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TERRORISM AND ITS IMPACT ON GLOBAL SECURITY
(A CASE STUDY OF AL-QAEDA)
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE OFFICE OF UNDERGRADUATE
RESEARCH BAZE UNIVERSITY, ABUJA
BY
RACHAEL ISTIFANUS ZAKARIYA
BU/17C/BS/2863
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEFREE BACHERLOR OF SCIENCE
MAJOR: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND DIPLOMACY
JANUARY, 2021
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DECLARATION
I, Rachael Istifanus Zakariya, hereby declare that this project titled TERRORISM AND ITS
IMPACT ON GLOBAL SECURITY; A CASE STUDY OF AL-QAEDA has been carried
out by me, under the supervision of Dr. Ebimboere Seiyefa. I further certify that this work has
not been previously submitted for the award of a degree or certificate elsewhere. The
information derived from the literature had been duly acknowledged in the text and a list of
references provided. No part of this project was previously presented for another degree or
diploma at this or any institution.
________________________ __________________ RACHAEL ISTIFANUS ZAKARIYA Date (BU/17C/BS/2863)
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that the project titled research work titled TERRORISM AND ITS
IMPACT ON GLOBAL SECURITY; A CASE STUDY OF AL-QAEDA by Rachael
Istifanus Zakariya BU/17C/BS/2863, has been approved by the Department of International
Relations and Diplomacy, Faculty of Management and Social Sciences, Baze University,
Abuja, Nigeria.
APPROVAL PAGE
1. …………………………………… ………………………………………
PROJECT SUPERVISOR DATE
DR. EBIMBOEIE SEIYEFA
2. …………………………………… ………………………………………
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT DATE
PROF. USMAN MUHAMMED
3. …………………………………… ………………………………………
DEAN, FACULTY OF MGT DATE
AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
PROF. OSITA AGBU
4. …………………………………… ………………………………………
EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this research work first to God Almighty who has always been there for me,
and has brought me this far. I also dedicate this research work to my beloved parent
Mr. Istifanus Zakariya, and my dearest mum Late Mrs. Rejoice Istifanus Zakariya, and
to my siblings, also to my uncles Late Mr. Emmanuel Filibus Gwama and Mr.
Emmanuel Peter and to my darling aunt Mrs. Helen Haruna for their never ending love,
support, prayers, support, and encouragement throughout this entire program. Thank
you for always being there for me and always believing in me.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to God almighty for bringing me this far and making my
research project a success, which without him I would not have gotten to where I am
today. I will also remain grateful to my family for their never ending support, I really
appreciate you all.
To Dr. Ebimboere Seiyefa, my supervisor, Thank you for all the support, time,
guidance, advise, and patience, I really appreciate you, and truly lucky to be under your
supervision. Also to the lectures of my department, thank you for always being there
for me and for all you have taught me, I could not have wished for better people to have
taught me. A big thanks to Amira, Aisha, Isa, Adil and Faith for all the words of
encouragement, supports and love, I appreciate you all. Also to my classmate and
friends Thank you.
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TABEL OF CONTENT
TABEL OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE.............................................................................i
DECLARATION.......................................................................ii
CERTIFICATION....................................................................iii
DEDICATION.........................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT..........................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................vii
ABSTRACT............................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background to the Study.................................................................. 1
1.1 Statement of the Problem................................................................. 4
1.2 Research Aim.......................................................................... 5
1.3 Research Questions.......................................................................... 6
1.4 Significance of study........................................................................ 6
1.5 Scope and limitations.........................................................................7
1.6 Research Methodology……………………….……………………...7
1.7 Review of Theory ………………………………………………… 8
1.8 Definition of Terms …………………………………………………. 9
1.9 Summary of Chapter……………………………………………… 10
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………. 11
2.1 Overview of Terrorism ……………………………………………….. 12
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2.1.1 Causes of Terrorism…………………………………………………….. 15
2.2 Terrorism and Global Security ………………………………………… 16
2.3 The Concept of Collective Security …………………………………… 20
2.3.2 Multilateralism and Collective Agreements on Global Security
………………………………..….. 24
2.3.3 Implication of Terrorism on Global Security………………………… 29
2.4 The Theory of Realism ……………………………………………. …..... 30
CHAPTER THREE: AL-QAEDA TERRORIST GROUP AND GLOBAL TERRORISM
3.0 Introduction................................................................................................... 38
3.1 Links between Terrorism and Global Security............................................. 38
3.2 Origin of Al-Qaeda ………………………………………………… 41
3.3 Objectives of Al-Qaeda …………………………………………. .......... 45
3.4 Structure of Al-Qaeda …………………………………………………… 47
3.4.1 Organizational Structure of Al-Qaeda ………………………………. 49
3.5 Al-Qaeda’s Affiliates …………………………………………......... 49
3.5.1 Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) ………………………………………………………….. 49
3.5.2 Al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb ……………………………………… 50
3.5.3 Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan ……………………………………………. 51
3.6 Impacts of Al-Qaeda Attacks on Global Security …………………… 52
3.6.1 Specific Impacts of Global Terrorism Across Various
States ……………………………………………………. 56
3.6.2 Global Effects of The 9/11 Attacks ………………………………. 56
3.6.3 The Effects of 9/11 on the United States in General ………………….. 57
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3.6.4 Damage Impact of 9/11 Attacks ………………………………………….. 59
3.7. Immediate Economic Impact ……………………………………………… 60
3.7.1 2001 Recession …………………………………………………………….. 61
3.7.2 War on Terror …………………………………………………………….. 61
3.7.3 Debt Crisis ………………………………………………………………… 61
3.8 Bali Bombing impact ………………………………………………………. 62
3.8.1 Impact of the Bombing ……………………………………………………... 63
3.8.2 Impact on state Society Relations …………………………………………… 63
CHAPTER FOUR: INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO AL-QAEDA IN RELATION
TO GLOBAL SECURITY
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 65
4.1 Legal and Financial Clampdown …………………………………………… 65
4.2 Examining the Progress in the Fight Against Terrorism ……………………. 71
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND
RECOMMENDATION
5.0 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 74
5.1 Summary ........................................................................................................... 74
5.2 Conclusion ………............................................................................................ 76
5.3 Recommendations............................................................................................. 78
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………… 79
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ABSTRACT
Terrorism is not a new phenomenon which has been in existence for years carried out by
individuals and organizations mainly for political reasons. Notwithstanding, due to the
activities of these terrorist groups, they will in general debilitate a state's capacity to guarantee
the wellbeing and security to its citizens. Using Al-Qaeda as a case study, a group in existence
for over 2 decades, the study focuses on their terror acts such as the bombing of train stations
in Madrid 2004, and London 2005, the Bali club bombing, and how it has impacted the world
at large, economically, psychologically, and socially. More so, for the objective of the study to
be achieved, the study made use of qualitative research to analyze the subject of this research
work. In the context of theoretical framework, the theory of Realism was used. Based on the
findings the study concludes that the US assemble and sponsor terror networks mostly for short
term purposes and where they are no longer useful, they are disposed, although sometimes
disposing such network is not the easiest of tasks. Political intentions remain the major link
between terrorism and global security with major actors, while promotion of religious
ideologies come as the minor indications because they are not which much state sponsorship
like the political element. Regarding the specific impacts of terrorism on Economic Security,
findings includes the reduction of FDI, reduced capital inflows, stalls stock markets, shifts
investment both capital and labour. It ushers in higher uncertainty thus reducing confidence
among potential investors. The study recommends an understanding of the adaptive and
resilient nature of transnational terrorist groups is critical. By incorporating this data into
antiterrorist doctrine, strategy, and tactics, which various actors in the fight against terrorism
can adjust their operations to meet the changing demands of the security environment against
a dynamic enemy such as Al Qaeda.
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CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION
1.0 BACKGROUNG OF STUDY.
Terrorism has been a focal point that has gained wide acknowledgement by the research,
academic, professional, governmental, and international communities. Its origin can be traced
as far back as the 20th century, prior to the event that happened in September 11th, 2001.
