the apple grower

10 feet of spacing here, respectively, and I know onegrower with freestanding M.26 at 12 feet apart. Thetraining systems used in high-density blocks keeptrees contained within a far narrower spacing—typi-cally 3 to 5 feet for the M.9 clones—by tying laterallimbs to a horizontal position and even downward.Tree vigor ultimately determines how challengingsuch systems like the Slender Spindle and theVertical Axis are to maintain (see page 100). I like tospace semidwarf trees on M.7 and G.30 about 12 feetapart, with semi-vigorous stalwarts like MM.111 aslittle as 14 apart and Bud.118 as much as 18 feet apartwithin the row. Spacing between rows at 20 feet forthese larger rootstocks has always seemed tight whenthese trees reach their allotted size, but then again,24 feet between rows can seem mighty spacious inslower-growing northern orchards like mine. Yet a

full-size seedling orchard, spaced on an equidistantgrid of 26 to 32 feet, can take your breath away whenit comes of age.

Vigor variability among cultivars needs to bejudged regionally and to take into account soilvitality. Soils with high levels of organic matter (andthus a strong water-holding capacity) usually ramp upgrowth, while droughty soils slow growth. NorthernSpy and Granny Smith rate among the most vigorousof apples, with varieties from the McIntosh lineagemoderately so, followed by Golden Delicious andJonathan types. Spur strains of certain varieties showthe least vigor—more sunlight energy is put intofruiting spurs than into lateral shoot growth—andthus can be planted more compactly. Northern orhigh-altitude growers find seedling trees are oftensmaller at maturity than a southern tree would be andmodify tree spacing accordingly. Experience is theonly infallible guide to fine-tuning tree spacing to thenth degree.

NURSERY SOURCES AND VARIETAL COLLECTORS

Trees are a big investment, whether propagated bythe orchardist or bought from a reputable nursery.Purchasing top-grade stock is a given once you recog-nize the cost of waiting an additional growing seasonor two for a less vigorous tree to catch up. An inferiortree is not a bargain in the long term. Also keep inmind that root development has proportionatelymore value than overfertilized top growth. Nurserieswith shorter growing seasons may not be able to pushgrowth as far along as in southern zones, but northernorchardists will appreciate buying stock that is accli-mated to their conditions. A one- or two-year-oldwhip transplants more readily than older stock: Rootgrowth is less disturbed, allowing the whip to over-take those fully branched prodigals after a year ortwo. A trunk caliper of 1/2 to 5/8 inch gives morebang for the buck. Feathered trees—with a minimum

82 — t h e a p p l e g r o w e r —

Staked M.9 trees in the garden. Photo by Michael Phillips

Apple Grower Final Pages 9/28/05 2:43 PM Page 82

— t h e t r e e s a n d t h e p l a n t i n g — 83

N U R S E R Y L I N G O

Bench graft—a propagation technique of latewinter where sized rootstock (out of theground, and thus on the “bench”) is graftedwith scionwood that has two dormant buds.

Budding—a propagation technique of mid-summer utilizing a single vegetative bud of thedesired variety inserted into a matching siteon the bark of the rootstock.

Callus—healing growth that develops over thegraft union and binds the scion tissue in place.

Compatibility—the performance of scion androotstock depends on a graft union that makesa strong physical connection and displays aphysiological harmony of the two genetic sys-tems. A number of incompatibilities in treesare induced by viruses. However, graft unionswhere the scion outgrows the rootstock (orvice versa) can be perfectly compatible.

Feathered tree—nursery stock that has devel-oped three or more wide-angled laterals.

Heading height—the height at which lower scaf-fold branches are trained out from a developingwhip. A scaffold branch started 30 inches fromthe ground stays put on the trunk at that height.As the branch enlarges in diameter, it will actu-ally appear to get slightly closer to the soil line.

Interstem—scionwood grafted between a vig-orous rootstock and the fruiting cultivar toinduce dwarfing.

Scion—a dormant shoot, ideally first-yeargrowth, taken from a fruiting variety to pro-vide grafting stock.

Slipping—the vascular cambium of the bark canbe moved along the wood without ripping ortearing only when it is actively growing. Mostgrafting is best done when the bark is “slipping.”

