r

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF JUDAISM

VOLUME VIII

\~'

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF JUDAISM

FO U ND ING EDITORS

W. D . Davies'

L. Finkelsrein'

ALREADY P U BLJ S HED

Volume 1 Introduction: 7he Persian Period

Edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein

1984, 978 0 521 21880 1

Volume 2 7he Hellenistic Age

Edited by W D . Davies and Louis Finkelstein

1989, 978 0 521 21929 7 r

Volume 3 7he Early Romo.n Period

Edited by William Hotbury, W. D. Davies and John Sturdy

[999, 978 0 521 24377 3

Volume 4 7he Late Roman-Rabbinic Period

Edired by Steven T. Karz

2006, 978 0 521 77248 8

Volume 7 7he Early Modern World, I500-I8I5

Edited by Jonathan Karp and Adam Sutcliffe

2018, 978 0 521 88904 9

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF JUDAISM

VQLUME VIII

THE MODERN WORLD, 1815-2000

VQLUME EDITORS

MITCHELL B. HART

TONY MICHELS

'$

C AMBRIDGE UNIVERSI TY PRESS 8',:

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgments page x

Inrroducrion MITCHELL B. HART, Department 01 History, University 01 Florida ToNY MICHELS, Departmmt 01 History, University 01 Wisconsin-Madison

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PART 1 HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

Cenrral and Wesrern Europe ROBIN ]UDD, Departmmt olHistory, The Ohio State University. Columbus

Russian and Sovier ]ewry OLGA LITVAK, Department·ol History, Clark University. 'W'Orcester

Poland SCOTT URY, Department oljewish History, Tel Aviv University

The Balkans and Sourheas!i:rn Europe MATTHIAS B. LEHMANN, History Department, University 01 Calijomia, Irvine

Great Brirain, the Commonwealth, and Anglophone ]ewry , AM MENDELSOHN, Department 01 HistoricalStudies סA

University 01 Cape Town

The United States fuSIA DINER, Skirball Departmmt 01 Hebrew and judaic Studies and History Department, New York University

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CONTENTS

17 Education and rhe Politics of ]ewish Integration 01 GARY B. COHEN, Department 01 History, Univn-sity

Minnesota, Minneapolis

Philanthropy, Diplomacy, and ]ewish Internationalism 18 ONATHAN DEKEL- CHEN, Department ol]ewish History ]

and Contemporary ]ewry and the Department 01 General History, Hebrew University ol]erusalem

19 ]ews and Modern European Imperialism 01 ETHAN B. KATZ, Department 01 History, University

Cincinnati LISA MOSES LEFF, Department 01 History, American University. Washington, DC

DEL, Department 01 History and the MAא . MAUD S

Program in judaic Studies, Brown University

20 Antisemitism and rhe ]ewish Quescion ONATHAN ]UDAKEN, Department 01 History, Rhodes ]

College, Memphis

Generation, Degenerarion, Regenerarion: Health, Disease, and the ]ewish Body

TODD SAMUEL PRESN ER, Gn-manic Languages, University 01 Calijornia, Los Angeles

Zionism and irs Crirics ERAN KAPLAN, Department ol]ewish Studies, San Francisco State University

22

The Holocausc and irs Afrermarh , SAMUEL KAssow, History Department, Trinity College

rd tjiנ Har ג;;:

PA RT !I I JEWISH C U LTURES , N ATI ONAL

AND TRANS N ATIO N AL

24 ]ewish Culture: What Is It? In Search of ]ewish Culture ZOHAR SHAVIT, School 01 Cultural Studies, Tel A viv Universir:y "YAAKov SHAVIT, Department ol]ewish History, TeIAviv University

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CQNTENT$ vi

7 The Hispanic World/Latin America ]EFFREY LESSER, Department 01 History, Emory University. Atl.anta RMNAN REIN, Department 01 History, TeL Aviv University

8 Colonial and Posc-Colonial ]ewries: The Middle Easc and North Africa

YARONTsuR, Departmentol]ewish History, TeIAviv Universir:y

9 Israel DEREK PENSLAR, Department 01 History, Harvard University and University ojToronto

I>ART 11 EMANC I PATION : CHALLENGES AND

CONSEQUENCES

10 ]ews and the Modern State PIERRE B IRNBAUM, Universite Paris I Pantheon-Sorbonne

Assimilarion and Assimilarion ism TODD M. ENDELMAN, Department 01 History. University 01 Michigan, Ann Arbor

Liberal ]udaisms CLAI RE E . SUFRIN, Department 01 Religious Studies, Northwestern University> Evanston

The New ]ewish Politics DAVJD ENGEL, Skirball Department 01 Hebrew and ]udaic Studies, New York University

]ews and [he Left ]ACK ]ACOBS, Department 01 Political Science, ]ohn ]ay College and the Graduate Center, City University 01 New York, New York

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d Commerce ןews a l כI5 ONATHAN I<ARP, History Department, Binghamton ]

University. 7he State University 01 New York

ass 16ו ]ews and Social C ELI LEDERHENDLER, Department ol]ewish History and Contemporary ]ewry, Hebrew University ol]erusalem

viii CONTENTS CONTENTS 1X

In Search of Authenticiry: Issues ofldentiry and Belonging 34 699 i Lirerarure גlSephardic and Mizra 25 942 in me Twentieth Century NANCY E. BERG, Department oljewish, lslamic, and Near

ONATHAN BOYARIN, Departments 01 Anthropo!ogy and ] Eastern Languages and Cu!tures, Washingcon University in Near Eastern Studies, Corne!! Universicy, lthaca St. Louis

965 Gender and me Re-Making ofModern ]ewry 35 727 Anglophone Literature 26 NAOMI SEIDMAN, Center jor jewish Studies, Graduace 01 AxEL STAHLER, Comparative Literature, University Theo!ogica! Union, Berkeky Kent, Canterbury

27 Hebrew Lirerarure 755 36 J ews and Science 988 ! SHACHAR PINSKER, Near Eastern Studies and Franke ULRICH CHARPA, Department 01 Phi!osophy, Ruhr , Center jor judaic Studies, The University 01 Michigan Universiry. Bochum

Kabbalah in the Modern Era AnnArbor

1017 37 28 Yiddish Lirerarure 778 ODY MYERS, Department 01 Re!igious Studies, Ca!ijornia ]

MIKHAIL KRUTIKOV, Department olSlavic Languages State Universicy, Northridge

Ormodoxy and Ultra-Orthodoxy as Forces in Modern 38 , and Literatures and Frankel Center jor judaic Studies

1038 ewish Life ] University 01 Michigan, Ann Arbor

29 ewish Studies: History, Memory, Scholarship ] 804 ESS OLSON, Department oljewish Studies, Yeshiva ] 01 D N. MYERS, Department 01 History, University וvDA Universicy, New York

Ca!ijornia, Los Ange!es 39 ews and Christianiry ] 1063

3° ews and Material Culture ] 831 SUSANNAH HESCHEL, Department 01 Re!igion and jewish LEORA AUSLANDER, History Department and Center jor Studies Program, Dartmouth Co!!ege, Hanover jewish Studies, University 01 Chicago

40 ews and Muslims ] 1093 31 : ews and Popular Culture in me Twentierh Century ] 01 IVAN KALMAR, Anthropo!ogy Department, University

North America 858 Toronto

1119 lndex 01 ANDREA MOST, Department 01 Eng!ish, University

Toronto

32 : ews and Popular Culrure in me Twentiem Cenrury ] Israel and the Middle East 885

~'.:

, TZ, Center jor the Study 01 the Midd!e East וwAMY HORO lndiana Universicy, B!oomingcon

, GALEET DARDASHTI, Taub Center jor lsrae! Studies New York University

PART IV JEWS lN THE MODERN WORLD 9 13

33 The Dynamics of Moderniry: Shifrs in Demography and Geography 9'5

TOBIAS BRINKMANN, Department 01 History, The Pennsy!vania State Universicy, University Park

CHAPTER 24

JEWISH CULTURE: WHAT IS IT? In Search 01 jewish Culture

ZOHAR SHAVIT AND YAAKOV SHAVIT

rhe term culture, in irs comprehensive and ת,In me consciotisness of the natio . human sense, has replaced the theological term Torah

' 1925 , Haim Nahman Bia1ik

ln 1899, the young Martin Buber read rhe firsr volume of]acob Burckhardr's monumenra! Griechische Kulturgeschichte, which appeared in four volumes berween 1898 and '902. In a lerrer ro a friend Buber wrore: "1 ask myself when we shall have such a book, A Hisrory of]ewish Culrille.'" More rhan

comprehensive book סa cenrury has passed since then, and we sril} have n . on rhe hisrory and narure of ]ewish culrure

There are ar leasr rwo explanations for rhis long-sranding omission. The , more genera! one is rhe difficulry of defining culrure. In wriring about ir

aumors have narrowed or broadened irs scope [0 5uir rheir own poinrs o f -view, and rheir discll5sion of culture is frequenrly characterized by obfus

ambiguiry, and elusiveness. 3 1he more specific explanarion is that ת,cario , tents חwirh a variery of cO -תewish culture is a dynamic phenomeno ] -forms, and sryles - which has undergone many changes, and even upheav -ur ]ewish hisrory rhere have been particu ~ a!s, from irs inception. Through

lar ]ewish culrures rhar were shaped, inrer a!ia, by rhe influence of rhe hosr culrures in rhe varied geo-culrura! environmenrs in which ]ews lived: for