Terrorism was among one of the developing numbers of global security concerns before the
assault of September 11, 2001, however, turned into the principal concern of the international
community. Terrorism today is viewed as an impede to the development of social orders
governed by the rule of law; but also seen as a global threat that affect every nation.
However, it is important to define the term Terrorism for a better understanding before
proceeding. Terrorism is numerous and disputable, and has gained a wide range of debate with
the saying that “one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter”. As a result of this,
different scholars and researchers have defined the term terrorism in different ways;
The Oxford Dictionary calls terrorism "the unlawful utilization of viciousness and
intimidation, particularly against regular citizens, in pursuit of political objectives. Merriam-
Webster considers it the methodical and coercive utilization of terror, defined as "fierce or
destructive, (for example, bombing) committed by groups to threaten a populace or government
into conceding their requests.
According to Shreyasi Ghosh, terrorism is a complicated term that is an upsetting sort of
brutality, a strategy for battle or an approach used to accomplish certain objectives, to advance
a condition of fear in its casualties that does not affirm to humanitarian standards which
exposure is essential for its approach. This usually involves killing innocent individuals and
the demolition of property, to make panic and fear, which affected even the remotest aspect of
the globe.
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UNSC resolution 1566 in 2004 defines terrorism as any criminal demonstrations including
against customary residents, executed to cause death or genuine considerable injury, or taking
of prisoners, with the motivation to prompt a condition of fear in the general populace or a
gathering of individuals or explicit individuals, alarm a general population or drive a
government or an international organization to do or to avoid doing any act.
It will be well said that terrorism is a recent phenomenon, and to a degree because of current
correspondence. In any case, terrorist activities existed even hundreds of years back. Three
groups of terrorist acts existed hundreds of years back which are; the Things also known as the
Hindu, the Assassin known as the Islamic, and the Zealots who are the Jewish, showing that
terrorist activity has been in existence since the times of the Roman Empire. Notwithstanding,
terrorism is not a phenomenon brought about by extreme consideration from present-day
media, for instance, the Assassins did not require the media to contact audiences and make
known their intentions because their victories were killed in adored spots and regal courts,
which generally occurs on blessed days within the sight of numerous witnesses.
From the last part of the 1960s to the last part of the 1980s, terrorism is supposed to be propelled
by patriotism, nonconformity, communist belief system, prejudice, agnosticism, and financial
balance. It is contended that the current influx of present-day terrorist activity is observable on
account of its religious character. Since the start of 1980, the quantity of terrorist monger on
religion-based gathering has expanded because of the dynamism of terrorist group. Because of
the global development of strict fundamentalism, a few researchers consider the religious-
based group as more perilous than that of the whole terrorist group whose rationale is to prevail
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upon individuals and with this, they do not have any desire to leave enormous losses while
other researchers cannot help contradicting this arguing that, the ebb and flow type of terrorism
is not new and not specially identified with religion.
Terrorism is a complex phenomenon that is an alarming kind of violence, a method to combat
or a strategy to achieve certain goals that it aims to induce a state of fear in the victim, that it
is ruthless and does not conform to humanitarian norms and that is one the reason it stands out
a threat to global security.
According to a report by the UN released in 2018, “political and social polarization built on
economic disparities and populism, competition for natural resources and environmental
degradation, fragmented non-State armed actors and the absence of political solutions to
evolving conflicts, remain the main causes for insecurity.” The above serves as a stage for
terrorism to rise as a source of insecurity. Depending on the world economic state, poverty
serves as a fuel for terrorists’ sympathizers, thereby increasing the rate of reoccurring terrorism
incidents.
More so, the purpose behind terrorism being a cause of global insecurity is its relationship
between religious and political causes, on the identification with religion then terrorist action
represents a challenge to the state- sovereignty system. It has been known that the use of
terrorism implies an attempt to delegitimize the concept of sovereignty and even the structure
of the state system itself. Although most nations are far from helpless, we live in a world that
is rapidly becoming a local village also known as globalization.
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Looking at the security side of the globalization analysis, international security has become so
complex and multi-dimensional that the normal traditional national border-setting type of
security perception is not capable of recognizing new threats that transcend the national borders
and this is a problem. In this context, international terrorism became one of the main concerns
with its highly complicated characteristics. This problem has been recognized not only by one
nation but also in the era of globalization when the nations became much more connected and
interdependent, it became a threat to international security. Some of the states have witnessed
terrorist threats for many years. Nevertheless, though these states have already known the pains
of terrorism, it became more concerned with incidents such as the 9/11 attack.
Terrorism thus, under the impact of globalization has rippled in world politics, adding an
altogether new dimension in the study of international relations in particular to security studies,
threatens the state system and the global security as a whole. The largest international
organization (UN) responsible for maintaining global peace and security views it as the biggest
threat to mankind, which may upset the maintenance of global peace in our times and pose a
serious challenge in safeguarding human rights and fundamental freedoms throughout the
world.
1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Terrorism has been a predominant issue that has been in existence for quite a long time.
The Department of Defense Dictionary of Military Terms defines terrorism as the
determined use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to instill fear, to force
or scare government or social orders in the quest for objectives that are commonly political,
religious, or ideological. Terrorism has been a significant issue not just in the United States
nor the United Kingdom, but the world at large. Bearing this in mind, it is critical to outline
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the fact that terrorist activities will in general, debilitate a state's capacity to guarantee the
wellbeing and security to its citizens. All humans have experienced enormously the results
of terrorism. The 9/11 assault on the U.S. has demonstrated that not just little actors in the
global framework experience the ill effects of terrorism also the most remarkable states
and vital participants in the international system.
Using Al-Qaeda as a case study, the group has been in existence for some time and has
carried out different operations, for example, the 9/11 assault in the U.S., the bombing of
train stations in Madrid 2004, London 2005, the Bali club bombing, and some more.
Notwithstanding this has affected people and the world at large, economically,
psychologically, and socially.
More so, it is also important to outline the fact that people consistently play a key role with
regards to terrorism, which could be in form of killings, kidnapping, taking of hostages,
and the releasing of violence. Due to all these, their memories consistently bear traumatic
and torturing events to people. However, this essay tends to focus on this problem and find
a solution to manage the act of terrorism with the help of the following research questions.
1.2 RESEARCH AIM
The aim of my research is to examine terrorism and its impact on global security with
reference to Al-Qaeda.
In order for the above aim to be achieved, the following are objectives set:
1. To investigate the link between terrorism and global security.
2. To critically analyze specific impacts of terrorism on global security in relation to
Al-Qaeda activities.
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3. To critically examine international response to Al-Qaeda in relation to global
security.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the facilitators and barriers of terrorist activities internationally?
2. What are the impacts of terrorism on global security in relation to Al-Qaeda activities.
3. What are the actions taken by regional bodies against acts of terrorism?
4. What are the specificity of such impacts of terrorism on global security and to what
extent have they been curtailed?
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The significance of the study is the inspiration driving this research work. In this regard,
the significance of the study will be on the following essentials;
• The study is going to lay accentuation on how the exercises of Al-Qaeda has
affected the world as a whole, and how it has impacted insecurity in the world.
• The study will likewise examine how Al-Qaeda has caused nations to fortify their
security policies.
• The study will, however, highlight the effect of terrorism on the arms trade, which
endless nations use as motivation to build its military budget.
• The study will likewise add to the existing body of literature on terrorism and
global security and be critical to analyze terrorism and global security.
1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
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The scope of this study is centered around the implication of terrorism on global security
using Al-Qaeda as a contextual analysis.
LIMITATION OF STUDY
While doing this research work, there were a ton of difficulties encountered such as;
Time Constraint: This exploration will require a great deal of time and commitment,
which will not be conceivable because of the reality it will participate in the study with
other academic work, and will however reduce the time dedicated to this research and slow
down the progress of this research that could result to the work not being ready on time.