Whip-and-tongue union—the grafting spliceused in making a bench graft. This interlockingmethod mechanically binds the scion to therootstock and maximizes cambium contact.

The common whip-and-tongue graft depends on the cambium zones of both the scion and the rootstock making intimate contact at one point. Wrap this union withsurgical rubber and seal it with grafting wax or an asphalt-based tree dressing to prevent any drying of the cambial zones. Be sure to seal the exposed end of thescion as well.


of three wide-angled laterals initiated between 24and 36 inches off the ground—bear more early fruitthan a #1 whip. Accordingly, nurseries charge about$1 more per tree for this premium grade.

The fruit varieties offered by nurseries vary byregion and the perception of what is commercially onthe rise. Market favorites and disease-resistant culti-vars are touted in most catalogs, along with selectedheirlooms of our great-grandparents’ era. It’s gener-ally assumed that apples are planted for desserteating, but if a quality cider blend or home keepingability interests you, chat with the folks at thenursery. They’ll be glad to talk about rootstock selec-tion, tree growth habits, fire blight resistance, andwhatever else might concern you as a potential cus-tomer. The “bud sports” of more than a few varietiescompound the choices available—orchardists invari-ably spot redder color or improved return bloom orincreased spur bearing on a single branch where agiven cultivar has mutated.22 Spur-type strains ofJonagold, Idared, and Golden Delicious (to name buta few) have been promoted for being easier-to-manage trees, as vigor is reduced by as much as athird. Selected sports are thought to be a horticul-tural improvement of the parent apple, though rarelyhas the criterion ever been taste.

Nurserymen who are fruit growers as well can addimmeasurably to a commercial discussion. Ultimately,tree quality and friendly advice mean more than whohas the lowest price. The nursery business is as chal-lenging as any kind of farming: Ordering trends canbe capricious, and with so many variety and root-stock options available, costs are going to be higherfor smaller operations with fewer margins for aneccentric market. A custom budding order placedtwo years before the trees get planted can save youan average of 10 percent, provided you start with ahundred-tree minimum. A $2 deposit per tree assuresthe nursery that you really intend to follow throughon this purchase.

There are relatively few nurseries propagating fruittrees entirely by organic methods. Fedco Trees and

St. Lawrence Nurseries both emphasize northern har-diness on Antonovka seedling rootstock. Trees ofAntiquity in California offers many heirloom vari-eties on a choice of Bud.9 or MM.111. Orders forlarge lots of trees will more than likely go through thebetter conventional nurseries listed in the appen-dices: Here’s where the advice to consider a mycor-rhizal root dip (see page 34) becomes especially per-tinent. The largest of these operations fumigate theirsoils in order to continually replant grafted stock, butsmaller operations such as the Cummins family inNew York lease new cover-cropped ground every fewyears.

We grafted many of the trees for new plantings inLost Nation ourselves. If you want to graft your owntrees, buy rootstock by the hundred lot direct from


Bench grafts are planted out in the nursery bed to gain a year or two of shoot growth.Photo by Michael Phillips


either Willamette or TRECO. The preferred caliperfor bench grafting is what the industry terms 1/4-inchcaliper, which is just slightly larger than a pencil.Smaller roots can be lined out in the nursery for bud-ding later in the summer. Varietal wood can beobtained from other growers, members of the NorthAmerican Fruit Explorers (NAFEX), living historyfarms, several of the smaller nurseries, and atstatewide scion exchanges. The challenging part canbe matching up rootstock diameter to the diameter ofgathered scions. Ideally, whip grafts are made withinseveral inches of the soil line to reduce aerial burr-knots (unsightly bumps of tissue growth that attractdogwood borers) and the tendency of dwarfing stockto dwarf too much when overexposed. Mentally pre-pare yourself for clonal rootstock: “Sticks withoutroots” isn’t far from the truth in some cases, but givenrich earth and plenty of water, miracles do happen.An experienced grafter can expect a 90 percent take,but factor in an additional 15 percent loss for spindlygrowth and other inevitable misadventures. Nurserybeds should be laid out as single rows 3 feet or moreapart, with the trees planted 8 inches apart in therow.23 A drip irrigation system is often essential tomaximize shoot growth and ensure rootstock sur-vival. All this good work can be fully rewarded, ofcourse, only if the orchard soil is properly prepped theyear(s) ahead as well.

