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The Civil responsibility for environmental harm in the Peruvian system

Roger Vidal Ramos

Master in Civil and Commercial Law by the National University of San Marcos

The Thesis Abstract

1.1. Background

The concern to develop this theme goes back to our last four years of study at

the Faculty of Law, motivated by reading several articles and books related to

Environmental Law and Natural Resources.

After making our first research and some trials, we decided to present our

paper entitled Does environmental protection in the Peruvian Civil Code?1,

Which was lectured on student papers contest the International Congress of

Civil Law, the same as was published, and we decided to continue the research

over the years.

One of the main events that caught our interest was the growth and prosperity

of the mining activity in Peru, and with it, the various social conflicts that raged

around mining, the Peruvian government for lack of consultation mechanisms

affected populations, and disagreements as to the economic and social

development unfulfilled expectations.

Nothing is more certain is that these populations (peasant-native) are

therefore suffer most from the negative impact of mining activities,

communities where there is no or almost never feel the presence of the state is

1 Vidal Ramos, Roger (2004, p. 295-309). Is there an environmental protection in the Peruvian Civil Code? In Veritas Vos Law Review Libera Bit. Huanuco: Faculty of Law, National University of Huánuco Valdizán Hermilio, nº1.

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providing appropriate services for education, health or better job

opportunities.

Peru today is a global benchmark for investment in the exploitation of natural

resources, but, however, investment and support offered by the Peruvian state

extractive activities do not necessarily represent good experiences in its

relationship with the diverse environment and local communities.

During the last fifteen years there are numerous negative experiences of

environmental contamination, both to the detriment of the populations, as

environmental heritage, non-analyzed extensively and reference only way, we

will mention some of these activities.

Throughout the history of the installation of pipelines and Camisea project

implementation, there were breaks in many pipelines2 and different forms of

involvement to local populations, facts that were reported in various media,

but without establishing penalties or concrete legal actions.

Undoubtedly, mining and pollution these days are in the eye of the storm,

Yanacocha and "Mercury Contamination in Choropampa" represents the most

emblematic case of environmental damage in Peru, to the detriment of the

populations Choropampa peasant village-Cajamarca, reaching various court

settlements sign held between Yanacocha Mining Company and numerous

comuneros of Choropampa, which were challenged and ended in a long judicial

process that became the First plenary Casatorio of the Supreme Court of the

Republic of Peru.

2 Fuente: http://www.camisea.org/El%20Comercio.pdf. El quinto derrame del

gasoducto de Camisea, que dejó tres personas heridas el sábado, ha generado diversas demandas al Gobierno: Desde la suspensión de las operaciones, hasta una auditoría internacional para determinar las causas del accidente. Mientras tanto, el gobierno peruano inició las investigaciones.

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This brings to mind that all extractive and industrial activity generates

environmental pollution risks without the need for intent or malice to pollute,

and no offense to distract the subject of our investigation; we cannot forget to

mention the serious conflict social and political lapsing comes with Conga

Mining Project.

1.2. Exploratory research

In our exploratory research, was resorted to various literature sources in the

Peruvian Civil Law, where we highlight the Treaty on Extra contractual Civil

Liability Fernando De Trazegnies teacher, who from the theory of socially

tolerable damage, tries to explain the need of society to use the tools of

technology (cars, planes and factories) to have a better way of life and facilitate

the activities of man and, of course, pursue economic growth.

These needs of society always, at some time are opposed to environmental

rights.

Professor De Trazegnies, proposed in the Drafting Committee and Civil Code

Revision of 1984, including the so-called "socially unacceptable damage"

where, somehow, this new course would be included as environmental

damage. This proposal, after twenty-eight years, becomes noticeably absent

and necessary.

The Peruvian legislature and scholars do not work and research carried out on

the role to be played by the system of civil liability to environmental damage,

further damage that were not designed according to environmental principles

of prevention, precaution, or internalization of costs, being these, some of the

topics to be addressed in this research.

You can not fail to mention the judgments of the Constitutional Court of Peru,

which in repeated failures, expressed the need for sustainable use of natural

resources, protection of fundamental environmental rights or need that the

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various business activities are while respecting the environment and its wide

regulation.

Surely Case No. 2003-0002 represents a ruling worldwide exemplary

regarding to punish the high pollution by oil activities of the subsidiary

(Chevron) American Company Texaco in Ecuador, Ecuadorian Judge Nicolas

Zambrano3, compared to environmental and cultural damage condemned

Chevron to pay more 8,646,000,000.00 billion dollars for repair in order to pay

for the recovery of natural soil conditions ($ 5,396,160.00) groundwater ($

600,000,000.00) of native species for at least 20 years ($ 200,000,000.00);

mitigate-to be impossible to repair damage, health damage affected

populations ($ 150,000,000.00); create a health system ($ 1,400,000,000.00),

the provision of a health plan that includes treatment for people with cancer ($

800,000,000.00) and community reconstruction and ethnic reaffirmation to

mitigate the irreparable cultural damage caused ($ 100,000,000.00).

1.3. Statement of the problem

1.3.1. Situational diagnosis

Since the first industrial revolution in England, to the systematic and insatiable

industrialized production, and have passed more than three centuries, and it is

clear the global environmental crisis, why go through all nations, where Peru is

no stranger to this crisis environment. The same we consider good reasons for

international organizations, countries, and NGOs, to address their worries and

various programs that seek to implement measures of prevention, protection,

real and effective restoration of the environment4.