Financial Constraint: Insufficient funds will, in general, ruin the viability of the
examination in getting the relevant materials, data, literature, and the process of data
collection. This is because of the reality the majority of the materials online must be
purchased, which are costly and are usually in foreign currencies, in which the conversion
scale is high.
Sourcing of materials: The accessibility of materials is restricted, which is because of the
way that most libraries are shut because of the pandemic, making it difficult to get printed
copy books. With the progressing circumstance, the research must choose the option to
depend on an online source, which is restricted, with a ton of biased works in which getting
the accurate materials required might be hard. Another issue is that some online libraries
require the Institution to be enlisted, which, tragically, Baze University is not registered.
1.7 RESEARCH METHODLOGY
The principal goal of the research methodology is that it clarified how data is assembled,
examined, and deciphered. However, this essay will be making use of qualitative research
to analyze the subject of this work. Consequently, the main source of this research is mainly
secondary data derived through the context of articles, official publications, relevant
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writings, magazines, books, newspapers, and documentaries, will serve as a tangible insight
to terrorism and global security. Be that as it may, this research is carefully restricted to
recorded data on al-Qaeda its implications, and exercise, and be investigated through the
substance examination of libraries, academic articles, books, and the web. Likewise, this
technique will be utilized to assess such discoveries with previously existing discoveries
on the topic.
To arrive at a finding, the various information from the secondary sources will be analyzed
using the thematic method of analysis as the researcher seeks to find topics, ideas and
patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly or with similarities across the various
secondary sources.
1.8 REVIEW OF THEORY
This research will rely on the Theory of Realism in the discussion of terrorism and
global security. The theory of Realism offers an alternative explanation on the
failure of idealism to curtail problems posited by terrorism on international peace
and security. Realists consider the principal actors in the international arena to be
states, which are concerned with their own security, act in pursuit of their own
national interests, and struggle for power. The negative side of the realists' emphasis
on power and self-interest is their skepticism regarding the relevance of ethical
norms to relations among states. Korab-Karpowicz (2011:6) states that “national
politics is the realm of authority and law, whereas international politics, they
sometimes claim, is a sphere without justice, characterized by active or potential
conflict among states.” This realist perception underscores the very nature and
behavior of states.
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Bennet (1984:134) states that “the national goals, values, interest and international
commitments compete with the demands of collective security for action…national
security takes precedence over collective security, cultural, traditional, trade and
investment, military alliances and ideology are balanced against a general
commitment to world peace.” Thus the selfish and competitive aspects of
international relations present a major challenge to the success of collective security
agenda at the regional and global level. The study provided that human beings are
needy and vulnerable and can easily be led astray by our attempts to know the world
and communities around us such that when we act, we may do so selfishly and
impulsively on the basis of faulty reasoning or theology.
1.9 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Terrorism: Terrorism can be said as a demonstration of viciousness against people,
gatherings, states, and some more, ordinarily with political or ideological aims, with the
intent to cause havoc (Jenkins, 2019).
Global Security: Global security can be defined as measures, for example, military or
political carried out by countries and international associations intending to accomplish
common peace, security, and safety (Global Security, 2019).
Security: Security is the condition of being protected from danger (Booth, 2014).
Al-Qaeda: Al-Qaeda is a terrorist wide-based assailant Islamist association whose point is
to kill the Western presence in Arab nations and to restrict western foreign policy
established by Osama bin Laden in 1988 (Encyclopedia, 2020).
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1.10 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter is an overview of the study. The chapter shows that terrorism is not a new
phenomenon, and has been in place and used by individuals to achieve certain goals. Also,
it gives an overview of security and global security. Thus, the study gives a background to
the study, the history and origin of terrorism, talked on security and global security, the
statement of the problem, research aim and objectives, research questions, the significance
of the study, the scope and limitation, and finally the definition of terms.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter provides an insight into the review of the literature on the issue of terrorism and
global security. It consist of the concept of terrorism and global security and an explanation
into the issues surrounding global security and how terrorism affects it.
In trying to provide an analysis of the effects of terrorism on global security the study relied
on the concept of collective security which is derived from the theory of Idealism to explain
why states come together to combat terrorism. The major terrorist groups and the way they
operate across the world are discussed in this chapter. Incidences of the terrorist acts are costly
and have led to the loss of life, disturbance of the environment and destruction of infrastructure.
Terror is persistent, evolving and transnational such that individual states in the international
system has a need to come together to eliminate terrorism. The terrorist activities are
transnational and have been manifesting in various forms including kidnapping, suicide
bombing, accessing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and hostage-taking. They seek to
fulfill different political objectives to suit their individual goals. This instills a sense of
insecurity for both the state and its citizens as the attacks are sporadic and have unknown
formulae of execution.
The UN (2002:V) Preface by the former UN Secretary General Koffi Annan states that
“terrorism is a global threat with global effects…its consequences affect every aspect of the
UN agenda from development, peace to human rights and the rule of law…” The continuous
devastating and horrific attacks in the presence of collective security custodian, UN and other
regional bodies responsible for peace keeping suffered serious challenges in guaranteeing
peace and international security.
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2.1 Overview of Terrorism
The concept of terrorism is not a new phenomenon in human history. It is a concept
that is complex, multifaceted and emotive. It is complex because it combines so many different
aspects of human experiences, including politics, psychology, philosophy, military strategy,
religion and history. Terrorism is emotive both because experiences of terrorist acts arouse
tremendous feelings and because those who see terrorists as justified often have strong feelings
concerning the rightness of the use of violence in solving differences among mankind. The
term terrorism from the etymological concept had its origin from the French word ‘terrorism’
which in turn derives from the Latin word, ‘terreo’ which means to frighten (Ruby, 2002).
In many cases terrorists internationally choose to attack innocent targets, to make their
political or religious demands from the government or people with which they are in conflict,
violating domestic and international laws. The phenomenon of terrorism has been widely
examined in the extant literature, yet, there is no universally accepted definition. This is
because act that convey terrorism impressions are often viewed from different perspectives
(Wolftang, 1982).
In similar view, Hughes (2002) described terrorism as the use of threat or use of anxiety
induced extra normal violence for political purpose by any individual or group whether acting
for or in a position to established governmental authority when such action is intended to
influence the attitudes and behaviour of a largest group wider than the immediate victims and
through the nationality or foreign ties and its perpetrators.
LaFree and Dugan, (2007), further see terrorism as “acts by non-state actors involving
the threatened or actual use of illegal force or violence to attain a political, economic, religious,
or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation”(pg. 183). As witnessed in Nigeria during
the reprobate regime of General Sanni Abacha in 2005 – 2008, when bombs were used as a
terror weapon against Nigerians. In a world perceived as peaceful, an act of political violence
22
may be considered as domestic terrorism, while the same act of violence can be considered
justified by others who perceive the world to be at war. Juergensmeyer (2003), described
terrorism as a tool used to achieve a specific outcome by using force or violence on one segment
of society with the primary goal of causing fear in the larger society to make change in that
society (Garrison, 2004). According to FEMA (2009), some scholars have argued that
terrorism is a form of violent conflict, in that view, it is a form of unconventional warfare.
Terrorism most times is used when attempting to force socio-political change by convincing a
government or population to agree to demands to avoid future harm or fear of harm,
destabilization of existing government, motivating a discontented population to join a mutiny,
escalating a conflict in the hope of upsetting the status quo, expressing an injustice, or drawing
attention to a cause. Terrorism is characterized by some common strings: political,
psychological, coercive, dynamic and deliberate.
This definition is based on the fact that, almost all known terrorist acts are caused by
human injustice or man’s inhumanity to man, marginalization, exploitation, greed, deprivation,
poverty, corruption, oppression, and repression. The United States Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) describes terrorism as the unlawful use of force or violence against persons
or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population or any segment
thereof, in furtherance of political, or social objective (FBI, 2009). However, terrorism can be
described as an act of psychological warfare driven by fear or panic, intimidation, force or
threats of violence on the individual(s) or the general public with the view of compelling a
government, an institution or organization or individual to act in ways, ordinarily such an
individual or organization would not have acted in order to ensure safety of lives and property
or justice, equity and fairness.