I Halm Nahman Bialik, "Lifcichat haUniversitah haIvric biYerushlayim" (On the I.nauguration of the Hebrew Universicy in jerusalem), in Divrri Sijrut, 2nd ed, ed. Ha'im

.) Nahman Bia1ik. (Tel Aviv, 1965), 127-135 (Heb,ew nth Tו: In Paul Mendes·Flohr, "Ha1e'umiyut sheba1ev," in 112 Mmwry 01 M. Buber 012 the ~

: e cicle represencs che German title h1987 (, 34 )ז , A1212ivtTSary 01 his Death Uerusalem .) Nationa!ismus der 112nerlichkeit

See Alfred Louis Kroeber and Clyde K.1uckhohn, Culture: A Critica/ Review 01 Concept ) .) 1953 , and Dejinitions (New York: Kraus Reprint

677

679 ? T זJEWISH CULTURE: WHAT IS

ewish hisrory, me discussion of rhe cu!rure נr of eכ< In me specific conr : ewish cwrure showd dea1 wim rwo pre!iminary quesrions נews and of נof

Firsr, are we ralking abour a single culrural unir whose componenrs share a unifYing p!arform, or are we ra1k.ing abour an assemb!y of disrincr and

? separare cwrures, wh.ich neverrheless have some shared elemenrs Second, whar is rhe "]ewish conrenr" of ]ewish culrure? Thar is, whar are

rhe uniquely]ewish characrerisrics of rhe culruraJ componenrs mar are ' ews נcommon ro a1! rhe sub-cu!rures of rhe

These rwo quesrions have engaged ]ewish rhoughr and discourse over the pasr rwo cenruries and rhey have received numerous, varied, and even diamerrically opposed answers. The conrinuous hisrorical exisrence of]ews for 3,000 years as a singular collecrive characrerized as disrincrive _ borh by irse!f and by omers who describe irs unique arrribures - and rhe broad

-ews make ir difEcwr ro wrire a genera1 and com נgeo-cwrura1 dispersa1 of r is ו. ewish cu!rure as a unified and uniform cu!rure נprehensive hisrory of

difEcwr, roo, because we are dea1ing wirh rhree differenr hisrorica! spheres:

-sh culrure as a minoriry culrure exisring wirhin hegemon.ic non ~ 1. ]ew , h culrures, manifesring unique parrerns and mainraining compJex ~ ewl ]

. srrarlfied, and dynamic relarions wirh che non-]ewish culrures . ewish cu!rures -נews in non 2נ . The parriciparion of individua1

3· ]ewish culrure as a majoriry culcure in a hegemonic and sovereign . ewish sociery נ

זז

-ewish his נTarbut (rhe Hebrew word for cu!rure) is a new concepr in en. ic was firsc used, some ]ews opposed ic because rradirionally ~ . ~ or ~

It slgnlfied ldo!arry and aposrasy. Consider, for examp!e, tarbut anashim ) chata'm (a brood of sinfu1 rr(en), Num 32:14, or tarbut ra'ah (bad ways

bHag.15a. Therefore, me early Hebrew d.iscourse on rhe ropic used rhe Russi.an kultura or German Kultur. In '902, Ahad Ha' am (Asher Ginsberg) descrlbed me opposirion ro me use of tarbut mus:

One has only ro urrer from the podiu.m rhe rerribJe word kultura _ perhaps rhe !ofriesr and mosr exa!red word in the enrire human linguisric rreasury _ ro arouse rrcmendous exciremenr on a11 sides as if rhe grear Day of ]udgmenr had

6 . arrived

6 Ahad Ha'am, "The SpirituaJ Reviva1," in S~kct(d Essays, ed. and [rans. Leon Simon (PhiJadeJph ia: The ]ewish Publica[ion Sociery, I944), 253-307.

1815-2000 , THE MODERN WORLD 678

ewish cwrure in Spain in נexamp!e, rhe He!!enisric ]ewish cu!rure or me 4 . rhe Mus!im period

, In his inrroduccion co The Civiiization 01 the Renaissance in Itaiy .') Burckhardr modesr!y described his work as "Ein Versuch" (an Essay

Whar he probably meanr ro say, among other chings, was rhar even such a comprehensive and derailed panorama of a parricular culcure could nor

• include all irs components and innumerable srrata and, at the same cime -also describe irs complex dynamic. Burckhardr was wriring abouc che his " tory of Greek culrure and of Renaissance culture in !raly. rhar is, "closed -cultures, which no longer exisr and of which only rhe memory and herir

ot תage remain. In contraSt. ]ewish culrure has nOt ceased ro exist and is only a herirage. Therefore, any arrempr ro describe irs developmenr ancl tO painr a comprehensive panoramic picrure of it is a much more difficulr

. underraking and cerrain!y can be no more rh.n an arrempr The ninereenm cenrury saw rhe emergence of an undersranding of

udaism as a supra-temporal and unchanging enriry, characrerized by a ] -singu!ar essence. Consequently, ]ewish culrure was perceived as an embod

ime,nr of rhis essence, rhat is, as an al1-inclusive sysrem whose componenrs manifesr this essence. Ir was also seen. as a.n enriry which develops ancl renews irself wirhour relying on exrernal influences and withouc borrowing

. from rhem , This essay does nor arrempr ro discuss rhe essence of ]udaism. Instead -ir mainrains rhar rhe view of ]udaism rhar emerged in rhe ni.neceenth cen -rury, as an immanenr entiry ramer than a sec of beliefs and command , menrs, creared an urgenr need ro anchor thar enriry in inherenr trairs, race

narional psyche, and unique genius. This new view reflecred che rransirion from a theocentric approach tO an ethnocentric one, which consriruted an imporrant chapter in ]ewish intellectual hisrory in modern rimes. This

-erhnocenrric view will serve as our poinr of deparrure; ir is an understand ing rhar rhe cu!rure of a cerrain human group is a who!e way of !ife - rhar group's inrellecrual, artistic, and marerial achievemenrs - and rhar ir is expressed and embodied in, inrer alia, a value system, a symbolic sysrem, a

, wor!dview, cu!rura1 codes and rheir pracrica1 rrans!arion inro everyday !ife . crearive producrs. organizarions. and insrirurions

-ewish culture comprises hundreds, perhaps thousands, of essays, arti נerarure on 4ז The li erarwe's vasr זand issues. Because of this li sזcles, and books which cover a variery of aspec

. dimensions, we will refer tO just a few of these works in rhe selected bibliography in Jta!y. trans. S. G. C . Middlemore ~ naissanc ~ Civilization 01 th( R ~ acob Burckhardt, 7h נS

Je: Ein זi זion bore the sub זLondon: Penguin Books, 1990), I9. The original German edi ( he EngJish translation reads: "[his work bears the title of an essay in the זch, and ן~V(rs

- "sense of [he wordז. an attemp זsrricres

681 JEWISH CULTURE: WHAT 15 IT~

even mainly - rhrough religioll5 pracrices and religioll5 creariviry. Ar , rhe same rime, rhis view broadened and enriched rhe scope of J udaisffi

which now included a larger repertoire of culrural componenrs. Even if rhese componenrs had exisred previously, rhey had nor been considered inseparable. cenrral, or crucial parrs of ]udaism, bur rarher marginal or

-neurral appendages [0 ir. In contrast. according (0 rhe radical view, reli gion is bur one of many culrural producrs and manifesrarions. ]ewish

componenrs from חסculrure was regarded as secular even rhough ir drew rhe religious rradirion and secularized rhem. Parr of rhe religious secror in modern rimes responded ro rhis radical view by offering a new and

-broader undersranding of ]udaism, rhis rime including a culrural rep erroire rhar previously had nor been defined as parr of ]ewish life and

. culture

111

t always use סתas we have seen, rhey did ז,ews always had a cu!rure, bU ] disrinction was סrhis term for ir . Thar is because before modern rimes n

made berween religion and "non-religion," and because rhe term culrure as disrincr from religion, appeared only rowards כ,like rhe rerm civilizarion (

rhe middle of rhe eighreenrh cenrury. Wirhour using rhe rerm culrure, rhe , Sages used ro disringuish berween ]ewish culrure and non-]ewish culrure

Ot only in rhe religious sense but also in the human-e:cistential sense, as ח

can be learned from rhe words of R. Levi: "AlI !srael's acrions are disrincr from rhe corresponding acrions of rhe narions of rhe world: rhis applies

-to their ploughing, rheir sowing, their reaping, their sheaves, rheir mresh " ing, their granaries, rheir wineries - their shaving, and their counring

Similarly, when a genrile said 7:7.כ Num. Rabbah 10:1 ro Deur. Rabbah ( , ro R. Yohanan Ben Zakka.i rhar genriles and ]ews have differenr holidays

and asked him: "Which is rhe day whereon we and you rejoice alike?" rhe , response he received was, "Ir is the day when rain falls ." In rhe same vein

rhe Sages warned: "Nor shall you follow rheir cusroms, rhe rhings engraved , in their hearts, such as theatres and circuses and stadia" (S ifra, Acharei

ed. Weiss, 86a ,9:13.כAr rhe same rime, ]ewish rradirion soughr ro define permissible and

non-permissible borrowing from other cultures. Despire rhe ideology and practice of isolationism, ]ews were very much aware rhar no culture can be isolated, nor can influences and borrowings from orher cu]rures be rejecred rotally. They undersrood rhar culrural influences are a necessary evil whose

