Medicaid Medicare helped payfor medical care for senior citizens Medicaidhelped poor people pay their hospital bills
Helping Cities and SchoolsOther parts of the Great Society targeted the
nationrsquos crumbling cities In 1966 President John-son established the Department of Housing andUrban Development (HUD) which helped fundpublic housing projects Another program ModelCities provided money to help rebuild citiesSchools received a boost from the Elementaryand Secondary Education Act of 1965 whichgreatly increased spending for education
Civil RightsAlthough raised in the South Lyndon John-
son was not a segregationist He believed thatthe nation must protect the rights of all Ameri-can citizens When Johnson took office hevowed to turn the civil rights bill Kennedy hadproposed into law In early 1964 he warned Congress that ldquoWe are going to pass a civilrights bill if it takes all summerrdquo
With growing support across the nation for thegoals of the civil rights movement Congresspassed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in July Theact prohibited discrimination against AfricanAmericans in employment voting and publicaccommodations It banned discrimination notonly by race and color but also by sex religionor national origin
Comparing What did Medicare andMedicaid do
Kennedy proposals
null
16713211
Main IdeaNew leaders emerged as growingnumbers of African Americansbecame dissatisfied with the slowprogress of civil rights
Key Termssit-in interstate
Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readthe section re-create the diagrambelow and describe the roles thesepeople played in the civil rights movement
Read to Learnbull what actions African Americans
took in the early 1960s to securetheir rights
bull how tensions erupted in violence inmany American cities
Section ThemeContinuity and Change New Africanleaders such as Malcolm X called forchanges in strategies and goals
The StruggleContinues
848 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
1961Freedom Riders movethrough the South
1962James Meredith enrolls at University of Mississippi
1963More than 200000 peoplemarch in Washington DC
1968Dr Martin Luther King Jris assassinated
On February 1 1960 four African American students walked into a store in Greens-boro North Carolina After buying a few items they sat down at a ldquowhites-onlyrdquo lunchcounter When a waitress questioned what they were doing one of the studentsreplied ldquoWe believe since we buy books and papers in the other part of the store weshould get served in this partrdquo They were refused service and the four sat at thecounter until the store closed By the end of the week hundreds of students hadjoined the protest Angry whites jeered at the students and dumped food on them The protesters refused to leave or strike back
The Movement GrowsA new wave of civil rights activity swept across the nation in the 1960s Early
activity targeted segregation in the South Segregation existed in the North as wellIn Northern cities and suburbs African Americans and whites often lived in dif-ferent neighborhoods as a result their children often attended different schools
Roles
James Meredith
Malcolm X
Stokely Carmichael
Supporting the sit-ins
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
1960 1965 1970
null
68180016
Soon African Americans expanded their goal tofighting discrimination and racism in the Northas well as in the South
High school and college students staged sit-ins in nearly 80 cities A sit-in is the act ofprotesting by sitting down Sit-ins were stagedthroughout the nation against stores that prac-ticed segregation Store managers wanted to endthe disturbances and the loss of business Grad-ually many stores agreed to desegregate
The sit-ins helped launch a new civil rightsgroup the Student Nonviolent CoordinatingCommittee (SNCC) Civil rights activist EllaBaker was a guiding spirit behind SNCC andone of its organizers Earlier Baker had playedimportant roles in both the NAACP and theSCLC SNCC was a key player in the civil rightsmovement for several years
Freedom RidesThe Supreme Court had ruled in 1960 against
segregated bus facilities Another civil rightsgroup the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)decided to see whether the ruling was being enforced On May 4 1961 a group of AfricanAmerican and white CORE members left Wash-ington DC on two buses bound for NewOrleans They called themselves Freedom Riders
The bus trip went smoothly until it reachedAlabama where angry whites stoned and beatthe Freedom Riders
Television and newspapers broadcast reportsof the beatings Robert Kennedy the UnitedStates attorney general asked CORE to stop theFreedom Rides for a ldquocooling-off periodrdquo COREleader James Farmer responded ldquoWe have beencooling off for 350 years If we cool off any morewe will be in a deep freezerdquo
Violence and ArrestsThe Freedom Riders pressed on only to meet
more violence in Birmingham and MontgomeryAlabama There were no mobs waiting for theFreedom Riders in Jackson Mississippi How-ever police state troopers and MississippiNational Guard units were everywhere As theRiders stepped off the bus and tried to enter thewhites-only waiting room at the bus stationthey were arrested for trespassing and jailed
Despite the violence and the jail sentencesmore Freedom Riders kept coming all summerIn the fall the Interstate Commerce Commissiontook steps to enforce the Supreme Court rulingissuing new regulations that banned segregationon interstate busesmdashthose that crossed statelinesmdashand in bus stations