It has been argued that the victims or objects of a terrorist attack have little intrinsic
value to the terrorist but represent a larger human audience whose reaction the terrorists seek
23
(Crenshaw, 1981) .The panic terror impact produces and the sense of insecurity terrorism
creates on the population make more sense to the terrorist than real victims of a terrorist
incident. Terrorism includes a range of social and political problems whose behavioural scope
is boundless and includes behaviour that appears to be abnormal (Brown, 2007).
Terrorism is often characterized by the use of violence against civilians, with the
expressed desire of causing terror or panic in the population. Terrorism is not unique to the
21st century, in fact it existed in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Today, terrorist activity can
be found in Israel, Indonesia, the United Kingdom, Sri Lanka, Colombia, France, Spain,
Germany, Nigeria, the United States and almost in all countries of the world. The most popular
terrorist attack is the September 11 suicide attacks against the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon and the attempted attack that resulted in the plane crash in Pennsylvania.
The terrorists in Nigeria have found as a strategy the attacks on civil population and
government institutions such as the police, military and other security agencies coupled with
massive destruction of public facilities and civil properties including oil installations, police
stations, prisons, churches, mosques, and shops. In recent years, the analysis of country-level
terrorism data has increased dramatically along with the increasing availability of worldwide
terrorism event data (LaFree, 2012). Besides, other scholars have linked terrorism to the macro
economic and political context of a country (Dugan, LaFree, & Piquero 2005; Enders &
Sandler, 2006; Fahey, LaFree, Dugan, & Piquero, in press; Greenbaum, Dugan, & LaFree
2007; LaFree, Dugan, and Fahey, 2007; LaFree, Dugan, & Korte, 2009; Piazza 2008; Tikusis,
2009). Also as Hughes (2002) underscores; writing about terrorism has been controversial not
only because of its wide perspective but also of the muddle of controversies generated by it”.
In the religious dimension Muslims and Christians alike religiously adopt their view.
From the above, it can be said that terrorism involves organized violent attack on a
target with the aim of undermining a lawfully constituted authority and to cause fear among
24
the populace in furtherance of some socio political objectives. In essence it is a coercive or
premeditated act or threat of violence or the use of violence with the aim of instilling fear in
the target such as to alter its behavior in the desire of the perpetrators (Anyaoku, et al, 2005).
Earlier scholars have confirmed connections between terrorism and macro political
factors, including legitimacy, democratization, and failed or fragile states (LaFree and
Ackerman, 2009). For example, Ross and Gurr (1989) identified the electoral success of the
Parti Quebecois, a legitimate, nonviolent political party, as one of the leading reasons that the
Front de Liberation du Quebec experienced a decline in political strength. In a quantitative
analysis of worldwide terrorism attacks, LaFree & Dugan (2007) found that, controlling for a
wide variety of rival explanations, a common democracy measure had a strong-curvilinear
relationship to terrorist attacks and fatalities. Piazza’s (2007), Multivariate analysis also
showed that state instability is the most consistent predictor of country-level terrorist attacks.
Also, LaFree, Dugan and Fahey, 2007 found strong support for the conclusion that by the
2000s worldwide terrorist attacks were concentrated in failed or weak states. Government
policies and counter measures have also been shown to affect terrorist activity, sometimes
reducing it through deterrence or target hardening, but at other times increasing it through
backlash effects (Lum, Kennedy & Sherley, 2006).
2.1.1 Causes of Terrorism
Several authors have reported different causes of terrorism. Terrorism in Nigeria in
whichever dimension is often stimulated by economic considerations. For instance, the Niger
Delta agitations were greatly underpinned by the bid of what (Ake, 1981) is referred to as the
primary material condition. Onuoha and Ugwueze (2014) identify religious, political and the
terrorist schools as common causes of terrorism. The religious school argues that Boko Haram
insurgency is a grand design to impose the religion of Islam on Nigeria. Emerging from the
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different schools, scholars have categorized motivations for terrorism into psychological,
ideological, and strategic perspectives.
1. Psychological Perspective: This perspective argues that those who engage in terrorism
may do so for purely personal reasons, based on their own psychological state of mind.
Their motivation may be nothing more than hate or the desire for power.
2. Ideological Perspective: Ideology is defined as the beliefs, values, and/or principles by
which a group identifies its particular aims and goals. Ideology may encompass religion or
political philosophies and programs.
3. Strategic Perspective: Terrorism is sometimes seen as a logical extension of the failure of
politics. When people seek redress of their grievances through government, but fail to win
government’s attention to their plight, they may resort to violence. From this viewpoint,
terrorism is the result of a logical analysis of the goals and objectives of a group, and their
estimate of the likelihood of gaining victory. If victory seems unlikely using more
traditional means of opposition, then one might calculate that terrorism is a better option
2.2Terrorism and Global Security
According to Oche and Dokunbo (2001), terrorism originates from the Latin word, terrere. It
is characterized by the desire to attain its goals by frightening those it believe stands on its way.
However there are little consensus as to the root causes of terrorism, whether they bear political,
economic or social. In terms of political terrorism, Shultz and Sloan (2002) defined it as the
threat and / or use of extra normal form of political violence, in varying degrees, with the
objective of achieving certain political goals or objectives. This is to influence the behavior
and attitude of certain groups. It has basically political motives. In addition to this Cline and
Alexander (1987, p.215) defined terrorism as a deliberate employment of violence or the use
of violence by sovereign states as well as some national groups, assisted by sovereign states in
26
order to attain strategic and political objectives through the violation of law. Lodge (1981)
identified three broad types of terrorism.
They are revolutionary terrorism, aimed at political revolution, sub- revolutionary terrorism
which has political motives other than revolution and repressive terrorism aimed at restraining
certain groups, individuals or forms of behavior deemed to be undesirable. Shultz and Sloan
(2002, p.2) identified international, transnational, domestic and state terrorism as different
types of political terrorism. Oche and Dokubo (2001) identified the broad types as the non-
state terrorism, state sponsored terrorism and the state directed terrorism or establishment
terrorism. However, our interest is on the domestic terrorism which is an action initiated by an
individual or group of nationals within its own borders (Shultz and Sloan, 2002 p.2). Karen De
Young and Dobbs (2001) emphasized that the threats of terrorist attacks are not necessarily
from indigenous extreme-left movements but from self determination struggles and struggles
against injustices which sometimes coincides with or are given moral justification through the
use of religion. Terrorism is an act that is a criminal violation if committed within the
jurisdiction of any state. The acts appear to be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian
population, influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion, or affect the
conduct of a government by assassination or kidnapping. The act of terrorism transcend
national boundaries in terms of the means of which they are accomplished, the persons they
appear intended to coerce or intimidate, or the locale in which the perpetuation operate or seek
asylum. In the past, what we watched and read were the more newsworthy events that have
filled the media. In these present days, terrorists have been going about their deadly business
aided by the evolution in technology leading the invention of new weapons of mass destruction
increasing their destructive capability invariably increasing the threat of terrorism. Terrorism
is threatening the viability of a nationstate, bringing about economic crisis, instability, a threat
to tourism, energy-sector, civil-aviation, maritime, transportation and civil transportation. The
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problem of terrorism has refused to go away instead; it has kept people in perpetual fear,
robbing people of freedom and security. Thus the world as a whole is voicing concerns over
the menace of terrorism, extremism and radicalism. No country goes unaffected by
international terrorism, for these reasons the global community can no longer turn a blind eye
on terrorism (Nimma, 2007). The world now lives in fear. We are afraid of everything. We are
afraid of flying, afraid of certain countries, afraid of bearded Asian men, afraid of shoes airline
passengers wear; of letter and parcels, of white powder. The countries allegedly harbouring
terrorists, their people, innocent or otherwise, are afraid too. They are afraid of war, of being
killed and maimed by bombs being dropped on them, by missiles from hundreds of miles away
by unseen forces. They are afraid because they have become collaterals to be killed because
they get in the way of the destruction of their countries (Mahathir bin Mohamad, 2003). The
above statement brings bare the experiences and changes the world is experiencing that are not
only impacting on individuals, but also affecting countries both positively and negatively.