] scope musr be conrrolled. There were always broad and varied interculrura contacts berween ]ews and their surroundings, and a large repertoire o f culrural irems and culrural properries broke rhrough from ourside inro

1815-2000 , TH E MODERN WORLD 680

0r only from :זThe opposition ro rhe Hebrew word for culrure stemmed the rraditional negative connotation of the word, or from reslstance tO rhe

, ts ~ e ~ compo ~ acceptance and inrerna1ization of cerrain non-]ewish cultur , bur mainly from the perceprion of culrure as a total a1rernatlve to rellglon

an alternarive thar is rhe producr of human creation.7 However, it was difliculr ro oppose rhe acceprance of rhe rerm, and rhus, from rhe end of the eighteenm century, and primarily during the nineteenth century, rhe grear change rhar rook place in ]ewish life in Europe was marked by rhe growing use of rhe terffi . It signified a worldview, a value system, and da.Ily

, practices and their concrete manifestations in daily life. In orher words culture now referred tO a complex of specific manifestations of human

-endeavor. This complex was seen by more and more ]ews as a compre hensive sysrem, all-encompassing and sovereign, which should become an alrernative ro borh religion and religious rradition. !r seems safe to argue rhar rhe acceprance of rhe Hebrew rerm for "culture" in ]ewish discourse

. can be seen as an expression of bom acculturation and internal revolution -It ceased to signify apostasy, and instead became self-evident as a socio

hisrorical phenomenon. This was expressed, for ex:ample, in the emergence of various other modern terms, such as ]ewish religious culture, rabbinical culture, and rraditional culrure. Somerimes rhe term }udaism was used synonymously with rhe rerm culrure, and "]ewish culrure" came to mean rhar ]udaism incorporared all rhe elemenrs included in rhe newly accepred

. rerm cul rure -The acceprance of rhe rerm culrure and irs widespread use in borh schol

arly and public discourses led rhe Hebrew aurhor David Frischmann ro an indererminare word which says נwrire: "The word kultura, afrer all, [is

nothing, or even worse rhan rhat, one rhar says too much. Whenever rhey cannor precisely designare some spirirual concepr, rhey rake rhe vague

'" .... word kultura and sporr ir before us We contend rhar rhe rerm culrure was adopred in ]ewish polemics and

lirerarure ro give new mean ing to the rerffi ]udaism, or, in more radical -a defi -"כcases, ro provide a new definirion of ]udaism ("new ]udaism

nition rhat would serve as a shared new plarform for rhe affiliarion and idenriry of]ews. According ro rhis radical view, rhe]ews are nor an erhnic group or a religious communiry bur rarher a Kulturvolk, a people wirh a culrure, whose idenriry and uniqueness are expressed nor only - nor

7 On Pulmus hakultura (The Culrure Debare) in early Zionism, see Ehud Luz, Paralkls Meet: Religion and Nationalism in the Early ZioniJt Movement (1882-1904) (Tel Aviv: Am

,) Oved, 1985), 187-213 (H ebrew oseph Ha'im Brenner. "' Bachayim u-vasifrut" (In Life and in Literature) in Kol נS Quored in

,) ii (Tel Aviv: Magnes, J961), 55-65 (Hebrew ו.er (Collecred Writings) . vo חkilVeij. H. Brtn

JEWISH CULTURE : WHAT IS IT? 683

in a secular sphere or ro a moderare or radical change in rhe way oflife bur to an all-inclusive, singular ]ewish system of culture.

The second reason is rhat the boundaries berween ]ewish and non­]ewish cultures had become blurred, and rhus it was necessary to rede­fine rhe cultural boundary between what belonged to ]udaism and was thus wirhin ir and whar was ourside ic. Consequently, ic was necessary tO confirm rhe criteria for determining what was permitted or forbidden in adopting elements from the surrounding cultures. In modern times, rhe need to define cultural boundaries increased when many new cultural components - considered imporranr and valuable by modern Wescern cul­rure - were incorporaced inro me ]ewish culrural sysrem; rhese included, for example, lirerarure, music, plasric arrs, and science. These compo­nents entered ]ewish cwture wirh grearer inrensiry rhan ever before and in unprecedented quanrities, and rheir incorporarion received legirimiza­rion and encouragemenr from circles mac saw in rhem a sign of openness and an expression of culrural renewal and modernity. There was a grear need tO define the cultural boundaries because from rhat point on rhe cultural system was understood as a comprehensive whole that defined ]ewish identiry.

The rhird reason for rhe need tO formulate guidelines is that ]ews began ro be acrive in culrural areas i.n which rhey had nor been involved previ­ously. This resulted in questions abour the precise nature of rhe ]ewish contenr or ]ewish sryle of rheir work, and it became necessary tO define rhe unique characrerisrics of mar conrenr and sryle. Whar is ] ewish literarure, whar is ]ewish arr, whar is ]ewish inusic?

I V

The use of rhe rerm culrure in rhe nineteenrh century, which prompted these discussions and del iberarions, appeared for rhe first time in the wrirings of

, rhe Wissemchaft r.Us judentums 'if.;science of ]udaism) scholars in Germany der afז and was reflecred in rhe name Verein fUr Kulrur und Wissensch

uden (The Sociery for ]ewish Culrure and Science), founded in Berlin in ] esr scope" ; in rheir 1819נ. Irs members strove ro describe culrure "in irs ful

-view, ir included all rypes of wrirren rexrs: literarure, philosophy, and sci -ence. They were not rrying to revive ]ewish culrure, bur rarher ro assem

ble rhe corpus of pasr ]ewish crearion. In rhis, they, and rhe Haskalah movemenr before rhem, began a process, which grew more inrense and comprehensive in larer generarions, of discovering and publishing all the assers of ]ewish high culrure. In doing so rhey were greatly influenced by

-rheir German intellectual environment. As is well known, before develop ing their national and political mighr, the Germans (especially the middle

1815-2 0 00 , THE MODE RN WORL D 682

, ewish culture, broadening it, enriching ir, and being inrernal.ized by ir ] . somerimes by being "j udaized" and undergoing a change in appearance

Before modern rimes, rhe contenr and boundaries of ]ewish culture were dictared by religion (rhe Torah and the halacha) and by pracrices that shaped traditions and cusroms. The halacha covered large parrs of ewish life: It determined the value sysrem, rhe parrerns of behavior, and ]

rhe rules and codes of behavior in social and culrural conrexts; it defined -what was permirred and whar was forbidden wirh regard tO rhe consump

rion of cultural producrs; and ro a grear exrenr it derermined the narure of rhose culrural producrs. The cusroms, in turn, determined and shaped

es of behavior in various parrs of rhe ]ewish life וri tuals and obligarory ru cycle. In addition tO the halacha and Minhag (custom), rhere was rhe rich world of fo lklore, folk beliefs, and folk pracrices (folkways), and magic and wirchcrafr, some of which had a semi-halachic value.' In addirion tO all these, rhe culture of the ]ews included the creation of literary and artistic works and philosophical and scientific trearises. The ]ews had rheir own

-marerial culrure whose components were only partly determined by hala cha and Minhag. Halacha and cusrom included mainly resrricrions and prohibi tions that determined which cultural practices were to be regarded

,)" as an abandoning of tradirion (Darche Avot, "rhe ways of rhe ancesrors as "following in rhe footsreps of rhe genriles," or as aposrasy. They did nor, however, ser guideli nes concerning me desired and permirted culrural products. The need tO fo rmulare such detailed gUidelines developed only

. in modern rimes, fo r rhree reasons The fi rsr reason is thar rhe norion of "culture" filled the void created

by the "breaching of the fence," rhar is, the abandonment of the ]ewish -sphere (which was defined and enclosed by sets of commands and prohibi

tions and by commu nal scrutiny) and rhe deparrure for rhe world "outside -the fence" (rhe non-]ewish sphere), a deparrure variously described as dis . sipation, acculrurarion, secularizarion, modernization, or wesrernization -Whatever name it was given, mis deparrure shattered rhe old social frame

works and created a vacuum which was quickly filled by modern ]ews' notion of"culture," consisting of elemenrs, models, and reperroires which previously had nOt occupied a significanr place in the ]ewish sphere. The

, esrablishment of these new frameworks was usually rhe result of ideology a program, and the activiries of numerous culrural agenrs who collecrively organized and even established ]ewish endeavor. Moreover, rhe building of a new]ewish culrure (or rarher, ]ewish cultures) was rhe most salienr expression of the undersranding rhat "]ewish culrure" refers not only to life

4n Ritua/ and Custom Oerusa1em: The Hebrew ותr~ Shma, Early Franco-G ~ 9 Israel M. Ta (Universiry, 1992כ. , 13-1°5 (Hebrew

68 JEWISH CULTURE: WHAT IS?זז 5

cultural change. by arguing rhar similar pasr endeavors were granred ; legitimization and by describing those pasr endeavors

Third, (0 prove rhar ]ewish culrure had enough inrernal vitaliry [0 generare -a cultural revival that would include all the fundamentals and compo

nents which, by rnodern srandards, turn an erhnlc group or a relio-ious communiry into a people (Ku!turvo!k (.ס

v

The study of the nature of the "new ]ewish culture'· focused largely on the -ewish culture, which led tO the hyper ]מ-masslve entry of ]ews into no , bolic descriprion of rhe nineteenth century as a "]ewish cenrury." ThU5

for example, the enthusiasric description ofKalman Schulmann, a maskil ' tensiry of ]ews מfrom Vilna, who in t869 noted rne fasr pace and great i : ru.ral acriviry in rhe ninereenrh cenrury זinvolvernenr in every aspect of cu