Police in Birmingham Alabama used high-pressure water hoses against civil rightsmarchers Sit-ins were another form ofprotest What was the purpose of theFreedom Rides
History
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era 849
null
14665012
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Integrating UniversitiesAfrican Americans continued to apply pres-
sure to secure their civil rights They spurredPresident Kennedy to take a more active role inthe civil rights struggle
In 1962 a federal court ordered the Universityof Mississippi to enroll its first African Americanstudent James Meredith However Mississippigovernor Ross Barnett with the aid of statepolice prevented Meredith from registeringWhen President Kennedy sent federal marshalsto escort Meredith to the campus riots erupted Amob stormed the administration building armedwith guns and rocks The marshals fought backwith tear gas and nightsticks Meredith suc-ceeded in registering but two people were killedFederal troops were stationed at the university toprotect him until he graduated in 1963
Another confrontation between state andfederal power took place in June 1963mdashthistime in Alabama Governor George Wallace
Jackie Robinson Failed to Make the Major Leagues
vowed he would ldquostand in the schoolhousedoorrdquo to block the integration of the Universityof Alabama in Tuscaloosa President Kennedyacting on the advice of his brother sent theAlabama National Guard to ensure the entry ofAfrican Americans to the university As aresult Wallace backed down
BirminghamIn the spring of 1963 Dr Martin Luther King
Jr and the SCLC targeted BirminghamAlabama for a desegregation protest Policearrested hundreds of demonstrators includingKing but the demonstrations continued DuringKingrsquos two weeks in jail he wrote the eloquentldquoLetter from Birmingham Jailrdquo in which he wrote
ldquoFor years now I have heard the word lsquoWaitrsquoIt rings in the ear of every Negro with piercingfamiliarity This lsquoWaitrsquo has almost always meantlsquoNeverrsquo We must come to see that lsquojusticetoo long delayed is justice deniedrsquordquo
Can you imagine major league base-ball without such superstars as SammySosa or Ken Griffey Jr Yet these greatplayers may never have had the chanceif not for Jackie Robinson When Robin-son first played for the BrooklynDodgers on April 15th 1947 he becamethe first African American in the twenti-eth century to play major league base-ball His outstanding play and courage inthe face of adversity led to the signing ofmany more African American players
Yet what if Robinson had failedSome sports historians believe that manymore years might haved passed beforeanother chance opened for an AfricanAmerican player Robinsonrsquos wifeRachel notes ldquoJack knew that by break-ing the color barrier he was not onlypaving the way for minorities in profes-
sional sports but was also providingopportunities in all facets of life rdquo
Houston Federal Judge David Hittnerechoes those sentiments
ldquoI think the start of the heavy civilrights movement came with thebreaking of the color barrier inmajor league baseball It was one ofthe great indications of the impetusof the civil rights movement in theUnited States To me it really was thestart It showed a lot of folks thathere was the concept of equality Itnailed many nails in the coffin par-ticularly in terms of the perceptionof inferiority Jackie Robinson was a pioneer He had to stand there andtake it just so others could maybesomeday get to where he wasrdquo
With Robinsonrsquos success came inte-gration in other sports By the mid-1950s African American athletes hadestablished themselves as a powerfulforce in almost all professional sports
850
null
11368296
851CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
1 If Robinson had failed in baseball how would the inte-gration of other sports have progressed
2 What did Robinsonrsquos achievement mean to the civilrights movement What did it mean to Americans whoopposed the integration of baseball
Days later the president introduced new leg-islation giving all Americans the right to beserved in public places and barring discrimina-tion in employment
March on WashingtonTo rally support for the civil rights bill Dr
Martin Luther King Jr and the SCLC organizeda massive march in Washington DC onAugust 28 1963 More than 200000 people ofall colors and from all over the country arrivedto take part Emily Rock a 15-year-old AfricanAmerican described how she felt at the march
ldquoThere was this sense of hope for thefuturemdashthe belief that this march was the bigstep in the right direction It could be heard inthe voices of the people singing and seen in theway they walked It poured out into smilesrdquo
About 6000 police officers stood nearby butthey had nothing to do but direct traffic Therewas no trouble Proceeding with great dignityand joy the marchers carried signs urging Con-gress to act They sang songs including one thatwas becoming the anthem of the civil rightsmovement ldquoWe Shall Overcomerdquo (See page 977
of the Primary Sources Library for the words to this song)
Late in the afternoon Dr Martin Luther KingJr spoke to the crowd in ringing words of hisdesire to see America transformed