According to Agbu (2004), one of the major features of the current conjecture in international
politics and the international security is the appearance on international terrorism in a more
deadly and impersonal fashion. Fundamentally the linkage between terrorism and globalization
can be more easily examined and explained by focusing on the national security ramifications.
It is noteworthy to state that the globalization that has made terrorism what it is today is the
integration of countries into the world economy through increased trade, investment, short term
capital flows and international migration of skilled and unskilled labour (Chishti, 2002, p.227).
Terrorism has been in practice throughout history and throughout the world. It is affecting
global security in the 21st century because it is becoming more rampant. Terrorism has a
negative impact on global security, which affects every nation because they are all connected.
Today, terrorism affects the foreign policy of many nations. A huge number of lives have been
destroyed, and properties worth billions also destroyed. People live in perpetual fear of
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insecurity, because they do not know the next turn of events, where it would take place and the
propensity of the effects. As a result of modern and sophisticated technology, the world has
become a global village, hence the impact of terrorism on global security. International
terrorism continues to pose difficult challenges to state and human security in the international
system. Apart from the fear of insecurity terrorism brings about, it also reflects in economic
decline, unemployment, inability to pay salaries of workers, debt burden; it brings about
poverty and a general sense of frustration amongst the victims.
Crime has had this effect in the inner cities as people. People are afraid to walk the streets at
night. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are inalienable rights according to the universal
Declaration of human right to ensures domestic tranquility; such can not co- exist with a state
of terrorism. One cannot afford the destruction of cars, buildings, and airplanes which are
frequent targets of terrorists. Other costs are more hidden, but are just as costly as direct
demolition. "During the last decade, it is estimated that U.S. corporations, which have been a
prime target of overseas terrorism have paid between $125 and $200 million dollars in ransom.
Other hidden costs are incurred when government organizations and private companies spend
thousands of dollars to upgrade and maintain facilities that are resistant to terrorist attack. Each
year billions of dollars are spent to train and equip government and private personnel to deter
terrorism (Johnston, 2003).
The economic impact of terrorism can be calculated from a variety of perspectives. There are
direct costs to property and immediate effects on productivity, as well as longer term indirect
costs of responding to terrorism. Economists and others have tried to calculate the economic
impact of terrorism for years in areas beset by attacks, such as Spain's Basque region and Israel.
In the last several years, most analyses of terrorism's economic costs begin with an
interpretation of the costs of the September 11, 2001 attacks (Zalman, 2011).
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In the United States, Defence and Homeland Security spending are by far the largest cost of
the attack. The human cost, of course, is incalculable. The direct cost of the September 11
attack has been estimated at somewhat over $20 billion (Krugman, 2004). Glen Hodgson, the
Deputy Chief Economist for the Export Development Candada (EDC) explained the costs in
2004: The US alone now spends about US $500 billion annually--20 percent of the US federal
budget--on departments directly engaged in combating or preventing terrorism, most notably
Defense and Homeland Security.
The Defense budget increased by one-third, or over $100 billion, from 2001 to 2003 in response
to the heightened sense of the threat of terrorism – an increase equivalent to 0.7 per cent of US
GDP. According to Hodgson (2004) expenditures on defense and security are essential for any
nation, but of course they also come with an opportunity cost; those resources are not available
for other purposes, from spending on health and education to reductions in taxes. A higher risk
of terrorism, and the need to combat it, simply raises that opportunity cost (cited in Kazoun,
2007).
2.3 The Concept of Collective Security
The death of civilians prior to World War 1 (WW1), violence and growing pressure of terrorists
left the world with a high sense of insecurity and a distorted future world security system. The
effects of the war were massive to an extent that states were left exposed and vulnerable. In
January 1918, the United States of America (USA), President Woodrow Wilson proposed a
“general association of nations” which was the human kind‟s only salvation. The History
Learning Site (2011:1) argued that “Woodrow Wilson was horrified by the slaughter that had
taken place during WW1 in what was meant to be a civilised part of the world. The only way
to avoid a repetition of such a disaster was to create an international body whose sole purpose
was to maintain world peace” In this way, Woodrow Wilson was proposing for a democratic
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peace formula that will serve the people from the scourge of war. This study revealed that it
led to the formation of the League of Nations in 1921, which was later transformed into the
UN in October 1945. The UN has become a Collective Security Organisation which has a
mandate given to it by the Charter of the United Nations (2011 Article 1.1) to “maintain
international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the
prevention and removal of threats to peace… and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of peace…” It is from this background that UN plays a pivotal role in
international peace and security maintenance. This study centred on the efforts, failures and
hopes of the UN as the “barometer” of peace and security maintenance in fighting terrorism.
International Relations Theory Knowledge Base (http://www.irtheory.com/know.htm) defines
collective security as “arrangements for facilitating peaceful settlements of disputes assuming
that the mechanisms of preventing war and defending states under armed attack will
supplement and reinforce each other.”
The definition for collective security implies that states have to come together and find a
common solution to end the problems affecting the peace and security arrangements. The need
for collective security can be traced back to Emmanuel Kant‟s writings in The Perpetual Peace
in 1795. Gallile (2002:9) states that “perpetual peace has usually been taken to be a call for
immediate political action and to provide a recipe for the immediate achievement of a lasting
European peace, but it has also been interpreted as presenting a moral ideal to which states
ought indeed to aspire in their external relations.” It can be argued that enforcement of peace
by combined power of a league of peace-loving nations would ensure maintenance of
international peace and security which is the hallmark of a pacifist tract of settlement of
disputes. However, terrorist organisations have not followed pacific pact because they have
governments which they define in their own unique way but not conventionally accepted.
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The concept of collective security rests on the assumption that all nations share a primary
interest in maintaining peace. In order for collective security to operate, peace must be viewed
as indivisible and threats to peace anywhere must be treated as the concern of all members of
the international system. Once the aggressor is established then an overwhelming opposition
from all other members of the system will respond such that peace will be restored. This has
not been the case with the UN members today. In the case of terrorism, there is no agreed
working definition at the UN level such that the perpetrators are seen as “liberators, fighters
and redeemers who are fighting for emancipation of entangled people” within some member
states while some members see them as “terrorists, axis of evil who deserve to be wiped out,
tyrants and despots”.
Thus there is no unanimous agreement on identification of terrorist at the international level.
According to Papp (1984:80) “when seen from the American perspective, the „Indians‟ of the
Boston Tea Party were American nationalists making a political point; when seen from a
British perspective, they were terrorists destroying property and endangering life.” This serves
to give the differences in perceiving a “terrorist” by states. To further express the difficulty of
definition of a terrorist, Lowe (2005:266) states that “in the 1960s Nelson Mandela was
regarded as a terrorist by the white supremacy and kept in jail for 27 years; now he is respected
and revered by the same whites. President Bush refused to meet “terrorist” Yasser Arafat yet
when the Israeli government carried out similar attacks they are recognised as a legitimate
government.” The definition and identification of terrorists is problematic at the international
level. According to Bennet (1984:134) the following are some of the conditions required for
collective security application: “a commitment on the part of all members of the international
system to peace as a paramount goal requiring the subordination of other goals of foreign policy
and the ability of the members of a system not only to reach initial consensus for establishing
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the system, but also to find a consensus in each situation that a threat to peace or a breach of
peace does exist.” Baylis (2002:227) states that “collective security is based on collective
decision making once the aggressor is found… this will work better if the power is dispersed.”