Anyone who can see clearly will gaze with asronishmenr ar rhe ]ews' rapid ascenr 0 rhe heighr$ in modern rimes in all areas of wisdom and knowledge. in all arrs [

and crafi:s. This they achieved in jU5t a shorr while, whereas orher peoples didזסח. succeed in arraining such heighrs even over a period of many hundreds of years

For no sooner did rhe kings and counrs of rhe land unloose rheir bonds, and favor rhem wirh civil righrs and laws, rhan rhey opened rheir rreasures and displayed precious qua1jries and fine ralenrs rhar had lajn dormanr in rheir souls durino dark

ס

years when rheywere persecured by rheir foes, who gave rhem no respire until rhey . devoured rhem

, Before many days had passed, rhere arose proudly from rheir mid.sr grear poers , wondrous rheroricians, lauded aurhors in all realms, renowned marhemaricians v .יand engineers, asrronomers, chronologisrs, men well versed in religion and la , and knowledgeable in al.l branches of rhe narura1 sciences, famous physicians , psalmisrs, ffiusicians, diplomats, sculprors, visionaries. And rhere is no wisdom

arr, or crafrsmanship in wh.ich rhe ]ews did nor engage and become famous in rhe '.;,~ ;'. land for rheir prowess ~~

Similarly, the hisrorian Heinrich [Tzwi] Graetz wrOte in r883: ''And now, dear friend, take a look at what the ]ews have achieved in less than one cenrury. They perform in all branches of science and lirerarure and in some they are rhe leaders." '4

In orher words, ir was nor only a marrer of rhe enrry of]ews inro a non­]ewish cu1rure, bur also of rheir growing and inrense presence in ir and

. 3 Ka.I.man Schulmann, Divrei yemei olam, iv (Vilna, 1867), 13-I 6 '

" Graerz. "Correspondence of an EngJ.ish lady on ]udaism and Semirism 4נ Heinrich [Tzwi '

. ish History and Other .Essays, ed uחletter eight (1883) in Heinrich Graerz, The Structure ojj . 220 ,) 1975 , and rrans. Ismar Schorsch (New York: Krav

THE MODERN WORLD, 1815-2000 684

-achievemenrs in sci חסbased rheir narional pride and self-esreem כclasses Gerrnan Kultur. 'o חס, ence, lirerarure, philosophy, and music - in shorr

The new ensemble of]ewish works was rermed culrure, and rhar creared a need ro find an organizing facror which would give rhis ensernble a "]ewish characrer," "]ewish originaliry," and a "]ewish idenriry." This need led ro

-rhe adoprion of a "holisric approach,"" rhar is, a view of all rhe manifesra . rions of culrure as roored in a singJe principle

The need ro redefine rhe fundamenra1s of ]ewish culrure and ro describe all irs componenrs led tO scruriny of rhe earlier culrure in an arrempr ro find rhe consrirurive principles of]ewish culrure. In rhe ninereenrh cenrury this resu1red in an upsurge of research inro rhe hisrory of culrure, which soughr ro rediscover and porrray all rhe manifesrarions of whar would now be rermed "]ewish culrure." The aim of rhis inrellecrual acriviry was ro prove

, rhat there had always been a wide-ranging and all-inclusive ]ewish culture that ]ews were not isolated and cut off by their religious life, that they did nor lack rhe menral capaciry required for rhe crearion of cu1rure, and rhar

; any other "cultured" people מtherefore they were no less "culrured" tha perhaps rhey were even more so. This look ro rhe pas( resulred from rhe

-growing rifrs in rhe social and culrural barriers berween ]ewish and non ewish sociery in Wesrern Europe, a process rhar began even before the ]

ninereenrh cenrury as rhe conracrs berween rhem expanded. This process -was faciJirated by rhe secularizarion and modernizarion ofEuropean socie

of culrural parricularism and rhe חries and by the emergence of rhe norio rhe narional culrure. Thus, rhe h.isrory חview of narional idenriry as roored i

of]ewish culture became a cultural battleground and a vital and useful tool . in rhe Kulturkampjberween various facrions in rhe ]ewish cornrnuniry

: The search for rhe pasr served several objecrives

and .גFirsr, ro counrer rhe claim rhar "rhe ]ews never worship rhe Graces,"I ro prove, insread, rhar rhey were endowed wirh rhe necessary abiliries ro parricipare in all aspecrs of cu1rural endeavor, rhus ensuring rheir admission inro non-]ewish sociery and leading ro rheir inregrarion jn(o

; the culrure of irs elire -Second, ro supply inrernallegirimizarion (ro rhe conservarive ]ewish com

muniry) for rhe expansion of rhe culrural field and rhe inrroducrion of

10 No rbert Elias, 7he German.s: Power Struggles and the Development 01 Habitu.s in the

Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, crans. Eric Dunning and Stephen Mennell (New York: Columbja Universiry Press, 1996), 323. E. H. Gombrich. In Search ojCultural History COxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), 29.

Il Henri Baptiste Gregoire. Essai sur Ia rigbliration physique et poLitique MS juijs (Paris, 1789), chap. 25, p. 182.

687 JEWISH CULTURE : WHAT IS IT?

appeared at rhe same rime as a 5urge of ]ewish creation in many culrural . fields

In 1833, Michael Benedict Lessing published the following description : of urban ]ewish sociery in Prussia

Ler us look ar me rremendous change in me language, dress, way of life, needs and -Even rheir exrernal appear ב... [ ! enterra.inments. morals. and customs of me ]ews

O( have i.mmediarely חance, [norice] how ir has changed since men. Who would idenrm.ed a ]ew by his clumsy ea5tern dress, by his wide and dark kapote, by his fur ViSOf slung over his forehead, by the slippers. and by the beard mar damages his

-have immediarely idenrihed the ]ewish matfon by her silver ס(face? Who would n adornmenr of hair? And how many סembroidered cap, her severe visage with n

ews srilllook like mar roday, unless they are relics of rhe pasr or immigranrs from נPoland' Wirh whar stricmess rhey rhen hdd on ro the petry customs, and which)ew

, me Sabbarh rhirry years ago חסwould have had the inner srrengrh [0 open his shop Was ir indeed possible th.ircy years כ... [ ? or go about his business. wrire, or travel

ago [0 see a ]ew sit down with me Christian guesrs of a ravern or restaurant, speak ? freely with mem. ear the samc food as mem, and consume the same drink as them

ewish נNow nearly a11 rhe Chrisrian schools in me towns admjr the children of כ... [ -Only in a very few homes do old mem כ... [ residents, especially in the upper grades

bers of the household .use the ]ewish d.ialect, whereas the children - and yes - and mainly - the urban anes. speak. at home and i.n public, the same language as rhar of

Apparencly, there are sri.il hu.ndreds of כ... ( meir Christian co-cirizens [and] brethren rhousands of people alive from rhe second half of rhe past cenrury, and we call upon

• mem [0 confirm whether, in meir youth, rhey ever found a]ew at cancertS, parries in cafes. and in me halls of rhe bourse, or saw mem poring over ב... [ • balls. folk fests

or mer mem ·in me mearre. in music. and in arr .. , whemer ב... [ • daily newspapers ews in scientific circles and omer circles who were not נthey ever found inrellecrual

1 .' inferior to me rest of sociery in meir social manners or knowledge

-The portrayal of rwo diametrically opposed social and cu!tural realiries -the tradiriona1 and conservativc old one and rhe modern new onc - appar

ently referred only to a small circle of]ews, probably bourgeois urban )ews scribed rhe culrura1 portrair he painred nor ~ in Wesrern Europe. Lessing d

as German culrure, bur rarher as modern culrure, rhar is, rhe culrure of rhe . European bourgeoisie

The appearance of rhis cu!ture was partly rhe outcome of a social and -cu!tural project of the Haskalah movement which, at the end of rhe eighr

eenrh cenrury, iniriated a socia1 reform rhar was meanr nor only ro add knowledge and expand rhe ]ewish rexrual world, but also to rhoroughly reform ]ewish sociery and culture. This reform aimed ro change ]ewish

: a ת(A.!co ~ n Staat ~ Meinung im preussisch ~ ijfintlich ~ n und di uןk j ~ 11 M. B. Lessing. Di

. 129-132 .) 1833 , Hammerich

THE MODERN WORLD, 1815-2000 686 rheir increasing influence on ir. The scholarly lirerarure of rhe pasr one

-hundred and fifry years deals extensively wirh rhe quesrion of the incorpo , ration of]ews in various areas of culrura1 endeavor and rheir conrriburion

and ir also artemprs ro explain rhe underlying incenr.ive. Borh scholarly -literarure and polemical rexrs rried tO fosrer ]ewish self-esreem by porrray

ing me unprecedenredly inrense participarion of ]ews in all these aspecrs ife from rhe beginning of rhe ninereenrh cenrury as a central ןof cultural

ewish culrure in rhe modern period. Some even argued נphenomenon of rhat rhe "]ewish spirir" and irs main assers (foremosr among rhem rhe Hebrew Bible) were the "founding morher" ofWesrern culture and of the modernizarion process rhat was leading humankind ro the pinnacle of irs

-achievemenr. Orhers wenr so far as to argue mar rhe ]ews were rhe iniria tors and f05rerers of cerrain narional culrures. The parrlciparion of Jews in rhe surrounding culrures and rhe grear exrent of rheic idenrificarion