3 Sentence Case 2003-00002 Ecuador Vs. Texaco 4 See: Vidal Ramos, Roger. (2004, p. 295-309). Is there an environmental protection in the Peruvian Civil Code? In: Law Review Vos Veritas Libera Bit, Faculty of Law, National University of Huánuco Valdizán Hermilio, No. 1.

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Pollution is very diverse. 5 Some cases that can be mentioned are:

contamination of beach areas or marine waters creating radioactive clouds

(Chernobyl case), adulterated foodstuffs6, acid rain, air pollution, pollution of

the ozone layer, noise pollution, pollution by mining and industrial activity,

pollution of the men to disperse the solid and liquid waste to the environment,

without hesitation or liability.

This same principle of "healthy environment" is incorporated in the 1993

Constitution which states in Article 2, paragraph 22, which considers as a

fundamental right "to peace, tranquility, to leisure and rest, and as to enjoy a

balanced environment suitable for the development of their life. "

These environmental principles are embodied in some rulings of the Supreme

Court and the Constitutional Court through the Environmental Protection,

began offering a first procedural protection of the right to enjoy a healthy

environment, interpreted as the right to protection health, decent life and the

principle of sustainable development

In this regard the principle enjoy a healthy environment and sustainable

development is systematically incorporated into the main Peruvian legal

system laws such as the Civil Procedure Code, the Code of Constitutional Law

Administrative Process and 2005 promulgating the General Environmental

Law n. ° 28611, legislation that established the legal mechanisms for protection

of environmental rights from judicial and administrative procedures.

Unfortunately, for this environmental law, to date, not yet promulgated its

regulations, why cannot require compliance with its principles and

environmental regulations.

5 We are locating new environmental problems such as desertification, the greenhouse effect, the raising sea levels, floods, droughts and storms. The man is building tecnopolis and mega polis; cities with unbreathable air, polluting rivers, lakes, has caused holes in the ozone layer, climate has warmed the earth for accelerated combustion of extraordinary proportions in the last hundred years. 6 ALPA, Guido, (p. 384) “Responsabilidad Civil y Daño: Lineamientos y Cuestiones”, Law Gazette editors, Lima - 2001.

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In our opinion, there is no regulation for this law due to lack of political will of

the Executive and the Legislative, and economic interests of many groups who

do not want to consider the environmental costs of their business activities.

The main motive of our research is manifest from the establishment of a civil

protection stops providing the Civil Code against environmental damage, from

the standpoint of civil liability, which shall be questioned in some points of our

research to be a institution that does not fit with the new environmental

damage from increased economic activity and industrialization.

From the perspective of the protection that should grant the right to the

environment, we cannot remember and rethink the role of the law regarding

the protection of the environment and, in particular, the Civil Law. Within this

discipline we place liability, it must play a fundamental role based on

prevention, so that a section of the doctrine is rethinking the liability system

toward a new tort law, placing emphasis on compensation new damages that

are causing the excessive industrial and technological mechanization, in which

we place the environmental damage that can be individual and collective harm

and property damage and non-material damage.

Environmental damages are externalities that, in most occasions, are costs

transferred (by companies, the state or individuals) to the company or product

victims of environmental pollution.

From exploratory research we have verified that there would be a gap in the

regulation of civil responsibility for environmental damage in the Peruvian

Civil Code and its application in the administrative and judicial mechanisms,

environmental damage is not legislated and understood as a new assumption

of civil responsibility, there is a lack of this legal institution by judges, lawyers

and law students.

1.3.2. Research Questions

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a) What is the role it must fulfilled by the system of civil

responsibility for environmental damage in Peru, compared to

cases like mercury spill in Choropampa Yanachocha, pollution

occurred by Doe Run in La Oroya or damage caused by informal

mining in Madre de Dios?

b) Does the system of environmental civil responsibility must be

based on the precautionary principle to the repeated instances of

pollution and environmental rights breach by various industrial

activities?

c) Is there a proper regulation of environmental damage in the

General Environmental Law?

d) The Peruvian Civil Code provides adequate guardianship against

environmental damage?

e) What would be the new challenges that must meet a system of

environmental civil responsibility?

1.3.3. Research objectives

a) General objectives

Determine Legal nature of environmental damage.

Identify the regulation and treatment of environmental

damage.

Adopt rules designed of civil responsibility for

environmental damage.

Set which are the institutions of the Civil Code those

establish some form of civil guardianship against

environmental damage.

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b) Special objectives

Analyze national regulation for environmental damage.

Set the reaches of the principles of juridical institutions

of environmental law and its relationship to civil

responsibility.

Set whether there are regulatory legal loopholes or

omissions with respect to environmental damage and

the respective penalty for their production.

Identify ways and procedural requirements for bringing

environmental actions.

1.3.4. Accuracy of the Problem

Main Problem

What is environmental harm and what is the regulation of legal

responsibility for environmental damage production in Peru?

Secondary problem 1

Is it enough national regulation of legal responsibility for

environmental damage output to ensure the protection of the

environment?

Secondary problem 2

What are the rules and actions for juridical systematization of

environmental harm?