In order to qualify as collective security organisation there is need to employ the conditions of
consensus and commitment to peace and collective response that are fundamental to collective
security concept. According to Baylis (2002:228), “there should be a distinction between
collective security and collective defence …the later refers to an arrangement such as the North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the War Saw Pact (WSP) which involve alliances
for mutual protection against outside attack.” The NATO in the twenty-first century has been
seen being active in protecting its strategic interests. The NATO actions in Afghanistan in the
past decade, Palestine, Iraq invasion in 2003, Ivory Coast 2011 and Libya in 2011 can be
allegedly equated to state-sponsored terrorist attacks in the guise of the Responsibility to
Protect (R2P) and Humanitarian Intervention. The concept of collective security is based on
the fundamentals of idealism which supposes that peace can be restored by coming together of
states that share a common view and base their arrangements on consensus. Idealism has led
to the formation of collective security organisation, UN.
There are several strides that the organisation has made in trying to promote international peace
and security but it has been less successful to eradicate terrorism as evidenced by the continued
terrorist attacks that have continued to cause great suffering and defied international peace and
security initiatives.
Given the continued attacks from the year 2000 to 2010 and the continued struggles of religion
has been one of the major causes of violence especially in the Middle East. Baylis (2002:227)
stated that “the advent of cyber terrorists brings a belief that the irregular wars will be fought
in cyberspace… given the vulnerabilities of websites and servers to hackers, terrorists
inevitably will become cyber terrorists through the World Wide Web (WWW).” This leads to
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electronic raids on vital national systems controlled by computers for example financial
services, transportation networks and power grids. Baylis (2002:227) further stated that “
access to the web and portability of modern computer equipment will allegedly give new power
to aspiring terrorists…an individual can do more damage than armed terrorist cells.” The fact
that technology is not governed by sovereign states presents a total defeat of collective security
where states usually react to what technologists have introduced. The operations of terrorists
are not clear because they conceal themselves in publics and use the technology which every
citizen is using. Napolitano (2009:1) alleges that “September 11 2001 attacks conceived of
their plans in the Philippines, planned in Malaysia and Germany, recruited from Yemen and
Saudi Arabia, trained in Pakistan and Afghanistan and carried them out in USA-New York
City (NYC).” This was made possible by a networked international system. However, the
above implicated states are members of the international collective security organisation who
were serving their own interests. To explain why collective security has never worked so
effectively, the researcher used the theory of realism.
2.3.2 Multilateralism and Collective Agreements on Global Security
The contemporary security paradigm raises these issues: Does the collective defence
model have an answer regarding global security threats? The position of global threats
with the dialectical dualism of the contemporary globalisation movement leads to
complex reactions from marginalised or vulnerable groups, individuals and nations.
Whether it is a terrorist or criminal organisation model, an individual or group, proxy
extremist movements, they strive to express their frustration and draw attention to their
goals in order to improve their position.
National defence has a strategic approach, is defined by laws and strategic documents
and is an instrument of foreign policy. Integration is imposed by a common response to
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security threats, challenges, and risks, and looks like a rational path for a nation that
strives for the ideals of the open security community. The existence of common, global
threats inevitably leads to the existence of a collective response to the supposed threats,
challenges, and risks.
Collective conflict management (CCM) “is a form of joint action that can be taken from
the global or regional organisations or temporarily formed alliances in response to
conflict or to prevent or stop the conflict, regardless of whether it originated within the
state or an interstate conflict” (Lepgold and Weiss 2008). So CCM is a systematic and
organised effort to avoid, prevent, or stop acts disturbing peace with a wide range of
common actions involving collective security, various multilateral forms of establishing
and maintaining peace and stability. However, a question about the objectivity of the
supranational authority that will assess that global security is distinguished.
The allocation of an individual nation’s legitimacy regarding the decisions regarding
the security problem opens a potential area for powerful stake-holders institutions to
have an influence regarding the objectivity of crisis assessments. It is important to note
that CCM creates the possibility that allows powerful and influential countries to create
an environment in which some regime or state could be represented as “dangerous” for
the rest of the world. From this position, an institution of CCM could be used as a tool
for the success of dominant stakeholders, sometimes against international law and by
using hybrid or conventional types of action.
Therefore, in ideal circumstances, it is necessary to achieve several principles, which
involve the realisation of a “critical mass” in the international environment, due to the
granting of supranational legitimacy to CCM. Nevertheless, at some point, it is almost
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a “mission impossible’’ task, because of the core of CCM being based on a globalisation
legacy, in other words on the interest of power elites (Nye 2006). In summary, the
characteristics of collective conflict management can be summarised as follows
(Lepgold et al. 1998):
• Since international institutions express the balance of power, they have no
independent approach to resolving the conflict.
• Collective conflict management is jeopardised by the over-engagement of large
and powerful states.
• Cooperation in the implementation of the concept of collective conflict
management is very fragile if there is no form of binding contract between the
parties.
• In accordance with the orientation towards common goals, conflict management
is collectively insensitive to individual national interests.
• Collective conflict management has the greatest effects when applied in the
preconflict phase as prevention in the phase of conflict prevention and it is
becoming a conflict.
• The most powerful tool of preventive diplomacy is a pragmatic interest-driven
process of negotiation.
The interest of each state determines and recognises the fact that the institutional,
international approach to collective action leads to cost reduction of individual
responses to threats. The results and effects include a synergistic performance of all
participants, respect for procedures and rules, decision-making consensus, objectivity
in approach etc. Although it is difficult to achieve this ideal form of international
36
response to the conflicts that occur globally, it must be noted that this approach to
solving security challenges and threats is most effective. In order to achieve maximum
results, it is necessary to accomplish common attitudes regarding politics and the
achievement of strategic interaction among different factors.
Compatibility of participants and their characteristics is necessary, as well as the
correlation of their relative power. The actors need to have an appreciation of the nature
of the relationship, as well as to encourage faith in the importance of developing the
relationship of trust and cooperation. It is necessary to have the ability to perceive the
future, they have a vision of the political goals for which the actors are in favour and
the links to international politics and political beliefs and regulations within states
(Lamborn 2008). If we consider that in a general overlay of resources, technical support
and information exchange, collective defence has a primary role, interoperability has
unique importance for achieving the effectiveness of common efforts.
The existence of active interdependence in all spheres of life on a global scale, wiping
clear boundaries between the state and a compromising security of “free” entities, as
well as the escalation of asymmetric and hybrid challenges, indicate the need to adapt
security and defence science and the global approach to security. The inevitability of
finding an adequate multidisciplinary approach of defence, political, social,
demographic, technological, and other aspects is recognised as a rational response to
contemporary global security challenges. The science is also imposed as a capital
resource and a factor in society’s development and the link between scientific
knowledge and the application of these findings in practice is negligible. Although there
37
is intensive scientific research, the implementation of the research findings is not
sufficiently developed and applied in practice. Why is this necessary?
Compared to the Cold War period when the role of the armed forces was primarily
reflected in the defence of territory, this role has been extended today to the changing
nature of keeping operations throughout the world as sort of the diplomacy and defence
matters of internal security.
Certainly, the issue of defending national territory has not become obsolete or
irrelevant, but new security challenges include the projection of forces for warfare and
peacekeeping and humanitarian missions, internal state security issues, participation in
the construction of national states and helping civilian authorities.
These changes have caused significant organisational, financial and doctrinal demands,
and making difficult decisions about the further development of the armed forces. The
very same armed forces have undergone many significant changes in line with global
demands (Edmunds and Malešič 2005):
Ø Professionalisation, which included the termination of mandatory military
service, voluntary service, and high professional standards.
Ø Functionality, with a contemporary demand for non-traditional missions (peace
missions, humanitarian interventions, and crisis management).
Ø Internationalisation of missions in a multinational context.
Ø Strengthening the legitimacy of the state.
Ø Reducing the motivation for joining the professional armed forces due to the
insufficient competence of the military profession.
Ø Reducing the social role of the armed forces.
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Ø Increasing cooperation in civil-military relations, especially in the fields of
training, education, and logistics.
New hybrid and asymmetric challenges have a completely different structure than those
that threatened stability and security during the Cold War, which posed the issue of
reconceptualization of the notion of security itself. The defense science at the beginning
of the 21st century needs to adapt its research to a cooperative approach across the
spectrum of multidisciplinary scientific fields that need to intellectually contribute to
the maintenance of stability and security in the world.