ldquoI have a dream that one day this nation willrise up and live out the true meaning of itscreed lsquoWe hold these truths to be self-evidentthat all men are created equalrsquo When we letfreedom ring we will be able to speed upthat day when all of Godrsquos children [will] joinhands and sing in the words of the old spiritual lsquoFree at last Free at last ThankGod Almighty we are free at lastrsquordquo (See page 996 for more of this famous speech)
Freedom SummerCongress did not pass Kennedyrsquos civil rights
bill until after his death President Lyndon B Johnson who succeeded Kennedy finally
National television carried vivid pictures ofpolice setting snarling police dogs on unarmeddemonstrators and washing small childrenacross streets with the powerful impact of firehoses President Kennedy sent 3000 troops torestore peace On June 11 1963 in Jackson Mis-sissippi Medgar Evers state field secretary forthe NAACP was murdered The murder and theevents in Alabama forced President Kennedy tomake a decision Appearing on national televi-sion Kennedy spoke of the ldquomoral issuerdquo facingthe nation
ldquoThe heart of the question is whether allAmericans are to be afforded equal rights andequal opportunities whether we are going totreat our fellow Americans as we want to betreated If an American because his skin is darkcannot enjoy the full and free life which all ofus want then who among us would be contentto have the color of his skin changed and standin his placerdquo
null
16812486
this there can be no argumentrdquo he saidldquoEvery American citizen must have an equalright to voterdquo In August Johnson signed theVoting Rights Act of 1965 into law The actgave the federal government the power toforce local officials to allow African Americansto register to vote
The act led to dramatic changes in politicallife in the South In 1966 about 100 AfricanAmericans held elective office in the South By1972 that number had increased 10 times
Analyzing Why were sit-ins aneffective strategy against segregation
Other VoicesBy the mid-1960s the civil rights movement
had won numerous victories Yet a growing num-ber of African Americans grew tired of the slowpace of change and bitter over white attacks
Malcolm X a leader in the Nation of Islam (orBlack Muslims) emerged as an important newvoice for some African Americans Malcolm Xcriticized the civil rights goal of integrationdeclaring that the best way for African Ameri-cans to achieve justice was to separate them-selves from whites
Malcolm X gained increasing support By1965 however he had begun to change hisideas Instead of racial separation he called forldquoa society in which there could exist honestwhite-black brotherhoodrdquo Soon afterwards hewas killed by an assassin from a rival groupamong the Black Muslims His fiery words andpassionate ideas contained in his autobiogra-phy and other writings continued to influencethe civil rights movement after his death
Black PowerOther African American leaders embraced
more radical approaches Stokely Carmichaelwho became the leader of SNCC advanced theidea of Black Power This was a philosophy ofracial pride that said African Americans shouldcreate their own culture and political institu-tions Carmichael and other radicals called attimes for revolution a complete transformation
852 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
persuaded Congress to pass the bill The CivilRights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination inhiring and ended segregation in stores restau-rants theaters and hotels Yet in many statesAfrican Americans still could not vote Poll taxesand other discriminatory laws prevented themfrom exercising this right
During the summer of 1964 thousands ofcivil rights workers spread throughout theSouth to help African Americans register tovote They called the campaign Freedom Sum-mer but the workers faced strong sometimesviolent opposition
The Right to VoteThe next year SNCC organized a major
demonstration in Selma Alabama to protestthe continued denial of African Americansrsquo rightto vote Police attacks on the marchers againdramatized the cause
President Johnson stepped in On March 151965 in a televised speech the presidenturged passage of a voting rights bill ldquoAbout
In 1964 after a lengthy trip to Africa and the MiddleEast Malcolm X called for closer ties betweenAfrican Americans and African people in other partsof the world How did Malcolm Xrsquos ideaschange during the early 1960s
History
null
18797986
of society Although rejected by such groups asthe NAACP the idea of Black Power had a greatimpact on the civil rights movement
Violence EruptsIn Oakland California a group of young rad-
icals formed the Black Panther Party The Pan-thers symbolized a growing tension betweenAfrican Americans and urban police Large num-bers of African Americans in urban areas felt frus-trated about poverty and unemployment ThePanthers demanded reforms and armed them-selves in opposition to the police Several armedclashes with the police occurred
The first major urban riots since the 1940stook place in the summer of 1965 in the Wattssection of Los Angeles In a week of rioting 34people died and much of Watts burned to theground National Guard troops were called in toend the uprising The Watts riot was the first ofa series of racial disorders that hit cities in thesummers of 1965 1966 and 1967