1.3.5. Justification

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In the situational diagnosis we refer to in very generally about the various

forms of pollution and of environmental harm production in Peru, due to

increased investment on the exploitation of natural resources.

Activities such as mining, hydrocarbons exploitation and other forms of

industry, by their nature, represent industries that generate pollution, being

administratively regulated by the standards of environmental quality and the

maximum permissible limits, but the problem becomes that this regulation

administrative sanctions administratively illegal, this represents a very limited

administrative environmental justice against the full scope of environmental

harm.

Having no adequate and special regime from civil liability for environmental

harm, consequently generating legal uncertainty for investors, The State and

surrounding populations, the regulation of environmental harm coated with

precise and specific principles, will be useful and generate legal security for

Companies, the state and communities, aimed at preventing any environmental

damage before assuming the cost and consequences of polluting act having

made any contaminating action the courts should have proper criteria to

explain the juridical nature of environmental damage and set adequate and fair

compensation, an environmental policy of prevention, compensation and

punishment of environmental damage that the state support to fulfill its role as

a promoter of private investment and protect the interests of the nation, in the

where populations and extractive companies generate environmental conflicts.

There is a gap in the Peruvian Civil Code regarding the regulation of some

assumption from civil responsibility for environmental damage, and although

there is an environmental regulation in the General Environmental Law, this

would not be the most appropriate to the characteristics of environmental

damage and environmental principles of a system of environmental

responsibility. That's why there is a need to identify the loopholes between the

Civil Code and the General Law of the Environment to establish an adequate

systematization of environmental damage.

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In the presence of environmental damage, our investigation is justified respect

to proposals that are provided to reform systematization of environmental

damage in the General Law of the Environment and the need to implement

judicial reform concerning the guardianship of environmental rights and the

granting precautionary measures, which should be guided by the

precautionary principle to establish precautionary processes at once and

without delay, the establishment of an environmental court of national

jurisdiction and, by the Ministry of Environment, shaping the creation of

environmental Arbitration by the Court Environmental Dispute Resolution,

which shall lie with the administration of the Ministry of Environment.

1.3.6. The Significance

The significance of this thesis lies in providing a contribution doctrine and

jurisprudence, analyzing various cases by environmental damage, which do not

apply the general principles of environmental law and determined that the

institution of civil responsibility, such as regulated in Peru, you can not play

the role it must play a proper environmental justice.

It is essential that prosecutors, judges and lawyers, to assume an

environmental cause, may make the application of the principles of

environmental law: prevention, precaution, polluter pays and access to

environmental justice.

It is also important to note that both the judges and lawyers, for the most part

are unaware of the concepts and juridical notions of environmental law and

environmental damage, which can not lead to an appropriate environmental

judicial process and in the for lawyers, conduct a full sponsorship and ad-hoc

environmental causes.

The civil and procedural guardianship of individual and collective

environmental rights importance is highlighted by the current situation to the

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various environmental problems that are occurring, such as global warming. In

this sense, Peru is one of the most important areas of global biodiversity; we

will become one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change actual that

is occurring. Similarly, we must add the problem of environmental conflicts

between mining companies and rural communities, which are social and

political problems that are compounded even more so when there are

indications polluting activities. However, the state shows no front facing

attitude judicial sanction that would be imposed on polluting companies

widely and economically significant.

1.4. Hypothesis

1.4.1. Main Hypothesis

Environmental harm is a damage sui generis, because violates a set of

fundamental rights (life, health, property, freedom, etc..) Of the person, and this

is a patrimonial and non-patrimonial damage, collective and individual, being

its magnitude very harmful and complicated as to determine the real scope and

impact of all polluting activity, whether mining or industrial.

The regulation of civil responsibility for environmental damage in the Peruvian

Civil Code is almost zero, and which is in the General Environmental Law is

confusing, ambiguous and imprecise, and consequently, there is inadequate

regulation that provides effective protection from damage environment.

1.4.2. Secondary Hypothesis

a) Secondary Hypothesis 1

It is not enough regulation of legal responsibility for environmental

damage, because the Peruvian Civil Code and the General Environmental

Law contain inconsistencies, contradictions and loopholes, which would

be relevant for the formation of a special law to guarantee the protection

the environment for environmental damage.

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b) Secondary Hypothesis 2

The bases and actions of a juridical systematization of environmental

damage, it must be on a set of environmental principles such as: of the

prevention principle, the precautionary principle, the polluter pays

principle and the principle of access to environmental justice.

1.5. Type research

The research is qualitative

1.6. Research Design

The design of this research is descriptive, for this purpose, it was possible to

obtain as research sources: legislation, doctrine, domestic and foreign

jurisprudence, it was possible to make interviews with teachers and

magistrates who have had experience in civil liability and environmental law

jurisdictions both in academic and in professional practice.

Chapter II: The environment as a fundamental right. –

It addresses the relationship of the environment and its components from the

perspective of constitutional environmental law, scope issued by the

Constitutional Court and the National Environmental Policy, in the following

order: 2.1. The Right to a balanced environment and fundamental rights, 2.2.