2.3.3 Implications of Terrorism on Global Security
Global security includes military and diplomatic measures that nations
and international organizations such as the United Nations and NATO take to ensure
mutual safety and security (rand, 2020).
Implications of terrorism are enormous and have far-reaching consequences on the
collective peace and security of the entire world. This is because national borders are
becoming blurred and difficult to identify. In effect, the nationals of each nation-state
migrate far and wide to other regions of the world. Therefore, any act of terrorism in
any part of the world will definitely affect other regions of the world. Also, the influx
of refugees arising from such terrorist acts will have negative impacts on the economy
of the host country as seen in Europe where a chunk of refugees migrated from Syria to
western Europe. Also, organized terrorism denies a society security, peace, stability,
good governance and socio-economic development. Apart from destroying lives on a
large scale, the damages terrorism does to infrastructural facilities especially those
39
directly related to developmental processes like electricity, communication, and
transportation can be enormous and prosperity-retarding.It also creates global
enmity and hostility, thereby propelling insecurity, psychological depression and fear
in the minds of citizens of the world. Also, investors and tourists (foreign and domestic)
are also discouraged, thus denying the state or society vital developmental (foreign
revenue) revenue (Nwolise, 2000). In a situation where new investments are not
emerging (as a result of fear of attack), and existing factories and industries are not
producing at reasonable proportions of their installed capacities, retrenchment of
workers may follow, and this in turn may increase crime rate, and worsen security
situations. General economic depression may follow with serious consequences for
people’s welfare.
2.4 The Theory of Realism
The theory of Realism offers an alternative explanation on the failure of idealism to curtail
problems posited by terrorism on international peace and security. Realists consider the
principal actors in the international arena to be states, which are concerned with their own
security, act in pursuit of their own national interests, and struggle for power. The negative side
of the realists' emphasis on power and self-interest is their skepticism regarding the relevance
of ethical norms to relations among states. Korab-Karpowicz (2011:6) states that “national
politics is the realm of authority and law, whereas international politics, they sometimes claim,
is a sphere without justice, characterized by active or potential conflict among states.” This
realist perception underscores the very nature and behavior of states.
Bennet (1984:134) states that “the national goals, values, interest and international
commitments compete with the demands of collective security for action…national security
40
takes precedence over collective security, cultural, traditional, trade and investment, military
alliances and ideology are balanced against a general commitment to world peace.” Thus the
selfish and competitive aspects of international relations present a major challenge to the
success of collective security agenda at the regional and global level. The study provided that
human beings are needy and vulnerable and can easily be led astray by our attempts to know
the world and communities around us such that when we act, we may do so selfishly and
impulsively on the basis of faulty reasoning or theology.
Korab-Karpowicz (2011:7) quoting Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan XI 2 argued that “human
beings are subject to perpetual and restless desire of power after power that they inevitably
struggle for power….independent states, like individuals are enemies by nature, asocial and
selfish, and that there is no moral limitation on their behavior.” This is a great challenge to the
idealist political vision basing on collective security formula to solve problems posed by
terrorism. It can be put forward that USA, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan have become terrorist
themselves because of the perceived benefits of terror.
Thus attending the terrorist conventions is just a routine event. With regards to fighting
terrorism, the individual states have never agreed on the way forward and identifying of the
perpetrators because there is no universally agreed definition of terrorism. The individual states
struggle for international dominance at the expense of cooperation. In advancing their political
motives, they use intimidation and induction of fear not as means to an end but as a way to
acquire dominance. In turn, they subvert other states by sponsoring acts of terrorism which are
anarchic to the legitimate ruling governments.
For example Dershowitz (2002:7) states that “the USA has supported, financed and trained
groups that are widely regarded as terrorist, such as the Contras in Nicaragua, the Mujahedeen
in Afghanistan, The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) Angola
41
and Samuel K. Doe in Liberia and Sierra Leone.” It becomes ironic that the states at the
forefront of countering terrorism supported or are supporting some alleged terrorist groups.
This leaves a lot to be desired when it comes to collective security where some states are
members of the UN yet they act as spies to terrorist and combine to disrupt peace and security
they intend to preserve. They are working to pull down every idea brought nobly to combat
terrorism. That becomes a realistic world where people, states and continents are not unified
by “the desire to find common interest” but are driven by their egoistic interests. Given the
theory of realism, it is imperative to conclude that the collective security mechanism have tried
to a lesser extent to fight terrorism which is interrupting international peace and security
arrangements.
This researcher argues that, the concept of Collective Security is not very effective in
combating terrorist activities. It goes without saying that, the concept is based on pacifist tract
and is muted from the writings of Immanuel Kant (1975 Section 1) which stated that “ A state
is a society of men whom no-one else has any right to command or dispose except the state
itself and it is a trunk with its own roots.” This means that a state can decide whether to be part
of the collective security or not. Collective security is guided by morality and consensus to an
extent that fighting terrorism is likely to be ineffective. Realism offers a more credible reason
why the states are driven by their zest for the struggle for power and individual interest. These
interests have led to the following incidences.
The failure to prevent the September 11 2001 USA attacks, 2008 Mumbai attacks, Marriot
Hotel bombing in Islamabad, Chechnya, Kosovo, Montenegro, Northern Island and Kashmir
between the year 2000 and 2010 has reflected that collective security has failed to bring
international peace and security. The Jewish Virtual Library (2011:1) states that “from
September 2000 until December 2005, 1 100 Israelis were killed during the Palestinian Al-
Aqsa-Intifada.” It can be pointed out that the problems between Israel and Palestine is a
42
historical one but it is now controlled by self- interest embroiled in terrorism to advance their
claims. Siebert, (2010:5) argues that “although they are pledged to defend each other, many
countries will refuse to do so if such an act is not in their own interests or is thought to be too
risk or expensive.” Collective security has not successfully included human security other
forms of security like human security. Collective Security has remained narrow and has
remained an “ought to be” fantasy kind of concept yet realism is an extreme way of expressing
the reality in the international system. Realism thus offers better reasons why states have not
been so effective and exhaustive in fighting terrorism. Thus both theories give focus on the
state and forget all other types of security which citizens need. Literature Review Kepel
(2008:2) argued that “on the morning of 9/11 a quadruple attack of the USA marked the
beginning of the new century and continuation of the discord and demons of preceding ones.”
The horrific attack indicated a blink future in the new millennium and it served as a premonition
of many destructive activities to come. This has attracted many terrorist groups to activate their
operations in order to attack the most powerful states having witnessed the crush of the USA.
Throughout the Middle East and Western Europe, German, Basque, Italian and Palestinian
terrorist groups have increased assaults. Kupperman (1979:5) pointed out that, terrorist possess
weapons, “not just pistol, submachine and bombs, for there have been attempts to use heat
seeking surface -to –air rockets (SA-7s) and Soviet anti-tank weapons (RPG-7s), German
entrepreneurs disbursed mustard gas and nerve agents.” This highlights the level of massive
penetration terrorists used to be in the early 2002s. Slater (1988:1) states that, “the face of
international terrorism is constantly changing as it increases in scale…the number of terrorist
groups has multiplied and from the year 2000 to 2010, terrorists have introduced the resurgence
of suicidal bombing, developed collaborative networks, have gained better access to
international arms, they have refined their planning, intelligence and targeting.
43
They have discovered new sources of funding through crime, bank robberies and they have
entered lucrative narcotic markets.” This is how intricate the situation has become and it has
become very difficult to remove this network which has claimed many lives and casualties.
Waugh (2000:4-12) states that, “in 2002, the world witnessed Bali bombing in Indonesia which
claimed 202 lives, 2003 Istanbul bombing claimed 57 lives, March 2004 Madrid train bombing
claimed 192, Beslan School hostage crisis 334 killed, Mumbai attacks 175 killed, Yemen
killing of 17 people, Colombia in 2000, about 27 lost their lives and 145 hostage taking in
Nigeria in 2000.”