Between the years of 1965 and 1967 riotingbroke out in more than 40 Northern cities includ-ing San Francisco Chicago and Cleveland In July1967 five days of protests looting and burning ofbuildings in Newark New Jersey ended with thedeaths of 26 people and more than $10 million indamage The next week a massive uprising inDetroit shut the city down for several days
Checking for Understanding1 Key Terms Using complete sen-
tences define the following termssit-in interstate
2 Reviewing Facts What idea didStokely Carmichael advance
Reviewing Themes3 Continuity and Change How did the
beliefs and strategies of groups suchas the Black Panthers differ from thebeliefs and strategies of Dr MartinLuther King Jr
Critical Thinking4 Predicting Consequences What do
you think would have happened inthe civil rights movement had Kingnot been assassinated
5 Analyzing Information Re-createthe diagram below and describethree events of racial unrest thatspread to major cities during thesummers of 1965ndash1967
Analyzing Visuals6 Picturing History Examine the pho-
tographs on page 849 Write a cap-tion that describes what is happeningin the pictures If you were a reporterinterviewing these people whatwould you ask them
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era 853
Expository Writing Choose a civilrights figure from the sectionResearch this person and write a personal profile Include copies of photographs speeches and soon as appropriate
Racial unrest
President Johnson named a commission tostudy the causes of the riots and to suggest stepsto improve conditions The report of this groupthe Kerner Commission warned that ldquoournation is moving toward two societies oneblack one whitemdashseparate and unequalrdquo
The wave of urban riots devastated manyAfrican American neighborhoods The riotsendedmdashbut not before one last burst of rage
King Is AssassinatedOn April 4 1968 racial tension in the United
States took another tragic turn On that night inMemphis Tennessee an assassin shot and killedDr Martin Luther King Jr Kingrsquos assassinationset off angry rioting in more than 100 cities Firesburned in the nationrsquos capital just blocks fromthe Capitol and the White House
Thousands of people attended Kingrsquosfuneral in Atlanta Millions more watched ontelevision All mourned the death of an Ameri-can hero who the night before his death hadsaid God ldquohas allowed me to go up to themountain and Irsquove seen the promised land Imay not get there with you But I want you toknow tonight that we as a people will get tothe promised landrdquo
Explaining Why did some AfricanAmerican leaders criticize the goal of integration
null
17183461
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
L O U I S I A N A
1 Why do you think the Freedom Riders decided toprotest in this region of the United States
2 Where did Freedom Riders encounter the greatest dif-ficulties Were they successful in reaching their goal
L E A R N I N G f r o m G E O G R A P H Y
SEGREGATED WAITING ROOMS restaurantsrestrooms and buses still existed in the South in 1961despite Supreme Court orders to integrate facilitiesserving passengers traveling from state to state
ON THE ROAD
On May 4th 1961 13 neatly dressed African-Americanand white Freedom Riders boarded buses in WashingtonDC Determined to challenge segregation these men andwomen knew they might encounter violence or be arrestedas they headed toward New Orleans The Riders wereturned away from a bus station in Danville Virginia andpolice stopped a scuffle in Rock Hill South CarolinaDespite these incidents the trip through Virginia the Car-olinas and Georgia went fairly smoothly
TROUBLE DEVELOPS
In Alabama however trouble started White mobsambushed the Riders in Anniston and Birmingham torch-ing one of the buses When many of the battered FreedomRiders decided to abandon the buses in Birmingham andfly to New Orleans new groups took up the cause inNashville Tennessee and other cities They eventuallymade it to Jackson Mississippi where they were arrested
ENFORCING THE LAW
Freedom Riders continued these non-violent protestsuntil they got what they wanted In September 1961 Attor-ney General Robert Kennedy persuaded the InterstateCommerce Commission to enforce the Supreme Courtrsquosruling prohibiting racial discrimination on buses and intransportation facilities
ampGEOGRAPHY HISTORY
FREEDOM RIDERS
0 50 miles
0 50 kilometers
Freedom Riders
Second bus route
Air route
First bus route
Police arrest Freedom Rider John Lewis (top) in Jackson Mississippi Jim Zwerg(below) lies in a hospital bed after beatingsby people in favor of segregation at aMontgomery Alabama bus terminal
854
null
10104035
855CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Mis
siss
ipp
iR
ive
r
Birmingham
Annapolis
Petersburg
Charlotte
Rock Hill
Greensboro
Danville
Farmville
Fredericksburg
Augusta
Athens
TallapoosaAnniston
Selma
Meridian
New Orleans
Atlanta
Nashville
Richmond
Raleigh
Columbia
Montgomery
Jackson
Baton
Rouge
S O U T H
C A R O L I N A
N O R T H C A R O L I N A
A L A B A M A
G E O R G I A
M I S S I S S I P P I
T E N N E S S E E
V I R G I N I A
Washington DC
M A R Y L A N D
Ap
pa
l ac
hi a
n
Mo
un
t ai n
s
May 17 1961Second group of Freedom Riders begins the journey
May 4 1961 Freedom Ridersbegin journey
May 20
May 13
May 5
May 25
May 17
A
TL
AN
TIC
OC
EA
N
G u l f
o f
M e x i c o
N
S
WE
Alabama National Guardsmen with bayoneted rifles escort Freedom Riders onboard a bus near Montgomery Alabama
Angry segregationists ambushedthe bus near Anniston AlabamaOfficers finally dispersed the moballowing the Freedom Riders tostumble out