GRAFTING AND PROPAGATION

Chances are good if you’re an orchardist that youalready know how to graft. If not, learning opportu-nities abound: Spring pruning workshops sponsoredby Cooperative Extensions often delve into graftingbasics; members of the North American FruitExplorers share advice online and in a quarterly pub-lication; nearby growers just need to be asked. TomBurford and Ed Fackler teamed up to write the veryconcise Fruit Grafters Handbook, which reflects theiryears of nursery experience. Give it a try. Once you

see a scion bud take and start to grow, yourorcharding prospects will never be limited again.

Tree stock is either bench-grafted in early spring forplanting out in nursery beds or budded in Augustwhen the rootstock is already established in theground. The resultant scion growth of a whip-and-tongue union can provide a suitable whip for trans-planting out in the orchard the following spring,though less vigorous whips likely require anotheryear’s growth. Buds cut from one-year-old vegetativeshoots are either inserted under the bark of the root-stock (T-budding) or placed on the rootstock where aportion of the bark has been removed (chip budding).These are held in place with either a grafting rubberbound around but not over the bud24 or a medicalwrap called parafilm that the bud can grow through.Height of budding on the rootstock is usually 4 to 8inches above ground level. T-budding can be donejust prior to terminal bud set (when the bark is stillslipping) in late July and early August. Chip buddingcan be done successfully throughout August and intoSeptember.25 The scion bud heels into dormancy, butthe rootstock continues to develop roots through thefall. The rootstock portion above the bud union ispruned away when growth begins the followingspring. Lateral growth on the ensuing shoot (up to aheight of 24 inches above the bud union) is pinchedtwo or three times throughout early summer. Theseyoung trees are more subject to blow-outs (breakingoff at the bud union) during a period of time whennew varietal shoots are approximately 10 to 18 inchesin height.26 The budded tree usually develops four ormore wide-angled feathers above this heading heightand attains a total height of 4 to 5 feet with good irri-gation. Next spring it’s time to plant this up-and-coming whiz kid out in the orchard.

A two-year budded tree has a jump start on produc-tion when compared with a one-year bench-graftedtree. There would be less of a difference if the benchgraft was also given a second season in the nursery,but a profit-wise nurseryman has little reason to pro-vide it. The callus on bud unions tends to be more




The most common budding method is the T-bud, in which a shield containing thedesired bud is inserted into a T-cut on the rootstock in late summer. The stock willbe cut back just above this bud the following spring. Any lateral growth on theresulting shoot is pinched off up to a heading height of 20 inches.



delicate for a couple of seasons, however. Benchgrafts make a dependable union that grows uprightand straight. Wood growth out in the orchard willeventually strengthen compatible unions from eitherpropagation method after a few years.

The level of maturity in grafted wood steps beyondthat of the developing rootstock. A seedling tree goesthrough a “juvenile” phase, during which it cannotbe induced to flower. This is followed by a transitionphase in which flowering can occur, but not as readilyas when wood reaches fruiting maturity. The woodtissues in the trunk of a seedling tree are perpetuallyjuvenile: Cut off a sixty-year-old tree at its base, andthe resulting shoots from latent buds will beunfruitful until tissue growth again enters the adultphase. By contrast, scion buds taken from a fruitingcultivar and then grafted to seedling stock are

entirely adult above the union. The “vegetativeadult” phase of young grafted trees is very short inprecocious varieties like Golden Delicious, but seem-ingly interminable in Northern Spy. Placing adultbudwood on precocious rootstock accomplishes whatour great-grandparents would have called impossible:Northern Spy initiating fruit set in its second year onG.65 rootstock.