The State and Environmental Policy 2.3. The fundamental right to an adequate

and balanced environment in the Constitution, 2.3.1. Basic right and duty,

2.3.2. Right to life, 2.3.3. Right to health, 2.3.4. Right to property, 2.4. The State

and Natural Resources in the Constitution, 2.5. Environment and economic

development

Chapter III: Civil responsibility and environmental damage. –

This chapter examines the institutions of the Peruvian Civil Code and seeks to

identify the form of protection that could be provided in environmental

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guardianship. It allows to analyze the legal nature of environmental damage

and its unique characteristics compared to other damage, a broad analysis of

the General Environmental Law, exemption from responsibility and functions

of environmental civil responsibility, being the order as follows: 3.1. Abuse of

law 3.1.1. Abuse of property right, 3.2. The environmental civil responsibility

subjective, 3.3. The environmental civil responsibility objective 3.4. Intolerable

damage, 3.5. Elements of environmental responsibility, 3.5.1. The

wrongfulness or unlawfulness, 3.5.2. Environmental damage, 3.5.3. Causation,

3.5.4. Attribution factor, 3.6. Environmental damage, 3.6.1. Definition of

environmental damage, 3.6.2. Damage to the person, 3.6.3. Damage to the

conceived, 3.6.4. Moral damage, 3.6.5. Environmental damage patrimonial 3.7.

The Environmental Damage from the Economic Analysis of Law, 3.8. The

valuation of environmental damage, 3.9. Characteristics of environmental

damage, 3.9.1. Uncertainty, 3.9.2. Relevance and scope of environmental

damage, 3.9.3. Diffuse and expansive, 3.9.4. Concentrate Damage and damage

spread, 3.9.5. Direct and indirect harm, 3.9.6. Joint and several liability

environmental 3.10. Environmental responsibility on the General

Environmental Law, 3.11. Dual Regime environmental civil responsibility in

the General Environmental Law, 3.11.1. The strict environmental liability,

3.11.2. Environmental responsibility subjective, 3.12. Defenses of

environmental responsibility, 3.13. Compensation, 3.14. The Burden of Proof

3.15. The Polluter Pays Principle, 3.16. The precautionary principle, 3.17. The

principle of environmental responsibility, 3.18. The precautionary principle in

environmental responsibility, 3.19. The principle of reparations and 3.20.

Functions of the environmental civil responsibility

Chapter IV: Principles of environmental liability system in the General

Environmental Law. -

The Act incorporates environmental principles into our law, international

environmental law, these principles discussed extensively and thoroughly, the

points of principle study: 4.1. Basic right and duty, 4.2. Right of access to

environmental justice 4.3.The prevention principle 4.4. The precautionary

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principle, 4.4.1. The precautionary principle and its relationship with risk, 4.5.

The principle of cost internalization or polluter pays, 4.6. The repair,

restoration and compensation and 4.7. Considerations for environmental

compensation.

Chapter V: Environmental justice and procedural protection of

environmental rights. -

This chapter performs the analysis of the application of the principle of

environmental justice in Peru, with reference to judgments of the

Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the European Courts, deserves a

major analysis Chevron v. Ecuador Case, another important point expresses

the requirements, legitimacy, procedural limitations and implications of

actions in protection of environmental rights protection from environmental

damage.

The environmental and regulatory arbitrage is raised as proposed mechanism

of settlement of environmental disputes, the points of this chapter are: 5.1.

Relevant Judgments of the Constitutional Court on environmental issues, 5.2.

The environmental protection, 5.2.1. Appeal for legal protection of

environment, 5.3. The Compliance Process La Oroya Case - Doerun, 5.3.1. La

Oroya in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 5.4. Process

Unconstitutional - Municipality of Miraflores, 5.5. Civil processes and problems

in accessing environmental judicial protection, 5.6. Procedural requirements

of procedural protection of environmental rights, 5.6.1. Legitimacy, 5.6.2.

Prescription of action 5.6.3. The claim for environmental damage, 5.6.4.

Precautionary Measures, 5.6.5. The Public Environmental protection, 5.6.6.

The private environmental protection, 5.6.7. Environmental rights diffuse

5.6.8. Pollution and the First Plenary Choropampa Casatorio, 5.7.

Environmental Arbitration, 5.7.1. Disputes submitted to arbitral tribunal's

jurisdiction, 5.7.2. Limits the award, 5.8. Environmental justice in Peru, 5.9.

International Precedents Guardianship of environmental rights, 5.9.1. The

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Case of López Ostra c / Spain, 5.9.2. Powell and Rayner case vs. UK 5.9.3. The

case Guerra and others vs Italy, 5.9.4. Ecuador vs. Chevron Case

Chapter VI: Rules and Actions for a legal systematization of

environmental damage

6.1. The Legal Nature of environmental harm

It is not possible to outline the concepts of the legal nature around

environmental damage without regard to the generation of pollution and

environmental harm, are a problem in Peru and different countries in the

international context, only by way of reference, the incident was alarming

following the catastrophic earthquake in Japan in 2011, Fujushima nuclear

plant had several radioactive leaks, causing great alarm among Japanese and

people in neighboring countries, by threats of various forms of food

contamination and impact on the people, there is no doubt that the risk of

nuclear activity, it becomes an environmental catastrophe could occur due to

the nuclear contamination, certainly the role that the state can exercise against

the policies and environmental requirements for companies, stocks aimed at

meeting state standards: safety rules, and environmental quality in nuclear

activities.

However, for more standards and mechanisms for preventing, at any time

these nuclear activities can become a nuclear catastrophe, as was the accident

at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.