Main IdeaIn the 1960s and 1970s growingnumbers of women Hispanic Ameri-cans Native Americans and disabledAmericans entered the struggle forequal rights
Key Termsfeminist Hispanic
Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section re-create the diagrambelow and describe the role each per-son played in the 1960s and 1970s
Read to Learnbull what steps women and minorities
took to improve their livesbull what new leaders emerged
Section ThemeContinuity and Change During the1960s and 1970s women and minori-ties used political action to shatterstereotypes and improve their lives
Other GroupsSeek Rights
Mexican American farmworker Jesse de la Cruz had labored for decades in thegrape and cotton fields of the Southwest In 1972 she began working for the UnitedFarm Workers Union Cruz made speaking tours trying to bring women into the unionldquoWomen can no longer be taken for grantedmdashthat wersquore just going to stay home anddo the cooking and cleaningrdquo she told her listeners ldquoItrsquos way past the time when ourhusbands could say lsquoYou stay home You have to take care of the children You have to do as I sayrsquordquo
Womenrsquos Rights The effects of the civil rights movement reached well beyond the African
American community Women Hispanics Native Americans and people withdisabilities all found inspiration in the struggles of African Americans In 1961President John F Kennedy created the Commission on the Status of Women Itreported that womenmdashan ever-growing part of the workforcemdashreceived lower
856 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Jesse de la Cruz
1963Congress passes Equal Pay Act The Feminine Mystique is published
1966National Organization forWomen is created
1973American Indian Movement protestsat Wounded Knee South Dakota
Preview of Events
Guide to Reading
1960 1965 1970 1975
Roles
Phyllis Schlafly
Ceacutesar Chaacutevez
Herman Badillo
null
669262
857CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
pay than men even for performing the samejobs In 1963 Kennedy convinced Congress topass the Equal Pay Act which prohibitedemployers from paying women less than menfor the same work
Uniting for ActionIn 1966 feministsmdashactivists for womenrsquos
rightsmdashcreated the National Organization forWomen (NOW) NOW fought for equal rightsfor women in all aspects of lifemdashin jobs educa-tion and marriage
Among its early successes NOW helped endseparate classified employment ads for men andwomen and airline rules that required femaleflight attendants to retire at age 32 In the 1960sand 1970s NOW and similar groups worked toincrease the number of women entering the pro-fessions Banks realtors and department storeswere forced to grant loans mortgages and creditthat they long had denied to female applicants
In the early 1970s NOW launched a campaignfor an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to theConstitution The amendment stated that ldquoequalityof rights under the law shall not be denied orabridged by the United States or by any state onaccount of sexrdquo Phyllis Schlafly and other oppo-nents of the ERA warned that the amendmentwould upset the traditional roles of society andlead to the breakdown of the family Some peopleargued that the amendment was unnecessarybecause the Constitution already provided womenwith adequate protection In the end not enoughstates ratified the amendment to make it law
Women Gain OpportunitiesDespite the defeat of the Equal Rights Amend-
ment women progressed in a number of areasin the 1970s In 1972 the federal government
outlawed discrimina-tion against women ineducational programsreceiving federal fundsThis law along withthe efforts of many busi-nesses helped womenbegin to make advancesin the world of work
In the 1950s and early 1960s American physicaleducators still argued that womenrsquos competitivesports were ldquounfemininerdquo An athlete such as Babe
Didrickson Zaharias was unusualBy 1990 however nearly two
million females were active insportsmdashan increase of 600percent in a 20-year span
Women and Sports
Babe DidricksonZaharias
HISTORY
Student Web ActivityVisit tajglencoecom andclick on Chapter 29mdashStudent Web Activitiesfor an activity on thewomenrsquos rights movement
Women gained more job opportunities andmore women rose to higher-level jobs in theircompanies (See page 977 for one womanrsquos struggle to gain
equal pay in the work place)
Most of the nationrsquos all-male colleges and uni-versities began admitting women More womenthan ever entered medical school and law schoolto become doctors and lawyers
Women also made progress in the politicalarena Many women gained local and stateoffices Several women won seats in the Senateand the House of Representatives and appoint-ments to the presidentrsquos cabinet In 1981 PresidentRonald Reagan appointed Sandra Day OrsquoConnoras the first female justice of the Supreme Court
Summarizing What happened tothe Equal Rights Amendment
Track and fieldrsquosMarion Jones
null
16033961
Hispanic AmericansIn the 1960s the rapidly growing Hispanic
population sought equal rights The term His-panic American refers to those Americans whohave come or are descended from others whohave come to the United States from the coun-tries of Latin America and Spain From 3 millionin 1960 the Hispanic population in the UnitedStates rose to 9 million by 1970 and to 15 millionby 1980 Although they share the heritage of theSpanish culture and language Hispanics are adiverse group with different histories