Trees that are twice grafted have three distinctcambium genetics at work. The wood between therootstock and the fruiting cultivar is called the inter-stem. Such trees appear to offer the best of all worlds.The root can be vigorous and have good anchorage,the interstem provides the desired dwarfing effect,and the fruit above sells like hotcakes. The degree ofdwarfing varies with interstem length, with a 6- to 8-inch piece of stem wood generally considered

Topworking a mature tree allows the apple grower to switch varieties in midstream. Source: Winslow Homer woodcut, Harper’s Weekly, April 30, 1870



T H E A R T O F T O P W O R K I N G

Any apple tree can be changed over to a newvariety by cleft grafting scions into a vigorous cen-tral leader or by bark grafting around larger-diametertrunks. Growers can topwork entire blocks to a cur-rent market favorite at less cost than replanting.Fruiting often begins in the third year after con-verting such trees; the growth emanating fromestablished root systems can be phenomenal.

Select the main stem of the tree (or even indi-vidual scaffold branches) that’s 1 to 4 inches indiameter for cleft grafting. Make a clean headingcut where the stem is smooth and free of knots;then, using the chisel end of a grafting tool, centera vertical split (called the cleft) as deep as or deeperthan the stem diameter. The scions are cut 1 to 2inches below the lowest bud to resemble triangularwedges that gently slope to a fine point. Keep thewidth of the wedge wider on the outside, where thecambium of the scion will be matched to the cam-bium of the stem. The cut should be long enough toextend well down along each side of the cleft. Pry

open the cleft with the pike end of the grafting toolenough to insert the trimmed scions, being carefulto align the cambium layers. All of the exposed cutsurfaces must then be covered immediately withwax or an asphalt-based sealant, even working itinto the cleft space now held slightly open by thescions. Leave two buds on each scion and covertheir cut as well. This coating should be maintainedthroughout the healing process. The less vigorous ofthe two scions (assuming both survive) gets prunedaway the following year.

Cleft grafting is best done in the late dormantseason before sap starts to flow. Choose afternoonsmild enough to work without having to weargloves. It’s recommended that temperatures afterthe grafting stay close to 40°F for a few days,because callus tissue exposed to temperatures of34°F or colder before it differentiates may die or bepermanently stunted. (Though, truth be known,we have had some wickedly cold weather in NewHampshire during that period of time, and my


sufficient. M.9 interstemmed on MM.111, forinstance, produces a tree about 35 percent of full sizethat crops early. Such a tree does not require a stake,which is the chief advantage of interstem logic. Thecost of producing a three-component tree—whetherdouble-grafted in the dormant season or budded insuccessive years—can offset the advantage of growingsmall yet self-supported trees. Most nurserymen rec-ommend that interstem trees be planted with thelower graft union 3 inches below the ground to min-imize any tendency toward suckering. Some growershave expressed a concern about interstemmed fruitbeing undersize or the trees themselves beingunthrifty in shallow soils.

You can put your grafting talents to work innumerous ways in an existing orchard. If a row of self-sterile cultivars aren’t getting sufficiently pollinated,try grafting a suitable pollinizer on a replacementbranch down low in each tree’s framework. Bridgegrafting can save the day when rodents girdle unpro-tected trees. Scions taken from watersprouts aregrafted around the trunk to span the missing cam-bium and then are coated with Doc Farwell’s GraftingSeal or TreeKote Dressing.27 (This entire technique ismore fully described on page 200). Topworking comesinto play when you realize your original varietalselection is nobody’s favorite or prone to disease pres-sure beyond your ken. New roots can be put onto astunted tree by inarching: Plant two or three seedlingrootstocks about a foot out from the base of the treein question; then, next spring when the bark is slip-ping, splice each sapling into the trunk to maximizecambial contact. You’ll see no increase in vigor thefirst year, but after that, as Jim Cummins says, hangon to your hat!

Quality scions are integral to grafting success. Ifscion wood has been dehydrated, mildewed, orexposed to ethylene, the odds will be greatly reducedthat the graft will take. Buds allowed to freeze prior tografting tend to be worthless. Using wood older thanthe past season’s growth also lessens your chances.Scion pieces should range from pencil-size to 1/2 inch


grafted scions have come through just fine.)Once buds begin swelling, growers forgo thecleft technique for topworking and switch tobark grafting new varieties as late as May.