, wirh rhem, [0 the poinr of giving up many earlier rrairs of ]ewish culrure was seen by religious and narionalisr ]ews as assimilation. In anti-]ewish

-lirerarure ir was described as rhe ]ews' gaining control over rhe surround ing culrure and as a judaizarion of thar culrure. However, ir was individual jews who parricipated in non-]ewish cu!ture, and the extent tO which rhat

. pa([iciparion can be considered part of ]ewish culture is doubtful The grear change rha[ rranspired in ]ewish sociery in rhe nineteenrh

century and especially rowards rhe end of rhar century was characterized by ]ews leaving their religious and communal frameworks - conrrolled and directed by halacha, custom, and tradition - and entering the cu!rural

. worJd ourside and inregraring in[o ir This led ro rhe acceptance and absorption of non-]ews' value systems

and behavioral parrerns. The extenr ro which rhis occurred i5 evidenr from the reproaches againsr those jews who had lefr: they were no longer classed as here[ics or sceprics bur were seen, insread, as dissipared, rhar i5. as rhose who had abandoned the obligatory and accepted norms and behaviors in borh private and public life and who had adopted a corrupr lifesryle and dissolure habirs of cultural consumprion. Later, whar had been viewed as dissiparion - such as 5having off a beard, sexual license, reading of non-Hebrew lirerarure, arrending me rhearer. or enrering a tavern - was described as a sign of secularizarion . Enrry inro a non-]ewish culrure was usually nor the ourcome of a change in rhe ]ewish worldview, bur rather rhe result of a lowering of some of rhe barriers thar separated ]ews from non-jews and of rhe new opportuniries which allowed large groups of jews nor only tO consume cu!rural producrs but also ro parricipare in rheir producrion . The ninereenrh cenrury was the cenrury in which a passion

, for culrure, in rhe sense of consumption of numerous cu!rural producrs

689 ? T זJEWISH CULTURE: WHAT JS

-The second path was rhe comtruction 07 re-construction 01 jewish cuL ture by expanding me areas and me number of culrural activiries and by

manifesrarion of this was rhe זprominen זinventing rraditions: The mos .!) narional-cultural revival called Hat'chiya Ha-ivrit (7he Hebrew Reviva

Auronomous ]ewish cll.lru.ral institurions were esrablished, offering an those of rhe surrounding culrures. Mosr prominenr arnong ~ equivalenr r

mem were Institutes of ]ewish education, public libraries, publishing houses, culrural clubs, mearers, newspapers, and periodicals. This process

-of filling up a d.isrinct ]ewish cultural system was intensive and multi-fac l7 יי. ered, both in areas of «rhe grear tradition" and of "rhe little rraclirion

Here one can disringuish berween rhose ]ews who raised a barrier berween -memselves and rhe surrounding culture in an arrempr (0 prevenr irs influ

ence and rhose who lowered it. In general, relarions wirh the surrounding cultures were characterized by a wide range of interactions. all of which

-involved absorbing and inrerna1izing componenrs of rhe modern pan European culture. Such an alternative sysrem exisred in both Wesrern and Eastern Europe. but it was much more rypical of Eastern Europe wim its 5 million ]ews. and me areas of acriviry mere were much more numerous

. than in Western Europe -AlI ]ewish subcultures absorbed and internalized new cultural com

ponents. including new areas of k.nowledge. such as me sciences. ]ewish -intellecruals. wrirers, artisrs, and scienrisrs created a rich corpus of non -suming var מreligious literature and offered the public me possibiliry of co

ious culrural products, such as meater, dance, and music. They established -frameworks for modern education cind parricipated in non-]ewish educa

tional frameworks from k.indergarten ro universiry, creared new parrerns ofleisure and enrerrainmenr, parricipared in sporrs. changed rheir exrernal appearance and dress, took parr in poliricaI acrivities. and so on. ]ews who lived in mese subcultures adopred, as we have said, a new habitus." For some ]ews, rhe autonomous cwtural sysrem acred as a subculrure in rhe

both as creators and consumers - in rhe ~~ sense that mey also parricipared hegemonic culture; thus rhey lived in a culrural realiry mat was split in two

tiry (Zweiheit). We will discuss the two culrural מand mey had a dual ide ties" by briefly examining two components which played a major role alנ re "

. in me creation of the new]ewish cultural realiry: language and literature

a: Tradition MotUrnius: An An:hropological Approach to ~ n a Gr ~ Milton B. Singer, Wh ון

. 3-10 ,) 1972 , lndian Civi/iza.:ion (New York: Praeger 8 Pierre Bourdieu, "The Habirus and rne Space of Life-sryles," in Distinc:ion: A Social ,

• rrans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard ~ nt 01 Tas: ~ Judgem ~ 01 th ~ Critiq . niversiry Press, 1984), I70-225 ט

18 15-2.000 , THE MODERN WORLD 688

cu!rure by replacing old norms wirh new ones, namely, wirh. a new. a?מ-g part of the habztus of Indl מgi מdifferenr culrural reperroire, and by cha

viduals in the privare sphere, mar is, by introducing changes in the areas d Kultur. The maskilim (the members of me Haskalah מof both Kultus a

-movemenr) defined Haskalah as "rrue culrure," "which is useful and nec Although the mask.ilim did not declare ""מ.essary for every ]ewish ma

, rheir goal as crearing a new ]ewish culture rhar was an lnregral whole secular, in pracrice rhey srrove ro ז:סand alrhough mosr of rhem were n

, plemenr ~ ewish cu!rure mar would serve as a co נbuild a comprehensive or even as an alrernarive, ro rradirional ]ewish culrure, and WhlCh ar rhe same rime would esrablish new boundaries berween rhe ]ewish and rhe

omer words, me Haskalah and omer movemenrs מon-]ewish cultures. I מhar succeeded ir sought nor only to ser boundaries and resrrlctlons on :ז

rurarion in order ro prevenr rhe introducrion of whar ןprocesses of accu they saw as the harmful componenrs of non-Jewish culrure. but also to

arive ro acculrurarion by filling the ]ewish cultural system מpropose an alter wiז: h culrural componenrs thar ir lacked. Because the Haskalah movemenז:

srrucr ]ewish culture by selectively combining old and new מrried tO reco -ponenrs .were.lack ~ culrural componenrs, ir had ro derermine which co

lch had eXlsred In rhe ~ ing. Furrher, ir had ro decide which components, w d could be revived, were necessary, and whlch should be adopted מpast a

from the surrounding cu}rures. In rhis sense, rhe Haskalah was rhe nrsr ro our!ine a culrural program. In pracrice, however, socio-culrural processes

. derermined r.he pace, exrenr, and areas of acculrurarion

VI

The culture of Western European ]ewish sociery developed in modern times along twO paths. The firsr was integration into European culture. 1hlS

Europe were מWester מled ro rhe belief rhar parrs of rhe ]ewish people i g _ or had already losr - rheir aumenric shared culture, mar me shared 10מsi

ng and גrd that the ]ewish people. was spllt מplarform had disappeared, a dividina nor only alona religious or locallInes, bur also 1n accordance wlm

nsiry of the pr;cesses of acculruration mar ir was undergoing. ]ews סrhe inre , ationalities and became, for example, German ]ews מwere divided by their

tive in .me surro.undIng ~ ews. They were a נews, and American נRussian . ces and llfesryle גrly prac a.ג culture and mey adopted its value sysrem and d

Even if their cultural products had a disrinctly "]ewish" character, they

. Ot parr of ]ewish culture מwere

, 1886) , eme: (Words ofPeace and Trurh) (Warsaw ~ shawm v 6 )"ן Naphrali Herz. Wessely, Div ,

. 1782 , cd Berlin 5-6ן. Originally publisl

6 91 ? JEWISH CULTURE: WHAT IS IT

projecr ofHebrew language revival. Yiddish and Hebrew, rhe languages of arrained high srarus in borh ,כews in Europe (rhough nor in orher places ]

rhe pracrical and rhe symbolic dimensions. ]ews conrinued ro live in a srare of linguisric diglossia, bur rhe ]ewish languages began ro play a major

. social and culrura! role because of rhe symbolic va!ue granred ro rhem ews wrote non-religious lirerarure even before modern rimes, bur only ]

-in modern rimes did rhis lirerarure attain status as simulraneolisly express -ing and crearing rhe culrure. In response ro a descriprion of ]ewish lirera

rure as being poor and limired, various inrellecrua!s argued rhar rhe ]ews' ve imagination did enable rhem to produce all forms of lirerarure ~ creat

) and arr.כewish wrirers were now called upon tO write ]udeo-German lirerarure ]

rhar would depicr כ,or ]udeo-Russian lirerarure (in Russian כ,in German ( rhe ]ewish world and rhe world ourside ir rhrough ]ewish eyes. "]ewish aurhors, start wor1ci.ng," urged Morirz Goldsrein ,:u who was referring ro rhe wriring of ]ewish lirerature in German, not in rhe languages of rhe

-ews. We will not address rhe quesrion of what was "]ewish" about the lit ] erature wrirren by]ews in non-]ewish languages, even when ir was aimed mainly at a ]ewish public, or what was "]ewish" in rhe lirerarure wrirren in ]ewish languages addressing rhe ]ewish public (excepr for rhe language in which ir was wrirren and occasiona11y irs rhemes). In any case, as we have poinred our, in rhis conrexr and in similar ones we are ra1k.ing abour individual wrirers and nor a lirerary sub-system, and we are cerrainly nor

. ralking abour a narionallirerarure In Easrern Europe rhere was a 'large circle of wrirers in H ebrew and

Yiddish and a varied corpus of modern lirerarure in rhe rwo languages rhar had played a significanr role in reviving ]ewish culrure in genera! and ewish narional culrure in parricular. While ]ewish lirerarure in ]ewish ]

languages was growing and developing, a large and inrensive project of rranslarion from various languages inro Yiddish and Hebrew developed simulraneously; rhe rranslared liierarure becarne an indispensable pa" of

. Yiddish culrure and Hebrew culrure

VII

in כThe ]ewish culture creared by rhe ]ewish communiry (Yishuv -Palesrine-Eretz Israel srarring in rhe 1880s was rhe producr of a con

scious and planned arrempr ro consrrucr a differenr ]ewish culrure from mat of rhe Diaspora, even if, ro a grear extent, ir was a continuarion of

:u Moricz. Goldscein, "Deucsch-jiidischer Parnass," Kunstwart 25 (1912): 281- 294.