The rapid growth of industrial activities and the technology used by humans,

represent the potential to generate several environmental damage through the

use of objects or risky activities not carried out with due diligence application

or simply for a fortuitous event or force larger acts could generate pollutants

by Corporations or Individuals interchangeably, our current society and its

constant technological and industrial progress always represent latent

possibilities of generating acts of pollution that cause environmental damage.

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Environmental harm is a damage sui generis, because violates a set of

fundamental rights (life, morals, health, property, freedom, etc..) Of the person,

and this is a patrimonial and non-patrimonial damage, collective and

individual, meeting their magnitude very harmful and complicated as to

determine the real scope and impact of all polluting activity, whether mining

or industrial.

The doctrine, jurisprudence and Peruvian law have failed in all this time to

provide an accurate and relevant definition true extent of environmental

damage, being generated by economic growth and lack of appropriate

environmental management mechanisms where the state has little presence

lack of expertise and political will to carry out its functions to inspection and

penalty.

Renowned civilists teachers as Fernando de Trazegnies, Alfredo Bullard and

Leysser Leon in interviews conducted in gathering information about our

thesis, agree that the legislature of the Civil Code of 1984not designed a civil

protection legal context regarding the protection of environmental damage

because only provides a set of rules and general principles concerning the

contractual responsibility

Thus environmental damage represents a different damage from traditional

civil harm which is part of civil liability system, being, therefore, that

environmental damage is covered with unique and distinct to patrimonial

damage, non-material damage, moral damage, damage to the person.

The environmental damage has its own characteristics and unique, being the

following:

a) Numerous victims. – The occurrence of a polluting activity and

consequently the generation of environmental damage, is a large-

scale pollution brings countless victims, pollution from a factory

against a neighborhood produce pollution to neighbors,

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pedestrians and in general as long as the polluting activity could

not count the number of victims.

This difficulty could be advantageous to the subject pollutant when

the difficulty exist to identify and group the number of victims, the

defendant may invoke the strategy of prescription and limitation of

actions process, however in the opinion of some litigators could

represent a risk against Presumed polluting agent, because any

«new victim» could apply to join the proceedings as civil or third

co-parties, in short the difficulty of identifying victims is generated

difficulty for plaintiffs, defendants and the State.

b) Cross-border damage incalculable geographically. –

Environmental damage crosses geographical boundaries and

borders, often do not matter jurisdiction or state that was

generated first and more alarming, the extension that

environmental damage occurs to other countries and its extension

to many populations and ecosystems.

Being an international environmental damage and which extend

throughout the territory of a determined country.

A clear example that environmental damage can cross borders,

located on the Danube River pollution, which has a length of 2,870

km, from Germany to the black sea, through 19 countries

welcoming almost 83 million inhabitants.

The Danube river has a different pollution because it became

turbid the drainage sewage, pesticides and chemicals without

treatment.

But, besides pollution, the Danube is also being affected by the

rapid growth of river transport and European Union authorities

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consider that the flow of boats on the river to double in the next

10 years.

Among other polluted rivers, we have the River Plate between

Argentina and Uruguay and the Indus River, between Afghanistan

and Pakistan.

c) Difficulty of economic quantification. – The polluter - payer is

designed so that the Judge can impose a fair and just financial

compensation for the victim (s) of environmental damage, but this

function to grant an amount of compensation becomes no doubt

in a complicated and scientific, because the magistrate with the

current justice system lacks of legal instruments (law, doctrine)

and technical (jurisdictional and specialized experts servers) that

allow the judicial grant a fair compensation amount equitable.

The current system of judicial compensation, it is disappointing,

because the amounts awarded as compensation for damage to life

and health are negligible amounts and do not represent a fair

economic compensation, in damages against the victim does not

take into account the real economic status of the agent that caused

the damage against his victim.

Quantifying the economic value of pollution a river or extinction

of species of fauna and flora could represent the quantification of

incalculable sums.

Perhaps it is more convenient to perform a mathematical exercise

to quantify the damage to life, health, property or patrimonial

rights result of a polluting activity that generated environmental

damage while considering certain criteria such as pressure media

social, political, economic and cultural, the Judge would have

when setting in a judgment a sum for damages.

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If you accomplish make an economic quantification of

environmental damage this figure would be unfair for the victims,

because consider that the damage is greater than the amount set

by the Judge and by the defendant because the amount fixed by

the court is excessive and unrelated to the damage caused, and

that the sum would become the economic and business

bankruptcy of an economic agent.

The environmental compensation amount awarded by the "Ad

Quo will always be challenged via appeal judgment, incurring a

greater difficulty for the Court which entrusted a reassessment of

the criteria for fixing the amount of environmental compensation

established by the Ad quo, an Arbitral Tribunal could not be left

out of this difficulty facing the economic quantification of

environmental damage.

d) Violation of patrimonial and non-patrimonial rights. - One

difference of environmental damage compared to traditional civil

damage is framed regarding the environmental damage violates

patrimonial rights: the right of ownership and economic

opportunities frustration polluting activities, for example: the

termination or non-renewal of leases, sale of property at

extremely low due to the contamination zone is located, the lower

production of crops to be irrigated with contaminated water or

fishing impediment making pollution of river and sea waters, and

these assumptions under which victims identify the

environmental damage as the cause of the loss or diminution of its

assets or the frustration of economic gain, it is necessary to the

proper and basic damages theory and loss of earnings, up forms

invoke relevant for fair and just compensation for the generation

of economic environmental damage.