Farmworkers OrganizeBy far the largest Hispanic group in the
United States comes from the country of MexicoBy 1980 more than eight million Mexican Amer-icans were living in the United States
The fight for rights started among MexicanAmerican migrant farmworkers These peoplewho planted and harvested a large share of thenationrsquos food supply faced great hardships Themigrant farmers did backbreaking work labor-ing from dawn until dusk for low wages Whenone job ended they had to travel from farm tofarm in search of the next job
In the early 1960s migrant workers formedunions to fight for better wages and workingconditions Their leader Ceacutesar Chaacutevez organ-ized thousands of farmworkers into the UnitedFarm Workers (UFW)
The union went on strike and organizednationwide boycotts Consumers acrossthe country supported the UFW byrefusing to buy grapes lettuce andother farm produce under boycottThe success of the boycottsenabled the UFW to win higherwages and shorter work hoursfor many farmworkers
The union boycott was fol-lowed by emerging politicalpower among Hispanic Ameri-cans In the years that followedHispanic Americans would jointogether in an organization called LaRaza Unida to fight discrimination
and to elect Hispanics to government posts TheLeague of United Latin American Citizens(LULAC) won lawsuits in federal court to guar-antee Hispanic Americans the right to serve onjuries and the right to send their children tounsegregated schools
Puerto RicansPuerto Ricans another major group of His-
panics come from the island of Puerto Rico acommonwealth of the United States They areAmerican citizens who have made major contri-butions to the United States
In 1970 the first representative to Congress ofPuerto Rican origin Herman Badillo waselected from New York City After four termsBadillo served as the cityrsquos deputy mayor Base-ball all-time great Roberto Clemente performedheroically both on and off the baseball diamondIn 1972 Clemente died in a plane crash whiledelivering relief supplies to earthquake victims inNicaragua
Because Puerto Rico is not a wealthy islandmany Puerto Ricans have migrated to Americancities in search of jobs By 1970 they made up 10percent of the population of New York City Aswith African Americans though they oftenfaced discrimination in their job search leadingto no work or work for low pay Many of thechildren and grandchildren of the Puerto Ricanswho arrived in New York in the 1960s migratedto neighboring states but many Puerto Ricansremained in New York City
Cubans ArriveAfter the Cuban Revolution of
1959 dictator Fidel Castro estab-lished a Communist governmentand seized the property of manyCubans More than 200000 peo-ple opposed to Castro fled to theUnited States in the 1960s Thou-sands more came in the 1980s
These immigrants settled allover the United States The largest
number of Cubans settled in southFlorida where they have established
a thriving community
858 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Ceacutesar Chaacutevez
null
22152435
859CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
In 1975 Hispanic people and othergroups won a victory with the exten-sion of voting rights The new lawrequired that registration and voting becarried out in other languages as wellas in English This was designed to helpthose citizens who might not read orspeak English Election materials forexample are available in Spanishand English in many states
ExplainingWhy did many Cubans flee theirhomeland in the 1960s
Native AmericansThe years after World War
II were a time of transition forNative Americans Starting in theearly 1950s the federal government urgedNative Americans to leave the reservations towork in cities Federal policy also tried toweaken the power of tribal government
This policy did not improve the lives ofNative Americans Many could not find jobs inthe cities Those still crowded on reservationsenjoyed few jobs or other opportunities Morethan one-third of Native Americans lived belowthe poverty line Unemployment was wide-spreadmdashas high as 50 percent in some areas A1966 study revealed that Native Americans suf-fered so much from malnutrition and diseasethat their life expectancy was only 46 years
Efforts to OrganizeIn the 1960s Native Americans organized to
combat these problems They wanted politicalpower and they demanded independence fromthe United States government Native Americansalso increasingly emphasized their own historylanguage and culture in their schools TheNational Congress of American Indians (NCAI)sought more control over Native Americanaffairs
In 1961 more than 400 members of 67 NativeAmerican nations gathered in Chicago In a Dec-laration of Indian Purpose these delegates
stated that Native Americans have the ldquoright tochoose our own way of liferdquo and maintainedthat ldquoa treaty in the minds of our people is aneternal wordrdquo
The federal government recognized theNative Americansrsquo issues Congress passed theIndian Civil Rights Act of 1968 which formallyprotected the constitutional rights of all NativeAmericans At the same time the new law rec-ognized the right of Native American nations tomake laws on their reservations
A Supreme Court decision in the 1970s reaf-firmed the independence of tribal governmentsOther court decisions confirmed Native Ameri-cansrsquo rights to land granted in treaties