Two tricks of the trade come into play in fur-ther ensuring topworking success. Leaving a“nurse limb” as a photosynthesis sink for theroots during that first season results in betteryields from the grafts sooner. The growth onlarger-diameter trees (where as many as six barkgrafts have been spliced into the cambium atthe circumference of the cut) must be sup-ported to stand up to strong winds. Theresultant whips can be braided the secondseason by weaving the weaker shoots threetimes around the newly chosen main leader.You have to tie the braids at first so they don’tunravel. These braids all naturally graft withinthemselves over time, thus reducing problemswith wood rotting on the stump as well.

The cleft graft involves positioninga pair of tapered scions into a splitlimb so that the cambial zonesadjoin. The scion buds (fueled byan established root system) growquickly into fruitful branches injust a few years.


in diameter: Pieces that are too small tend to dehy-drate quickly, and those any larger might not fit well.Scions can be gathered anytime after the tree hasgone dormant, though most growers wait till Januaryand February. Be sure to tag the wood (cut to 1-footlengths) from each variety clearly before wrapping itin moistened newspaper, tucking it into a plastic bag,and storing it in the refrigerator or a root cellar.28

Branches cut for budding purposes in summer havethe leaves snipped off but the leafstalk (petiole) leftintact. Bud sticks should ideally be used within forty-eight hours.

One last bit of grafting advice perhaps holds thegreatest portent of all. Bill MacKentley of St.Lawrence Nurseries points out that greater suretycomes when grafting is done during the two-weekphase of the waxing moon. The percentage of takesgoes up considerably with rising lunar energy. Whyshould this be so? Who can say? Perhaps the moon’sgravitational tug pulls tree reserves up into the scionbud. Understanding why in this case takes a backseatto appreciating the fact that this traditional tenet ofsuccessful grafting works.

THE SETTING OF THE TREES

The planting of a tree is a sacred act. Each time webreak open the earth, layer out the developing roots,and tamp the soil back in place we embrace ourmutual destiny with trees. I like to recall the story ofElzéard Bouffier and the thousands upon thousands ofoaks he planted in the Basse-Alpes region of south-eastern France. Jean Giono, who wrote The Man WhoPlanted Trees, concluded, “When you rememberedthat all this had sprung from the hands and the soulof this one man . . . you understood that men couldbe as effectual as God in realms other than that ofdestruction.” An apple orchard may not be an oakforest, but it is a wonderful gift to posterity.

The size of the tree hole needs to be large enoughto accommodate the roots without bending them. A

3-foot-diameter hole generally fits the bill. It’s betterto prune back an excessively long root than to curl itback on itself (sometimes I trench out a channel forsuch a hearty root). Loosening the subsoil in thebottom of an 18-inch-deep hole provides leeway insetting the height of the graft union aboveground. Aburied graft union will eventually establish its ownroots, which override the desired dwarfing effect ofclonal rootstock. I aim to keep the graft union 2 to 3inches above the soil line, planting only slightlydeeper than the tree may have grown in the nursery.The settling of looser soils may bring the graft uniondown another inch or two, and if that has been yourexperience, compensate by keeping the graft unionhigher at planting. Trees on seedling roots are the


The grafting hands of Jim Cummins expertly prepare to bud yet another varietal tree.Photo by Michael Phillips


one exception: The graft union can be buried 1 to 3inches deep to encourage self-rooting of the scioncultivar.

Forget any advice that tells you to mix massiveamounts of compost with the soil in the plantinghole,29 as we want the roots to extend much fartherinto the surrounding earth for their long-term suste-nance.30 I backfill the tree only with the soil thatcame out of the hole—plus a dusting of 1 pound ofblack rock phosphate for early root development—with the more friable topsoil placed against the rootsand the subsoil used to finish filling in the hole. Treenutrition in the years ahead will come from above tofeed the top 6 inches of soil, where 90 percent of thefeeder roots are found. Compost and woody mulchnow become essential in establishing a thrivingmicroorganism profile favoring beneficial fungi.31