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The damages to life and health, although are fundamental rights

protected by the Constitution and the Civil Code, these damages at

the same time generate economic prejudice against the estate of

the victim (s), a person who contracts fumes result of cancer or

lung disease, that peasant or native using contaminated water for

their daily activities (feeding and grooming), necessarily solve

shall incur into payments for doctor visits, medicines and various

health services, generating an expenditure of funds that were not

necessary to assume, otherwise are harmed by a polluting activity,

but for survival and quality of life the victim (s) or the state shall

bear these expenses, without question the rights of life and health

are the cornerstones to avoid any environmental damage human

cost.

Environmental rights non-property are comprised of moral

damage caused to the victim because living in contaminated areas

or having a disease (caused by contamination) bring suffering or

feeling of distress before activity contaminant not suffered, the

moral damage has two dimensions individual moral damage and

collective moral damage.

Cultural Environmental damage7 could be expressed as the feeling

of suffering from a rural or urban community because the

enjoyment of a public environmental good (air quality, river,

landscape, park, forest) ceased to exist or are eyewitnesses to the

daily deterioration of collective environmental good which

generates a collective cultural and environmental damage, this

damage was expressed in the judgment of the Chevron case,

7 The Sentence highlights the environmental damage culture, derived from the impact suffered by indigenous peoples can be considered as environmental damage, is the cultural damage caused by forced displacement due primarily to the impact suffered by us and by land and declining species served for traditional hunting and fishing, which has forced them to change their habits.

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regarding the cultural damage suffered by indigenous peoples of

the Amazon of Ecuador in the various camps and facilities

Industry Chevron Oil Company.

e) Contamination of public and private property. – The public

and private property are regulated by special laws and requires

no for sake of completeness, it is noteworthy that the act

contaminant environmental damage does not discriminate

between a public good (river, forest) or private property, a

polluting activity causes damage to private property a legal or

natural person and at the same time causes damage to the

property of the state.

It is necessary to emphasize that it should fulfill the

environmental administrative law through the implementation of

various environmental management systems and permanent

control, these actions frame the possibility of environmental

damage is not generated by mining and industrial activities that

run authorizations, permits, licenses, concessions from relevant

ministries, if the Environment Ministry fulfills this role to monitor

and punish cases could reduce pollution by companies duly

authorized to perform mining and industrial activities and

reducing them of pollution on public and private property would

be essential to avoid creating environmental damage public and

private property.

f) The burden of proof. – The Burden of proof of environmental

damage is a major legal and scientific difficulty regarding the

measurement of the degree of contamination.

The burden of proof is complex and difficult because of the

number of victims, subject pollutants, experts and its diffuse

22

nature; an excellent testimony of proof of environmental damage

is in our analysis of the decision in Chevron vs. Ecuador.

The activities that generate pollutants environmental damage are

predominantly of collective and private interest, not only in the

present, but rather in the future and involves natural people

unborn, unlike the civil damage usually affects individuals or their

property and rarely extend across generations.

Even though following the principles outlined in these

international legal instruments, several countries have tried to

establish responsibility systems for environmental damage in the

strict sense, there are few laws that distinguish between damage

repair, property and individual damage to the environment (pure

environmental damage)8.

The proof of the act of environmental damage represents a

difficulty when identifying the impairment or violation of

environmental rights with respect to property rights, non

patrimonial, individual and collective, against a polluting activity,

become in reducing the vital fitness man from the inner sphere

(penalties, suffering, anguish) or health and life expectancy.

The proof of the causal relationship between the activity

performed by one person and the injury to another is as already

indicated, one of the biggest difficulties presented in the practice

of responsibility issues. In theory the concept is very simple: it is

to determine the existence of a link between two realities, so that

it can be said that (damage) is a consequence of the other

(activity).

8 Gonzales Márquez, José Juan (2002, pp. 118-120). La responsabilidad por el daño ambiental en México. México D.F.: Autónoma Metropolitana University.

23

The difficulty in obtaining financial and professional resources

that can route to carry out checks, represent limits when

identifying the sources and pollutants subject, these experts' fees

are almost always out of reach of the victims of environmental

damage and the involvement of various skills can turn into

countless errands expert debates and oppositions.

We share the view arrived by the European Union regarding the

burden of proof "In environmental cases can be very difficult for a

plaintiff and easier for a defendant to establish facts concerning

the existence (or absence) of a relationship cause and effect of an

act of the defendant and the damage. For this reason various

national environmental liability regimes have provisions designed

to reduce the burden of proof in favor of the plaintiff with regard

to the demonstration of fault or causation. The Community regime

could also contain one of these forms of reduction of the burden of

the traditional proof, whose specific definition would at a later

stage. "9

It is essential to note that the presence of a clear environmental

damage the burden of proof may be reversed and be the pollutant

who should certify that they did not made the polluting activity or

that its activity is regulated within the administrative

environmental limits, notwithstanding that all polluting activity

causes harm and therefore environmental responsibility.

It is essential to note that the presence of a clear environmental

damage the burden of proof may be invested and be the pollutant

agent who would have to certify that they made the polluting

activity or that its activity is regulated within the "limits

administrative environment, without prejudice to any damages

9 European Commission (2000, p. 19) White Paper on Environmental Liability. Luxembourg.

24

polluting activity and thus generates environmental

responsibility.