American Indian MovementBelieving the process of change too slow some
younger Native Americans began taking strongeractions In 1968 a group established the AmericanIndian Movement (AIM) which worked for equalrights and improvement of living conditions
AIM was founded by Clyde Bellecourt DennisBanks and others Later Russell Means became aleader AIM carried out several protests In
In the 1973 AIM takeover of Wounded KneeNative American leaders Russell Means (left)and Dennis Banks (right) protested brokentreaties and civil rights violations Why wasWounded Knee chosen as the place for the AIM protest
History
WoundedKnee button
null
18040361
Checking for Understanding1 Key Terms Use each of these terms
in a sentence that will help explain itsmeaning feminist Hispanic
2 Reviewing Facts Who was the firstfemale justice to serve on theSupreme Court
Reviewing Themes3 Continuity and Change What was
the purpose of the American IndianMovement What rights did NativeAmericans gain in the 1960s
Critical Thinking4 Analyzing Information Identify two
organizations that Native Americansdeveloped to help them take morecontrol of their own lives
5 Drawing Conclusions Re-create thediagram below and list two reasonswhy you think people with disabilitiesfelt the need to work for equal treat-ment in the 1960s and 1970s
Analyzing Visuals6 Political Cartoons Bring to class
a copy of a political cartoon from arecent newspaper or magazine Tryto find a cartoon in which the topic isthe rights of people Explain the car-toonistrsquos viewpoint and the toolsused to make the point
November 1969 for example AIM was one ofthe Native American groups that took over Alca-traz Island a former prison in San Francisco BayAIM wanted the island to serve as a cultural cen-ter The incident ended in June 1971 when thegroups surrendered to US marshals
In the fall of 1972 AIM members occupied theBureau of Indian Affairs in Washington DCThey demanded the lands and rights guaran-teed under treaties with the United States Theysurrendered the building after the governmentagreed to review their complaints
860 CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era
Citizenship Create a poster thatmight have been used in a marchto support or oppose the ERA
Working for equal treatment
In February 1973 AIM occupied the smalltown of Wounded Knee South Dakota the siteof the 1890 massacre of Sioux by federal troops Inthe early 1970s Wounded Knee was part of alarge Sioux reservation The people there sufferedfrom terrible poverty and ill health
AIM leaders vowed to stay until the govern-ment met demands for change and investigatedthe treatment of Native Americans The siegeended on May 8 but it focused national attentionon the terrible conditions under which NativeAmericans lived
Americans With DisabilitiesPeople with physical disabilities also sought
equal treatment in the 1960s and the 1970s Con-gress responded by passing a number of laws
One law concerned the removal of barriersthat prevented some people from gaining accessto public facilities Another required employersto offer more opportunities for disabled peoplein the workplace Yet another asserted the rightof children with disabilities to equal educationalopportunities As a result of these actions peo-ple with disabilities enjoy more job opportuni-ties better access to public facilities and agreater role in society
Identifying What act protects therights of all Native Americans
Since the 1960s people with physical disabilities havedemandedmdashsometimes through protestmdashbetter accessto stadiums restaurants and other public buildingsHow has Congress responded to their protests
History
null
10574215
861
Drawing ConclusionsWhy Learn This Skill
Drawing conclusions allows you to understandideas that are not stated directly
Learning the SkillFollow these steps in learning to draw conclusionsbull Review the facts that are stated directlybull Use your knowledge and insight to develop some
conclusions about these factsbull Look for information to check the accuracy of
your conclusions
Practicing the SkillThe excerpt on this page was written by Dr MartinLuther King Jr after he was arrested in Birming-ham Alabama for peaceably demonstratingagainst segregation King began writing this letterin response to a newspaper ad in which a group
of white ministers called for anend to the demonstrations
Kingrsquos words attempt toexplain to the white
ministers his use of civil disobedience
After reading the excerpt answer the questionswhich require you to draw conclusions
ldquoWe know through painful experience thatfreedom is never voluntarily given by theoppressor it must be demanded by theoppressed For years now I have heardthe word lsquoWaitrsquo It rings in the ear of everyNegro with piercing familiarity This lsquoWaitrsquohas almost always meant lsquoNeverrsquo We mustcome to see with one of our distinguishedjurists that lsquojustice too long delayed is justicedeniedrsquordquo
mdashDr Martin Luther King JrldquoLetter from Birmingham Jailrdquo 1963
1 How does King say that freedom is earned
2 What were the African Americans ldquowaitingrdquo for
3 What happens to justice if it is delayed
4 What conclusions can you draw from Kingrsquosoverall tone in his letter
5 What evidence could help prove your conclusions
Applying the SkillDrawing Conclusions Read a newspaper ornewsmagazine article about a criminal court caseUse the facts in the article to draw a conclusionabout the innocence or guilt of the accused
