The Bifurcated System: Islamic & Electoral politics in Iran

Muslim clergy and soldiers clasp hands in friendship atop an armored personnel carrier. Printed in Time magazine, January 29, 1979From: http://www.iranian.com

This and the map on the following slide from the Univ. of Texas map collection, http://www.lib.utexas.edu

Bifurcated Government Structure*

* The Iranian Constitution was first passed in 1979 and revised in 1989. In addition, some of the government institutions presented here were created after 1982. This slide presents the current (2008) structure of the government.

Parliament(Majlis)

• Elected every 4 years• 293 members

Electorate

President* 4-year terms (max. 2)

Cabinet

Assembly ofExperts

* 86 clerics

SupremeLeader (faqih/rahbar)

Council of Guardians•12 members• Can veto Majlis legislation

Judiciary

Security Forces

Expediency Council(mediates disputes between Majlis & Guardian Council)

Electoral heritage:Monarchy and Constitutional Politics

Political heritage:Constitutionalism and centralized authoritarianism in the early 20th c.

Pre-20th century state: Safavid and Qajar empires

Qajar rule: decentralized, diffuse

Constitutional Revolution, 1905-1911 Why? Imperialism/Colonialism

British and Russian spheres of influence

Corruption and inefficiency

Early authoritarian state-building

Pahlavi rule, 1926-1979 Reza Shah, 1926-1941

A wall in Tehran, 1978 : "Kings are the disgrace of history; you are the most disgraceful king. Death to Imperialism." From: http://www.iranian.com/

Authoritarian State-building under Reza Shah

Secularism New civil code (1928) Secular judicial system

Centralization Creation of police force, civil

serviceCosmetic “westernization” Hat law (1935) Veil banned (1936)

Nationalism From “Persia” to “Iran” New state school curricula

Turkey & Iran compared: the early period

Institutions of government Occupation

Causes of 1979 Revolution: General and specific factors

#1 Interrupted democratization and the re-empowerment of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

WWII

Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadeq and the 1953 coup

Left, Mossadeq in New York; right, Mossadeq (74 years old) after he is sentenced to three years of prison (eventually 10 years of house arrest) in 1953.

Photos of Mossadeq from:http://www.iranian.com/History/2003/February/Mossadegh

Mossadeq (right) is warned of the consequences of nationalizing Iranian oil (by a British special envoy).

Photo: http://www.iranian.com/History/2003/February/Mossadegh

Mossadeq supporters.

The Shah in Rome after he flees in 1953.

Mossadeq naps during his military trial in 1953.

#1 cont: growing authoritarianism

Consolidation of authoritarian rule under Mohammad Reza Shah Creation of internal security

organization, SAVAK Tight political control One-party state: Resurgence

Party Alienation of Ulema and

Bazaris US aid & oil revenue patronage

#2 Economic crisis

Oil boom and the “White Revolution” Large-scale industrial

development, literacy, education, land reform

Inflation

Recession

Poor and urban middle class suffering

“The Shah had a lot of sympathy for the poor.” Cartoon by Iraj Zare; re-printed in Hassan Javadi's Satire in Persian Literature.

#3-The problems with foreigners

From foreign advisors to foreign pressure Shah’s reliance on

foreign experts Foreign aid

Cracks in the regime US & NGO pressure Moderate reforms

1979 Iranian Revolution: Three visions, and then two (and then one)

Representatives of three different and conflicting visions of the new Iran. Left, secular reformer Bani-Sadr; middle, constitutional liberal Mehdi Bazargan, who originally proposed retaining the Shah under a constitutional monarchy, and later, the first prime minister of the new Iranian republic; and right, Ayatollah Khomeini. Photo courtesy of Nikki Keddie, from Bill Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East, p. 424.

After the Shah: competing visions

1st (early Revolution) Vision Moderate Constitutional Monarchy (Mehdi Bazargan, the Freedom Movement & Ali Shari’ati)2nd VisionSecular Republic -- respecting but not controlled by Shi’ism3rd Vision: Theocracy-government of Ulama

A cartoon believed to have been published around January, 1980, depicting post-revolution chaos. The artist is unknown. Posted on the Iranian newsgroup soc.culture.iranian

Iranian Revolution: Who

Bazaari merchants

Moderate, politicized UlamaRadical Ulama

A. Khomeini

Secular Urban IntellectualsSecular students

Theological students

Urban workers

Oil workers on strike, 1978.

Photos of the Ayatolloh Khomeini, from http://www.imam-khomeini.com

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 1902-1989

• Exiled, 1962-1978

• Velayet-e Faqih (Guardianship of the jurisprudent)

Ayatollah Khomeini in the Paris suburb of Neauphle le Chateau, late 1978. Photo by Hatami

"Anti-government demonstrators in Tehran set fire to portraits of the Shah and his family." From the November 20, 1978, issue of Time magazine

1979 Iranian Revolution: How

Early days of protest & suppression pamphlets,cassettes demonstrations Violent suppression & continued

resistance

Growing confrontation Sept 8 1978 “Black Friday” in Tehran:

wave of protests and violent suppression Strikes, paralysis of Iranian economy,

huge demonstrations, defections in the army

Jan. 1979 M. Reza Shah flees the country Feb. 1: A. Khomeini returns to Iran

Main headline: "2,500-year-old despotic monarchy collapses. Cities liberated by the revolutionary army." Kayhan newspaper, February 11, 1979

The chaos after the revolution: the first new Islamic-Iranian state

Presidency &Prime Ministry

Council of Guardians•Issued laws, decrees, •veto power over PM

Localcommittees

RevolutionaryGuards

RevolutionaryTribunals

KhomeiniMonarchy replaced by new Islamic republic (March 1979):

But what was an “Islamic Republic?”

ArmedForces

Who exactly should rule, and how??Various political parties

Newsweek, February 26, 1979

Foreign crises

* US hostage crisis, Nov. 1979

* Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1989: about 200,000 Iranians die

Internal resistance & purges

Former SAVAK chief and three colleagues lie dead after their execution.

Photos: http://www.iranian.com

1981-82: Resistance and Suppression: 10,000 Iranians die

After the Revolution (or, the 2nd revolution):

The second Islamic-Iranian state

The New TheocracyFurther changes & later reforms

Economy: state control, privatization Expansion of public sector (later unsuccessful attempts to contract

this) Creation of foundations to oversee former regime’s property Nationalization of industries, banks, businesses

Forced departure of foreign companies (1979) Rationing, subsidies, price controls, redistribution of property 1988 and after: liberalization package

new privatization, reduction of govt subsidies, promotion of exports But oil still provides 40-50% of government income

New legal code Sharia legal codes Polygamy, free male divorce, child custody to fathers in initial

post-Revolution phase; increasingly challenged in 1980s

Social reforms (and re-reforms)

Cultural revolution, 1981-83 University purges New dress codes Gender segregation Outlawing of music and liquor Religious education in schools

Other Social reforms “Reconstruction Jihad”: Improved rural conditions Improved education and public health

Initial discouragement of women’s education soon changed Rise in female literacy: 36% in 1976; 72% in 1996 Grassroots primary health care Better family planning: drastic reduction in birthrate after 1988

Photo: BBC