6.2. Environmental regulations because of the production of

environmental damage

The Peruvian Civil Code does not regulate under any legal institution,

production and protection from environmental damage. This creates a

problem for the law enforcement agents, lacking a civil standard that

provides an adequate guardianship of environmental damage. While

the General Environmental Law incorporates environmental

responsibility, but confusingly regulated, flawed and wrong, based on

subjective and objective system of the general theory of responsibility.

In this sense Ferrando, says "Although it is regrettable to admit, before

the year 2005, the liability for environmental damage was not

legislated special rules and there was uncertainty when performing a

civil guardianship, with the exception of some isolated legal rules

concerning the civil responsibility under some environmental court

very specific activity, there was in Peru a legal framework that

integrates in a systematic and orderly principles that form, nor the

mechanisms and systems to address it. "10

The regulation of civil responsibility for environmental damage in the

Peruvian Civil Code is almost nonexistent, and that is in the General

Environmental Law is confusing, ambiguous and imprecise, and

consequently, there is inadequate regulation that provides effective

protection from damage environment. The General Environmental Law,

in providing a unified regime subjective and objective regime of

environmental civil responsibility, presents some contradictions and

10 Ferrando, Enrique (agosto 2000, pp. 10 y ss.). La responsabilidad ambiental por daño ambiental en el Perú, reflexión y debate. Lima: Peruvian Society for Environmental Law.

25

inaccuracies, and these points that arrive our analysis, critique and

proposal.

Our civil liability system today, you have to respond to new needs. Civil

liability is a mechanism to compensate for the damage caused, i.e.

serves a remedial purpose or damages, but must also be designed to

prevent the production of further damage and eradicate completely.

This is consistent with the juridical nature of environmental damage, in

essence, is preventive in nature rather than compensable. Annotate,

then, that environmental damage is always irreparable damage and

there is necessity for the precautionary principle should be

incorporated into the legal system as a form of immediate halt against

the threat of environmental damage or paralysis.

6.3. The proper systematization of environmental damage

We believe that the regulation of production for environmental damage

in the Peruvian legal system is not enough, because one of the functions

of environmental responsibility should be based on prevention,

application of the precautionary principle and appropriate criteria for

fixing compensation under the polluter-pays principle.

If, in the presence of special laws that regulate environmental damage

are presented serious problems of systematization, is much more

concerned about the uncertainty that the courts have from legal

process which seeks to compensate for environmental damage, either

through lack of knowledge of nature legal environmental damage or

almost no case law established by the courts of Peru, without

mentioning the procedural issues regarding standing to work, surveys,

burden of proof and the pressing need to incorporate new

environmental principles environmental process actors requires

environmental specialists and other support professionals.

26

No less important is specified that without regulation, the chapter on

environmental responsibility of the General Law of the Environment,

provides an overview of legal paralysis, which creates legal uncertainty

environment.

The bases and actions of a legal systematization of environmental

damage, it must be on a set of environmental principles such as: the

precautionary principle, the precautionary principle, the polluter pays

principle and the principle of access to environmental justice.

The precautionary principle becomes evident importance for its

application in administrative and judicial proceedings, at times that can

punish or stop time the polluting activities.

For these reasons we affirm that adequate systematization of

environmental damage should be structured based on four principles:

i. Prevention;

ii. Precautionary;

iii. Polluter-pays;

iv. Access to environmental justice.

These environmental principles, which aim to provide adequate legal

systematization of environmental damage, are not regulated in the Civil

Code.

More remarkable is the lack of procedural rules aimed at immediate

stoppage of environmental damage, in reference to the precautionary

measures regarding standing and wide to bring actions, which, you

understand many judges, is just individual, restricting to this criterion

extensive procedural legitimacy wrong, that environmental is

27

established by reference to the principle of access to environmental

justice.

Among the procedural actions must implement efficient and economic

mechanisms that respond to the specialty of environmental damage,

such as:

a) Precautionary measures ex officio. – Considering that

environmental damage has characteristics different from

traditional environmental damage is necessary to be able to

shield the process of enforcing environmental rights through

trade Precautionary Measures which must be filed with the

presence of environmental damage diffuse and has the features

only urgent regarding that inevitably effected an act excessively

harmful pollutant or contaminant activity impair environmental

havoc diffuse rights, this prerogative could have the judge

should be used in extreme cases of inevitable contamination or

the urgency of stopping the polluting activity.

b) National Environmental Court. – With the establishment of the

Special Prosecutor for Environmental Matters, and in order to

provide more procedural tools to Environmental Justice, it is

essential to form a national competition Environmental Court to

exercise jurisdiction of environmental processes civil, criminal

and administrative litigation, it is essential that specialized

judges and judicial officers to pay court work designed to

provide effective judicial protection of environmental rights and

all forms of environmental pollution that causes damage,

whether caused by a natural or legal person as of private and

public law.

c) Exemption from court fees. - It is necessary to exempt from

court fees to plaintiffs or victims of pollution, this need will be

28

much notary in those rural and native communities, where

economic resources to afford to pay legal fees simply are

impossible to assume, there should be an exemption procedure

legal fees those natural or legal persons (NGOs and / or

association) that have the financial resources and verify the

actual state of poverty, which would be granting access to justice

environment.

d) Environmental Surveys. – According to our statement the

burden of proof on the occurrence of environmental damage is

undoubtedly the fundamental problem for the system of

environmental responsibility, because the pollution event is

complexity with respect to the location of the generating sources

of pollution and professionals, technicians and experts who

would be involved to cast their expert opinion regarding the

nuances and complexities of environmental damage, which has

different nuances.