Glencoersquos Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM Level 1 providesinstruction and practice in key social studies skills
Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking
Dr Martin Luther King Jr
null
13761086
African Americans challenge segregation
bull Brown v Board of Educationof Topeka Kansas
bull Montgomery bus boycott
bull Freedom Riders
bull March on Washington
bull Civil Rights Act of 1964
bull Voting Rights Act of 1965
HispanicAmericans organizebull Ceacutesar Chaacutevez organizes
United Farm Workers
bull La Raza Unida and LULACfight discrimination
bull Voting rights extended
Native Americans demand rights
bull Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968
bull NCAI and AIM call attention to problems
Women fightfor equalrights bull Equal Pay Act
bull National Organization forWomen
bull ERA brings attention to womenrsquos rights
Reviewing Key TermsUse these key terms to create a newspaper article in whichyou describe important events during the civil rights era 1 poverty line2 integrate3 segregation4 boycott5 sit-in
Reviewing Key Facts6 What Supreme Court case abolished segregation in
schools7 Whose arrest sparked the Montgomery bus boycott8 What is civil disobedience9 What was the main goal of President Kennedyrsquos New
Frontier program10 What conclusion did the Warren Commission reach11 What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibit12 What is significant about James Meredith13 Why was the March on Washington organized14 What was the goal of Black Power15 What did Herman Badillo accomplish
Critical Thinking16 Making Generalizations Why do you think the civil
rights movement gained momentum during this era17 Analyzing Themes Civic Rights and Responsibili-
ties According to Thurgood Marshall what constitu-tional amendment was violated by allowing schoolsegregation Explain why Marshall argued that segre-gated schools were unconstitutional
18 Compare and Contrast How did the idea of BlackPower differ from Martin Luther Kingrsquos goals for thecivil rights movement
19 Determining Cause and Effect Re-create the diagram below and describe two impacts that theAfrican American civil rights movement had on otherminorities
The Civil Rights Era
Civil rights movement
862
Self-Check QuizVisit tajglencoecom and click on Chapter 29mdashSelf-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test
HISTORY
CHAPTER 29 The Civil Rights Era 863
Directions Choose the bestanswer to the following question
In Brown v Board of Education of Topeka Kansasthe Supreme Court ruled that Topekarsquos school dis-trict had engaged in which unconstitutional practice
A Prohibited school prayerB Bussed students to schools far away from their
homesC Had set up different schools for white and
African American studentsD Refused to offer required courses
Test-Taking Tip
The important word in this question is unconstitutionalTransporting students great distances seems inconven-
ient but it is not specifically banned by the ConstitutionTherefore you can eliminate answer B
Standardized Test Practice
Practicing SkillsDrawing Conclusions Read the passage below and answerthe questions that follow Remember to review the informa-tion and add your own knowledge before drawing any conclusionsMalcolm X a strong African American leader bitterly andregretfully recalled his youthful efforts at straightening his hairin order to look more like a white person
ldquoThis was my first big step toward self-degradation when I endured all of that pain literallyburning my flesh to have it look like a white manrsquoshair I had joined that multitude of Negro men andwomen in America who are brainwashed into believ-ing that the black people are lsquoinferiorrsquomdashand whitepeople lsquosuperiorrsquordquo
mdashMalcolm X Autobiography of Malcolm X 1965
20 What reason does Malcolm X give for straightening his hair
21 As an adult how did Malcolm X view his youthful actions22 What conclusion can you draw about the views of
many African American people toward white people at that time
23 What statement from the passage supports your conclusion
Geography and History ActivityStudy the map on page 839 Then answer the questions thatfollow24 Location What law regarding segregation did Colorado
have in place25 Region Explain why you agree or disagree with this
statement Many states in the West had no specific legis-lation concerning segregation in schools
Citizenship Cooperative Activity26 Researching With members of your group research to
find out how many people of different ethnic backgroundslive in your county Make a graph to illustrate your findingsThen choose one of the minority ethnic groups to researchPrepare a written report with illustrations to provide moreinformation about this particular ethnic group in yourcounty You may want to find out if members of this ethnic
group have settled in one particular area of the county ifthey have formed special clubs or organizations or if theyobserve any special holidays
Technology Activity27 The United Farm Workers are still active today Search
the Internet for information about this organization andcreate a brochure that explains its goals
Alternative Assessment28 Creating a Time Line Review the chapter for dates
important to minority groups Create a time line thattraces the progress of African Americans HispanicsNative Americans and women in their struggle for equalrights during the 1950s and 1960s