1815-200 0 , T H E M OD E R N W ORL D 690

The Hebrew language had a!ways been a wrirren language; in various , conrexrs and periods ir a!so served as a spoken language. ]ews, however

had a!ways lived in a srare of linguisric diglossia, rhar is, in a srare of a division of labor berween rhe languages.'9 Especially from rhe ninereenrh cenrury, ]ews were bilingua! and ofren rrilingua!. Borh rhe religious and

, rhe non-religious ]ewish rexrua! world, roo, was bilingua! or multilingual and impo rranr wo rks, such as, for example, Maimonides's The Guide jor

" the Perplexed or Yehuda Halevi's The Kuzari, were written in «non-]ewish languages (whereas languages such as Yiddish, Hebrew, and Ladino were

used only byכ. ]ews -From rhe end of rhe eighreenrh cenrury, and mainly during rhe nine

reenm century, languages began ro be considered bom as giving expression ro rhe inner life of a narion and as defining rhe unique worldview of an erhnic or nariona! group. Language was also seen as having a cenrral role in narion building and idenriry building. Various languages underwent srandardizarion and became rhe unifying force of nations. Bur rhe status

-of rhe Hebrew language in Europe decreased as rhe command of rhe lan ssian - became ~ guages of the majoriry culru.res - German, French, or R

a necessary condition for civil inregrarion, not to mentl0n cultural and narural inregratio n; ro quore m e learned Morirz Lazarus, who said, "Die Sprache allein macht uns zu Deutschen" - Ir is rhe language rhar makes us

o ג. Germans In Easrern Europe, Yiddish was rhe lingua franca of rhe large ]ewish

popularion. By rhe middle of the ninereenrh cenrury ir was seen as an aurhenric narional language and ir developed as rhe language of hlgh modern culrure while conrinuing ro funcrion as rhe language of rhe fo lk. The revival of Hebrew as borh a lirerary and spoken language in rhe D iaspora had a crucial role in crearing "culture in Hebrew» and H ebrew culrure." Ideologues and agenrs of Hebrew culture saw ir "

as rhe natural language o f rhe ]ews and as a necessary condition for narional revival . Thus, ir was necessary ro expand Hebrew 50 it could fu nction as a w rirren language and as a language of communicarion in

-every aspecr of li fe. Expanding rhe language, ensuring rhar all irs lev els and regisrers were filled, and disseminaring ir were rhe goals of rhe

Zohar. "The ~ ossia," Word 15 (1959): 325- 340; Itamar Even וgI? Charles A. Ferguson, "Di Nature and Funcriona!izarion of me Language of Lirerarure under Diglossia," Ha·Si/rut

no. 2 (1970): 286-303 (Hebrew ,2כ.. 29-30 ,) 1879 , t national? (Berl in iןr 10 Morirz. Lazarus, Was he

693 ? T 15ז JEWISH CULTURE : WHAT

: And according to Nahman Sirkin

To develop rhe spirit of the people, (0 improve its characrerisrics, [0 glorify and , oric life - assets such as language זirs his חhad acqu.i.red i 0ז prorecr all the assets i (

rradition, ethics, faith. and ways of life [ . .. ] The spirir of rhe people is the sum , of irs erhics. rradition. fairh סand a1S ז,of a11 ir.s srrengms, attribures, and conren

-feelings, opinions and morals, me concept of the good, the beautiful, rne (fUe

~. which are cul[ure

erms, me creation of cu!ture, or in rhe language of thar זIn practical -period, "a state of Kultur," necessitated rhe establishmenr of all rhe insri

culrure. Thus, for זrurions and services mar create culture and rell abou -example, rhe program of Ze' ev ]abotinsky from 1910 declared: "!t is neces

sary tO create schools, nighr classes, kindergartens, playgrounds, Hebrew rhearers, texrbooks, reading books, scienrific books, dicrionaries, scienrinc

-rerminology, maps ro delineare me counrry, maps ro porrray naru.re, a uni versiry, a rechnical college, a polyrechnic col!ege - and rhere is no end to

s נ.". me lisr

discussed, as was rhe ecology סChanges in the privare sphere were als of the physical and aesthetic public space. But mosr imporranr of all was the uniqueness of Palesrine-Ererz !srael. Only there could one creare and define Tarbut Moledet a "cu!rure of rhe homeland," rhar is, creare and define all rhe componenrs of a distincr national culture based on a linkage

. ro a parricular rerrirory, irs hisrory, irs narure, and irs landscape Bui!ding rhe new sociery and cu!rure enrai!ed rhe esrablishmenr of a

normarive sysrem. Ir also meant planning and realizing several culrural -projecrs in rhe various areas of rhe culrural sysrem, including rhe esrab

lishmenr of an educarional nerwork and a curriculum and invenring , holidays, ceremonies, and the ingredients of popular culture. Riruals

celebrarions, and ceremonies were creared and sraged for rhe emerging ewish communiry; children's songs, runes, and folk srories were wrirrenj ]

-folk dances were invenred as ,,!.ral ingredients of the "folkway"; and non official culrure consisring of popular lirerarure and enrerrainmenr was also created. Cultural insriturions and a cultural reperroire rhar could nor exisr even wirhin rhe auronomous cu!ture of a minoriry sociery in the Diaspora could be created for the firsr rime in Palestine-Eretz !srael as part of the hegemonic sociery and even before ]ewish sociery became

ciery. Therefore, the cu!tural system rhar was esrablished סthe majoriry s

i N. ~ Nahman Sirkin, "Min ha-huz.a ha-ohela" (From the Oucside into [he Tcnt) in Kitv ~

.) Sirkin, ed. Yehez.kel Kaufman and Berl Kazenelson (Tel Aviv, 1939), 1, 134-172 (Hebrew tz, October ~ Zc'ev ]abotinsky, "Avoda u-mazav ruah" (Work and Mood) Hadashot rmhaar ~נ.

.) 9'9 (Hebrew ' ו,z

1815-2000 , ERN WORLD סTHE MO 692

-e ~ rhe ]ewish culrural sysrems creared in rhe Diaspora. Only in .Palesri Ererz Israel was it possible [0 rry ro consrruct a comprehenslve ]ewlsh

-culrure based on an ideal and a program, which would be rhe hege -monic culrure of rhe ]ewish communiry and would give rhar commu

Israel ~ e-Erer ~ .alesri ~ nicy irs uniqueness, idenriry, and. uniry. Only in ~ could ]ewish cul rure be seJf-sufficlenr, an aurarchy drawlng?n Irs 0:V

roors and nourished by irs own srrengrh ," wrore Rachel Yanalr Ben-Zvl in '9rI," adding, "A jree [emphasis in rhe original] culrural aurarchy like rhis would nor be possible in the Diaspora." At rhe end of rhe Orroman period, Palesrine-Ererz Israel seemed a rabu.la. rasa and rhus rhe proper soi l for planning an enrire ly new culrure WhlCh. would nor

. need t:o answer ro rradir ional ]ewish cu.lt:ure or rhe surroundlng culrure ewish culture in a hegemonic sociery would be able ro freely selecr rhe ]

desired and required culrural componenrs and implement mechanlsms , errirorial movemenr ~ of culrural plannjng. Z ionism , rhe ]ewish narional

souahr to creare a modern ]ewish sociery and pollry rhar would ensure h culru ral srandard and a culrural marker rhat would meet all rhe ~ a h

needs of rhar sociery - in H ebrew. This was the rationale rhar underlay rhe iniriarion and impleme!ltarion of a process of "filling the cultural

-sysrem," borh wirh regard ro building culrural insrirurions and supervis ory culrural mechanisms and ro esrablishing culrural norms, a culrural

rexr of ?חreperroire. and a m arker of cu!rural producrs. Thus, in rhe c ewish culrure in Palesrine-Ererz !srael, from the end of the nlneteenth ]

" cenrury onward one can speak about borh a "sociery crearing culture ". and a "culrure creating a sociery

-The vision ofHebrew culrure in rhe homeland - Palestine-Ererz Israel required a culru ral revolution in which a new ]ewish cu!rura1 cosmos would be creared, a ser of values would be replaced, and ]ewish creariviry

. would bursr forrh ro produce a free, rota1, and aumenric ]ewish cu!rure : Yirzhak Tabenkin wrore