An expert (s) in an environmental process necessarily count on

the participation of engineers (environmental, metallurgical, oil

and civilian) medical (specialized in various areas such as

Oncology), accountants, psychologists and economists, which

according to its expert reports should determine whether there

was environmental damage patrimonial nature, not wealth,

health damage, moral damage and being the most important role

of causality search on the subject to determine whether

contaminant was in the possibility of avoiding the polluting

activity or whether it made contaminant action within the limits

permitted by environmental regulations.

Expert reports could be used to determine the approximation of

the defense of environmental responsibility in the event that the

pollutant can assume its defense at application of theory

29

fortuitous event or force majeure, these expertises could give an

approximation of the Judicial if you really could have been

prevented or taken urgent measures to prevent environmental

damage because damage generator is who has the ability to

prevent and mitigate damage their polluting activities in haste

and anticipation as their environmental policies.

As described, the broad activity expert in the course of this

process see the proof stage will be most important,

controversial, and complicated to access the site locations, such

as industrial facilities (mining, hydrocarbons and factories),

mountaintops, many victims (medical evaluations, interviews

and testimony) in all geographic locations adestré access, due to

climatic conditions and transport pathways.

Is fundamental that a Cross Environmental Expert institution

that is formed by various specialists in different sciences and

professions that allow for a real and true extent of

environmental damage and the state to assume the payment of

these expertises in those environmental damage against diffuse

rights or in the course where the victim in a state of absolute

poverty does not have the financial resources to take on the high

costs of expertise in a process environment.

e) Participation of the Attorney of the Ministry of

Environment. – Is required to provide the Ministry of

Environment of attorneys who can bring the defense of

environmental rights diffuse in different regions of the country,

it is critical that the Environment Ministry not only to exercise

the functions of control and sanction but procedural defense of

the occurrence of environmental damage, considering that the

Procurators of Local and Regional Governments, lack of

expertise and a system of coordination with the Executive

30

branch entities that could assist with procedural defense system

to the violation of environmental damage.

f) The environmental arbitration administered. - The need to

establish mechanisms for settling environmental disputes is an

urgent need, given the constant generation of various

environmental conflicts that poses serious problems between

the main actors: the state, communities (rural, native and civil

society) and extractive companies and different industries.

A Court of Environmental Dispute Resolution could be an

administrative procedure that contributes to environmental

conflicts may have at first a rapprochement between the direct

actors of the conflict and second, that the knowledge of this

environmental conflict has the presence and participation of a

set of professionals (lawyers, engineers, doctors, psychologists

and sociologists, etc..) that would grant rules, guidelines and

directives in the negotiations regarding the implementation of

the Conciliation and Arbitration Court have the presence of

specialized arbitrators and full environmental regulations

knowledge of other sciences and professions that will allow the

issuance of the arbitration award has the rigor and expertise

through the knowledge of environmental conflict.

In a previous subchapter we refer to the limits and have the

arbitral award arbitral matters, certainly the implementation of

Environmental Administrative Arbitration necessarily have to

file a special regulation and procedural nature a very important

budget item.

6.4. Conclusions

31

a) The Peruvian Civil Code of 1984, does not present an explicit

provision for a legal institution designed to provide civil protection

from environmental damage.

b) Environmental damage is a new liability assumption, which has

features exclusively applicable legal and procedural environmental

rights.

c) The General Environmental Law presents an inadequate

systematization of environmental liability therefore becomes to be

ambiguous, imprecise and successful, generating uncertainty when

invoking and managing environmental justice.

d) The current tort system regulated by the Civil Code, the General

Environmental Law and Civil Procedure Code, have difficulties with the

presentation of evidence for environmental damage.

e) The systematization of environmental damage should be structured

in the unification of environmental principles: Prevention,

Precautionary, Repair and Sanctioning.

f) Environmental responsibility is essentially a tort.

g) The periods of limitation of actions for environmental damage must

be plus two years for personal injury - equity and diffuse damage for

ten years.

h) The current judicial system presents difficulties of access to

environmental justice to the affected people in their environmental

rights, from aspects of economic and procedural nature.

32

i) Environmental damage presents difficulties regarding the

identification of victims and economic quantification of the damage

caused to their detriment.

6.5. Proposals

a) Preparation of a Draft Law for systematizing and properly regulate

the Environmental Damage as the institutions of the Peruvian Civil

Code and environmental law institutions regulated by the General Law

of the Environment.

b) Creation of a Specialized Court on Environmental Supranational

allowing competition subjecting judges and courts specialized servers

for damage processes and environmental rights, taking into

consideration that the Special Prosecutor for Environmental Matters,

has been performing judicial work in different districts court of the

country.

b) The Formation of Environmental Dispute Tribunal and the promotion

of Environmental Administrative Arbitration as a means of resolving

environmental conflicts, which must be circumscribed within the

competence of the Ministry of Environment.

33

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