Backhoes can be essential in clearing futureorchard ground of tree stumps and rocks. That said,big machines are not for digging the actual plantinghole and realizing intimacy with the land. Suchground needs to be tilled and cover-cropped downeach row-to-be to properly condition the soil. Aplanting furrow can be opened with a middle busterplow that next spring, or individual holes can bepainstakingly dug by hand with a spade. Tractor-mounted augers will burnish the sides of a plantinghole, especially in clay soil. Roughly serrating thesides of such a hole with a digging fork helps fractureits too-smooth bowl. Growing roots need to readilypenetrate into the surrounding soil; otherwise theymay circle around the “glazed pot” inadvertently pro-vided by a poorly dug hole. In heavy or clay soils, it ispossible to plant on raised mounds to lift the crownof the tree above any standing water that accompa-nies spring thaw or heavy rains—just be sure to breakup the soil layers below prior to planting. Piling thesoil on the uphill and downhill sides of the hole asyou dig allows you to systematically plant from therow side without compacting the turned earth.

Prior to planting, you should never allow the rootsof the tree to dry out. Soaking the roots in a bucket

of seaweed solution can help reduce transplant stress,and wrapping them in plenty of wet burlap ensuresthat the transported trees will stay moist out in thefield. Choosing a relatively calm, cloudy day forplanting is preferable to a sunny, windy day. The treesshould be either individually labeled or tied in bun-dles of ten to identify who’s who in the planting plan.Digging holes ahead of time for a planting session ismore efficient than a “dig then plant, dig then plant”routine. Any broken roots should be trimmed off. Aslight mound of soil in the bottom of the plantinghole helps in spreading out the roots. The investmentin a mycorrhizal root dip at this time makes goodsense. Tamp soil firmly around each layer of roots asyou backfill. Roots should radiate in all directionsaround the tree, just as they grew in the nursery bed.With a little forethought, a rootless pocket can be left


22–24”

16”

2“

The value of a proper planting hole for a tree cannot be overestimated.


for a stake 6 inches from the trunk on the leewardside of dwarfing stock. Puddle water in the root zoneto collapse any remaining air pockets before replacingthe topsoil. Dancing a happy jig can equally serve fora final tamping of moist soil and to straighten out anyerrant lean to the tree. Some growers deliberatelyslant trees into the prevailing wind to somewhatcounter its effect on exposed sites.

Positioning the young tree to take full advantage oftissue orientation (relative to the sun) is not easy todo. Nurseries understandably do not mark thesouthern side of the tree per se. Still, barerooted stockfor planting might show a definite dominant lateral

root that grew in response to the magnetic field of theearth. Aligning this dominant root toward the mag-netic pole ensures that the tree will continue to growin alignment with the sun the same way it did in thenursery. The old-timer who shared this under-standing with me swore such planted trees took offand grew far better than others.

Whips should be headed back at planting time, theexception being well-feathered trees in a high-density orchard. A one-year whip is snipped off 30 to42 inches (based on the vigor of the rootstock)above the ground, or 6 inches above the highestfeather in the case of a freestanding tree. This helps


H O L E D I G G E R S I N T H E S K Y

Planting a new block of fruit trees calls for aheap of hole digging. Many growers have put inthe lonely effort, spading out thirty sizable holesin a morning’s work, then planting the trees inthe afternoon. But nothing beats an inspiredgroup of friends helping out on the farm. OurHolediggers in the Sky club was born one springweekend when we invited a dozen or so farmenthusiasts to help. Amazingly, most of themshowed up, shovels in hand and kids in tow. Twohours later, we had close to two hundred holesdug and the inkling of an idea.

That fall, we issued certificates for a “thank-you gallon” of cider. Next spring’s newsletterannounced two hole-digging dates as we beganto plan the planting of a new block. The firstSaturday the ground was too waterlogged fordigging, so we put our volunteers to work in ourbearing blocks. All the prunings got picked up,tree guards were removed from replacementtrees, and the last of the compost was spread.More willing souls joined us the next Saturdayand dug all the holes for three long rows.

A robust thinning session seems like just theright thing for this group of willing volunteerswhen we meet again.

Photo

by M

ichae

l Phil

lips



Be sure to dig tree holes that will satisfy your dog supervisor. Grasping the upper roots in your hand helps in spreading laterals at the appropriatedepths.

Root laterals are meant to radiate out from the tree. Tamp the soil as you backfill to avoid air pockets around the roots.

Photos by Michael Phillips


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