-A11 rhe elemenrs of life and exisrence were re-examined. All rhe va1ue5 and rela -cions in life, che relarion to man and ro na[ure, [0 religion and [0 work, rhe rela

rion [0 [he child and the family. [0 Eretz Israel and the gentiles. everyrhing was 0 [ ade r:ו presenred as problems [0 be discussed. For the firsr rime an arrempc was

ory, mar rhere is ]cwish-nariona1 poerry and ]cwlsh folk זewish his נundersrand poerry and )ewish perfoנ rmance of music.l

" II See the series of articles by Rachel Yanaic Ben-Zvi, "Lisheelat hakulcura beErecz Israel .) 1911 (To che Issuc of Haku!tura in Erecz Israel), Haahdut 15-24 (February-March

a Ha-aLiya Ha-5hniya, ed. Bracha ן&Yirz.hak Tabcnkin , "Ha-mekoroc" (The Sourccs), in גג

· 24 ,) 1947 , Habas (Tel Aviv: Am Oved

695 ? T זJEWISH CULTURE : WHAT IS

-The culrure of the ]ews rhar was creared and consolidared in Palesrine Eretz Israel consisred of several seemingly conrradicrory fearures, wh.ich in

: facr complemenred each orher

; Modernizarion and secu1arizarion • , Fosrering of a homeland culrure, rhar is, of romanric senrimenrs

symbols, and pracrices linked ro rhe hisrory, narure, and landscape of -Palesr.ine-Ererz Israel and manifesred in such aspecrs as agriculrura1 holi

; days, excursions, and inreresr in archaeology Esrablishmenr ofinsrirurions and organizarions mar creared culru.re and •

; disseminared i r Appropriarion of "foreign" values and culrural componenrs, especially •

; European ones, inro the culrural sysrem of the ]ews The exisrence of a parallel sysrem of culrural imporr, which could nor •

; always be supervised and censored -The coexisrence of parria1 subculrures, such as Ormodox culrure or vari

ous erhnic culruresj and -The exisrence of class subculrures, such as rhe workers' culrure, bour •

. geois culrure, urban cu1rure, and rural culrure

VIII

The rerm Hebrew culrure referred ro rhe core of rhe culrural sysrem of rhe modern ]ewish communiry i.n Palesrine-Ererz Israel, a communiry which creared mosr of rhe culrural assers and symbols and forged irs uniry and idenriry. A descriprion of rhis realiry requires a separare analysis of each of irs componenrs. Thus, for example, one musr discuss rhe debare over rhe narure of Hebrew lirerarure as opposed ro ]ewish lirerarure and ro clari fjr whar abour ir was Hebrew rarher rhan ]ewish.

The esrablishmenr of Israel in. 1948 as a ]ewish sovereign srare creared two culrural phenomena. On ilie one hand, rhe srare had rools wirh which ir could speed up rhe processes of modernizarion, fund culrural insrirurions and in some cases even supervise rhem, disseminare culrure, and in the '950S fosrer whar is rermed "rhe culr of rhe srare." On rhe orher hand, rhe profound changes in rhe demographic srrucrure and rhe socio­culrural processes rhar characrerized rhe newly esrab!ished srare enhanced the srarus of rhe culrures rhar had previously been considered secondary; rhey were now pushed from rhe margins rowards the cenrer, or inro rhe cenrer irself. Scholars offer differing evaluarions of rhe melring por policy of rhe '950S and rhe degree of irs success. To a grear exrenr, rhe ideology of rhe melring por was replaced by an ideology of mulriculruralism. Yer rhe culrural realiry of rhe ]ewish communiry in Israel- Israeli culrure - is

181 5-2000 , T HE MO DERN WORLD 694

-in Pa!esrine-Ererz Israe] was rhe mosr exrensive and comprehensive sys rem rhe ]ewish people ever had. Parr of ir was esrablished by polirical

eurs, and ir was םand public bodies and parr by privare cu!rural enrrepre . accepted by the majority of ]ewish society

This sysrem consisted of a range of producrs of both high culture and were a conrinuarion of sזfo lk and popu1ar culrure. Many of rhe componen

whar had already appeared and developed in Europe, others resulted from a revival of ] ewish rradirional culru.ral assers rhar were adopred and adjusred ro rhe needs of rhe new culrural sysrem, and yer orhers were invenred in

-Palesrine-Ererz lsrael. Because of all rhis , we conrend mar ir is more accu rare ro describe rhis cu!rure as a ]ewish narional-rerrirorial culrure rhan as

. a secular ]ewish cul ture The new ]ewish cul rure of the ]ewish communiry in Palesrine-Ererz

Israel was often described by irs ideologues and those who parricipared in -irs consrrucrion as Hebrew culrure (and occasionally as "Ererz-Israeli cul

ure") ; rhe rerm Hebrew indicared rhe cenrral and exclusive srarus granred ( in ir ro rhe Hebrew !anguage as rhe disrincrive expression of cu]rural revival and was meanr (0 symbolize rhe facr rhar rhis culrure jl(as di.fferenr from Jewish cu!rures in rhe Diaspora (" Diaspola cu1rure") . The rerrn Hebrew culrure also signified rhar rhis was nor an immigranrs' culrure bur ramer a narional cu]rure in a hisrorical homeland, a cu!rure rhar was being creared according ro models rhar esrablished irs ideals, ideology, and program. No less imporranr was rhe facr rhar for rhe firsr time a Jewish culrure emerged

ed נhar was nor rhe cu]rure o f a minoriry, and rhus, even (hough ir was fil ( ro a very grear exrenr wirh componenrs imporred from orher cu]rures

. rure), it was nor a twofold culrure נespecially Wesrern cu ( Con remporary scholarship ofren rends ro emphasize rhe deviarions

from rhe ideals and the ideology, ro show rhar they were nor always and -fu lly realized, ro poinr our thar many of rhe componenrs of rhe old cul

rure were broughr (0 Palestine-Ererz Israe! by immigranrs, and ro argue rhar even in Palesrine-Ererz Israel rhe culrure was srcarified and included subculrures. This critical perspecrive focuses on cu!ruraI realiries rhar have

-been excluded or oblirerared by the hegemonic narrarive. Drawing atten rion ro the much more complex and diverse culrural realiry rhan the one porrrayed by rhe ideological and propagandisric narrarive is of course imporranr. The norion of a single hegemonic culrure wirh no subculrures is false in any discussion of cu!rure. However, one musr remember mar rhe hegemonic, mu]ri-layered sysrem ofHebrew culrure in Palesrlne-Ererz

-Israel was esrablished in a very shorr period by a sociery rhar in 1948 num Oo,ooo ]ews, nOt all of whom shared rhe ideology וO more rhan חbered

-of hebraization, and yer succeeded in crearing a culrural realiry that esrab . lished a shared and unifying idenriry

697 JEWISH CULTURE : WHAT IS IT?

ive," in Nationalism זand Narional Idenriry: A Mediterranean Perspec זLanguage Confl.ic "' oseph Alpher. I26-135. New York: Praeger; Ha..ifa: Reuben Hechr נ. iry, ed dחn and Mo

. 1986 , Chair

. on in Eighkenth-century Europe iזculariza ~ ish S ~ Origins 01 J ~ Feiner, ShmueJ. Th . 2011 • PhiladeIphia: Un.iversiry ofPennsylvania Press

-Gdber. Mark H. "'German-]ewish Lirerarure and Culrure and rhe Field of German . c:wish Srudies," in 7he jewish Contribution to Civilization: Rea.ssessing an fdea, eds נ

ewish נeremy Cohen and Richard 1. Cohen, 165-184. London: Li[cman Library of נ. 2.008 , Civilization

Harshav, Benjamin. Language in Time 01 lkvo/ution. Berkeley: Universiry of Ca1ifornia . 1993 • Press

. 2007 , Jewish Cultun:. Sranford: Stanford Universiry Press 7ןhe Po/yphony o Kaplan. Marion A .• ed. jnvish Daily Lifi in Gnmany. I6r8-I945. New York: Oxford

. 2005 • Universiry Press

. s ~ Middle Ag ~ End 01 th ~ ty at th ~ i.sh Soci ~ acob. Tradition and Crisi.s: J נ, Karz . 1993 , New York: New York Universiry Press

152-,~ Cultu.r ןo ~ Natur ~ ture," in 7h נuKroeber, Alfred Louis. "Rea1iry Cultu.re and VaJue C . 1952 • 166. Chicago: Universiry of Chicago Press

. pt and Dqinitiom ~ Conc ןס~ i Jח- A Critical R ~ and Clyde Kluckhohn. Cultur . 1953 ,. New York: Kraus Reprinc Co

Diaspora. Warsaw and London: The ~ nt in th ~ brnv Movnn ~ H ~ Levinson. Avraham. 7h .) Executive ofBrit Ivrit Olamit, 1935 (Hebrew

1819--( der ]uden afז -FreudenthaJ. Rachd . "The Verein fUr Kulcur und Wissensch ~ Livn . 1996 , 1824): Seek.ing a New Concept of]udaism." Ph.D. diss., Tel Aviv Universiry

nt (r882-~ m ~ Early Zionist Mov ~ t: &ligion and Nationalism in th ~ Luz. Ehud. Parallels Me ] Tel Av;vo Arn Oved, 1985 (Hebrew ·(904.כ

Daily ןcr.s o ~ r806). Studies inAsp ~ Gnman Lands (I64 מPollack. Hermann. jewish Fo/kways i .' 97 ' , Lift· Cambr;dge, MA, MIT Press

wish History? Oxford: Littman Library of ]ewish ~ wish ls j ~ Rosman. Murray ]ay. How j . Civilization. 2oo7

in uחזa jnvish Nationai Cui ןסation ~ C ~ brew: 7h ~ coming H ~ Bruce. B ~ Saposnik. Ari . 2008 • . New York: Oxford Universiry Press ~ Ottoman Palestin

. 2008 Boston: Academic Studies Press uז?זModern jewish Cul ןסldea ~ Schweid. Eliezer. 7h Shavit. Yaacov. "From Admission Met tO Contribution: Rematks on the His:ory of

jnvish Contribution to Civilization: &assrning an ~ an Apologecic Argument," in 7h eremy Cohen and Richard 1. Cohen. 151- 164. London: Lictman Library of 4 .נ, eds ו:k 1

. 2008 • ewish Civilization ]

rn Secular ו:k Mo ~ l/.mism in the Making ofth ~ alem: ClassicaiAntiquity and H חus Athms inj .) jew. London: Litcman Library of)ewish Civilization. 1997 (1999 paperback

Supplyi.ng a Missing System - Be[\Veen OfficiaJ and Unofficial Popular Cultu re in the " . re, ed. B uזHistory 01 Popular Cui ~ s in fh ~ di uזHebrew Culture in Ererz-Israel," in S

1996 , erusalem: The Zalman Shazar Center for ]ewish History 327-345 .נ • Z. Kedar ) Hebrew.כ

The Yishuv be[\Veen Nacional Regeneration ofCulture and Cultural Generation of the " , in jewish Nationalism and Politics, eds. ]ehuda Rei.nharz. Gideon Shimoni .תNation

THE MQDERN WORLD, 1815-2000 696

the product of many components, including those mat are a continua­rion of componenrs from rhe Yishuv period, rhose rhar enrered ir as a result of the Americanization or globalization of the sociery and its cul­ture, and those connected with traditional ]udaism and the emergence of new orthodoxies.

IX

Srudies of rhe developmenr of rhe culrural realiry of rhe ]ews in rhe pasr -200 years - of the polemics with regard tO culrure and the culture wars

separable parr of ]ewish historiographYi they give it expression חare an i and even shape ir. The purpose of a hisrory of ]ewish cu!rure and of the

-cu!rures of rhe ]ews is ro map rhe enrirery of]ewish cu!rure, all irs expres -sions and Strata, including bOth itS organized and non-organized mani

fesrarions, irs cu!rura! producrs and rheir publics, rhe various cu!rural -markets and their hierarchical relations, a.nd the contacts berween sub , culrures and rhe hegemonic culru re. In all. rhese respecrst-rhis dynamic -Ilvely, multifaceted, rlch, unlfylng, and dlvlSlve cultural map has nel

rher peer nor precedenr in rhe hisrory of rhe ]ewish people. Worldviews and ideologies will derermine whar is "]ewish" and whar is "]udaism" in

. rhis map

SELECT BIBLI OGRA PHY

Fa/kn in ~ and Commnnorating th ~ Culr.s: Celzbrating Intkpmdnzc ~ Azaryahu, Maoz. Stat ! i1948-1956. Beersheba: Ben-Gurio ~ sraמ Uמ. iversity of the Negev Press. 1995 (Hebrew.כ Beginnings o ~ : 7h ~ Berkovirz, )ay R. Rites and Passagן r65 ~ Motkrn ]ewish CulfUre in Franc ,ס­

. 2004 • sylvania Press מ.מI860. Philadelphia: Universiry of Pe of a Zionist Culture מd Men: The Imaginatio מ. Berkowirz.. Michael. "Mind. Muscle a

Ph.D. diss .. Universiry of .תfor the ]cws in Cenrral and Westcrn Europe. 1897-I9I4 . 1989 , Wisconsin, Madison

. 2002 , jews: A N(w History. New York: Schocken Books ~ lh ןs o ~ Biale, David, ed. Cultur ction: A Sociai מBourdieu. Pierre. "The Habitus and the Space of Life-sryles." in Disti

• • 170-225. Translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge ~ judgnnmt ofTast ~ th ןס~ Critiqu . 1984 • MA: Harvard Univers iry Press

any. New Haven: Yalc ~חתin \.%imar G חjewish Cultu ןסBrenner. Michacl. The Renaissance . 1996 • Universiry Press

ewish &ligious ] yזCohen, Arthur Allen, and Paul R. Mendes·Floh.r. Contnnpora liefi. New York: Free ~ nts, and B ~ m ~ 7hough:: Original Essays On Criticai Concepts, Mov

· 1987 • Press ", 1882- 1948 Even-Zohar, Itamar. "The Emergence of a Native Hebrew Culture in Palescine . 727-744 , ehuda Rein.h3.I'2 and Anita Shapira נ. rs on Zionism, ed ~ in Essmtial Pap

. 1996 • New York: New York Universiry Press

CHAPTER 25

SEPHARDIC AN D MI Z RA I:I I LITERATURE NA NCY E. BERG

-en been seen as syn fר: Sephard.i and Mizral:>i culrures and trad.itions have o . onymous. Whereas there are significa.nr commonal.iries, rhe rwo are disrincr

This chaprer will delineare rhe distinctions while also idenrifying poinrs in . common, discussing each separarely excepr for where rhere is overlap

THE SEPHARDIC SPHERE

LANGUAGE

is סס[ 50 , usr as Sephardi is a term of some confusion and disagreemenr ] the name of the correspond.ing language. Sephardi (or Sephardic) refers to

-the ]ews in rhe Iberian Peninsula, those expelled in 1492 and rheir descend anrs. Ir also refers to the sryle of prayer, cusroms, and ttaditions foUowed by these ]ews. While rhe term Sephardi has also been used more broadly ro

-include ]ews from Arab and Islamic lands - thar is, other than Ashkenazi sidered a more accurate term (see חi (lit. Easrern) is cO aJ:ג. the term Mizr

. below) . And Sephardi, once needing the modification Sephardi tahor (lit -pure Sephard.i" i.e., from the Iberian Peninsula), has been - mostly "

. resrored ro irs specific meaning Ladino, also known as ]udezmo, ]udeo-Spanish, (E)spaniolit, Muesrra

Spanyol, Djidyo, and variarion1 .. thereof, was for many years rhe common -their ancestry to the Iberian communi ~~ tongue of ]ews who could tra

ties. Some scholars reserve the rerm Ladino ro refer more specifically to a word-for-word rranslation from Hebrew inro Spanish.' As a calque of

-Hebrew it retains the syntax and some of the elements of the source lan guage (Hebrew) rather than being a rrue rranslarion. Over time Ladino has come ro mean the family of d.ialecrs spoken by Sephard.i ]ews. Whar these

; dialecrs have in common is a base language of fifreenrh-cenrury Casrilian

" o rica.l Overview זI Sce for example, David Bunis, "The Language of the Sephardim: A His .) 1970 , Vol 11, ed. Haim Beinart Uerusalem: Magnes Press .וUY in 1he Sephardi Leg

699

1815-2000 , THE MODERN WORLD 698

ewish נon: The Zalman Sh:u.ar Cencer for זcrusalem-Bos 141-157 .נ , and Yosef Salmon

... .) ory, 1996 (Hebrew זHis 01 lSh Paustlne: 7he Creatlon ~ and Shoshana Sitton. Staging and Stagers in Modon J · 2.°°4 , Festive Lore in a New CuLlUre, I882-I948. Detroit: Wayne State Un iversicy Press : e Hebrew Revolution," i.n Dor Ledor X:XXV:1 hזShavit. Zohar. "Children as Agents of

Children a.s Avant-GarM: Childhood and Adokscence in Times 01 Crises and Soczal

.. ) rew ~ -38, 2010 .(H e ~ Kogman, and Yehudit Shteiman, 1 וa ז, Darr וChange, eds. Yae lSh Yzshuv zn ~ ed. and main author. 7he Comtructio71 01 the Hebrew Culture 171 Ihe J

1998 , Eretz Israel. ]erusalem: The Israel Academy of Scicnces and the Bialik Institute

. . .) Heb,,,,v ( ions dans la constltUClon de זFabriqucr une culture nationale. Le r6le des traduc "

la litterature hebra·ique." Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociaks 44 (September

. 21-32 :) 2002

11-38 :) 2009 ( 16 The Habitus of the 'New ]ew' or rhe Haskalah Movement." ]srael "

.) HebrC\v ( In Tel Aviv One Should Speak Hebre\v. On the Partial Success of the Hebrew "

.) Rcvolution." Panim 45 (2008): 50-63 (Hebrew erature de )"eunesse et na1ssance d'un Etar." La &vue MS livres pour זNaissance d'une lit " r .

. 87-92 :) 2008 enja71rs no. 239 (Februa.ry · 2004 , eton Universicy Press ~ i.sh CenlUry. Princeton: Prin ~ SIez.kine, Yuri. 7he J

Ta-Shma, Israel M. Early Fra71co-German RilUals a71d Cuslom. ]erusalem: Magnes Press, The

.. .) Hebrew Universiry, 1992 (Hebrew ish Public CullU1"e in the Late Russian Empire. Bloomlngton: Ind lana ~ Veidlinger, ]effrey. J

· 2009 , Universiry Press : Volkov, Shulamic. Germans, jews, and Antisemites: Trials i71 Emancipation. Cambridge

. 2006 , Cambridge Universiry Press