All these events are overshadowed by horrific attacks on 11 September 2001 which is the major
destructive terrorist effort by the late Osama bin Laden and the Taliban. The Rock Mountain
News (2002), reported that, “the death toll exceeded 3000 and the financial losses for just the
destruction of the WTC were estimated to be in excess of US $83 billion.” Terrorist Groups
have increased in the past decade but there are major groups which are identified by massive
attacks on civilians to induce fear from 2000 to 2010 while a few have been disabled prior to
2000. The following are the major terrorist groups in Africa, Asia, USA, Latin-America and
Middle East.
• Abu Nidal Organisation (ANO) - This is a loose coalition of organisations founded and
operated by terrorist leader Sabri-al-Banna who broke with Palestine Liberation
Organisation in 1974. The group has operated using other names like Arab
Revolutionary Council (ARC), Fatah Revolutionary Council (FRC) and sometimes
Black September. Henderson (2001:47) argued that “the group has conducted more
than 100 terrorist actions in more than 20 countries killing about 900 and their actions
includes attacks on passengers in airports in Vienna and Rome in December 1985 as
well as the killing of worshippers in Istanbul synagogue in 1986.” The vicious attacks
on civilians disrupted communities and livelihoods in the Middle East. Lowe
44
(2005:267) argued that “ANO was committed to a completely independent Palestinian
state; it had bases in Lebanon and Palestine and drew support from Syria, Sudan and
Libya.” This resembles a sophisticated network which was aimed at liberating
Palestine. In the process life unfortunately is lost.
• Al Qaeda (the Base) – This is an Islamic terrorist group which has worked tirelessly to
fight USA domination in the Islamic states and it is the most prominent terrorist group
at the present time. In his testimony Fadl (2001:5) argued that “it is widely thought that
the organisation was founded by Osama bin Laden between August 1988 and the late
1989. It operates as a network comprising both a multinational, stateless army and a
radical Sunni movement group for global Jihad.” The group has implored variety of
tactics to indiscriminate targets to further their interest. Wright (2006:107) states that
Al-Qaeda uses “techniques include suicide attacks and simultaneous bombing of
different targets and instigating violence among resistance Islamic groups and the group
has attacked civilian and military targets in various countries including Europe, North
Africa, Asia and Latin America.” The group has been destabilized in 2011 by the
murdering of its founder and leader Osama bin Laden in Pakistan by the notorious USA
forces who buried him in the sea.
• Arab National Youth Organisation for the Liberation of Palestine (ANYOLP) - This is
a radical offshoot that broke away from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(PFLP) in 1972. The group committed acts of violence on Israel diplomat in Cyprus in
April 1973. The long standing conflict between Israel and Palestine over Gaza strip
have brooded many terrorist groups who seek to emancipate themselves from the
bondage. By so doing the groups use wide-spread violence and terror actions to drive
forward their ideology. As a way of deterring the aggressions, the Israelis raided Beirut
45
and PFLP killing them leading to the formation of ANYOLP. The group has not been
so active in the twenty-first century.
• Hamas- This is a militant Palestinian military Islamic movement in the West Bank and
Gaza Strip founded in 1987. The group aim at destroying Israel from the Mediterranean
Sea to the Jordan River and create Islamic State in Palestine because it was furthering
the interest of the Muslim Brotherhood. Hamas comprises of three interrelated wings
which are social welfare, political and military wing. The group is more organized and
has activities which range from the year 2000 to 2010. According to the Jewish Virtual
Library (2011:1) “Hamas has since 2000 been increasingly perpetrating terrorist attacks
in a variety of forms; firing Qassam rockets toward Israeli communities, infiltrations
into Israeli communities and murder civilians, explosive charges against tanks, vehicle
shooting and kidnapping as a bargaining method … the group since 2003 has
dispatched 113 suicide bombers and 72 suicide bombers were dispatched since
September 2000 and 227 people have been murdered and 1 393 wounded.”
• Hezbollah - This is a Shi’a Muslim militant group and a political party based in
Lebanon. The forces were allegedly formed with the aid of Ayatollah Khomeini and
were trained and organized by a contingent Iranian Revolutionary Guards (IRG). Shatz
(2004) stated that Hezbollah’s 1985 manifesto was underpinned on the four aspects
“ending imperialist power in Lebanon, submission of Phalagists to “just rule”, bringing
to trial perpetrators of war for war crimes and giving people the full chance to choose
“with full freedom” the system of government they want.” From 1982, there were 36
suicide attacks in Lebanon directed against the Americans, French and Israeli forces.
According to The American Conservative (2005:7) “the group was responsible for the
1982 January 15 bombing of a USA embassy vehicle in Beirut, the 2002 Israel embassy
attack in Buenos Aires, killing 29 in Argentina, the 2004 bombing of a Jewish culture
46
killing 85 in Argentina and in 2002 Hezbollah recruited Singaporeans in a failed 2000
plot to attack US and Israel ship in the Singapore straits.”
• Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) – This is a Marxist-Leninist
guerrilla organisation founded by George Habash in 1967 as a leftist alternative to the
Islamic nationalist al-Fatah between 1968 and 1970. Its main terrorist activities
included hijacking of Israel El Al airline and Lord Airport that resulted in 25 deaths.
• Red Brigades (RB) - This is a left wing terrorist organization in Italy which employs
kidnappings, murder and sabotage. The group sought to advance Marxism during the
1970s and emancipations of the populace to gain access to the means of production.
The group was formed by college student Ronato Curcio in 1969 to battle “against the
imperialist state of multinationals.” In 1972, the group abducted a business executive
Idalgo Macchianni releasing him. The sign that was displayed was written “Hit one to
educate 100. Power to the armed populace.” The group has embarked on wide spread
of terror in Italy.
• Red Army Faction (RAF) - A terrorist group based on leftism in West Germany which
was founded in 1968. The group included robberies of banks and other businesses,
bombing, arson, kidnapping and murdering of prominent political, military and
business figures. According to Moncourt (2009:7) “red army faction emerged from the
intellectuals, communists, independent leftist and the radical student movement and
countercultural revolt of the 1960s…and devoted to carry out attacks within the Federal
Republic of Germany in view of establishing a tradition of illegal guerrilla resistance
to imperial and state repression”. The Red Army faction has a focus in Germany and
its actions do not cross borders.
• Irish Republican Army (IRA)-Unofficial semi-military organization based in the
Republic of Ireland (formed in 1919). It sought complete Irish independence from the
47
United Kingdom (UK). The group used tactics like ambushes, raids and sabotaging
against the ruling government. This forced the British to accept the creation of Irish
Free State.
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CHAPTER THREE
AL-QAEDA TERRORIST GROUP AND GLOBAL TERRORISM
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter there will be the use of the thematic analysis to further analyze the links between
terrorism and international security. How growth of terrorism bathed such – nature of a terror
network (Al-Qaeda), tracing the history and how its foundations became laid making the group
one of the most fearsome in the history of terrorism across the globe. While the group boost a
long history, an important observation in this chapter is the structure of the group and it is
obvious that the group has a proper structure as the chapter proves that has helped the group
perpetuate some of the biggest terrorism impact on global security notably the 9/11 attacks in
the United States, drawing later impacts on both global and economic security like recession
and debt crisis the world over. These have been adequately discussed in this chapter.
3.1 LINKS BETWEEN TERRORISM AND GLOBAL SECURITY.
In the work of Sageman (2004) political motives is established as a link between terrorism and
global security, citing the Arabian political sentiments that was shaped by the French and
British colonialism. Similarly Krazlic and Korajlić indicated that the Arabian inability to stop
the recognition and establishment of Israel as a nation, will later culminate into a relationship
between Israel and Palestine directed by the help from United States of America (USA) led to
the birthing of the Arabian Jihadist group, now known as the Al-Qaeda in 1988 (Bergen, 2006).
In the Testimony of Jamal Ahmed Mohamed al-Fadl, (2001) with regards to the case of US v.
Osama Bin Laden he states that:
“Terrorism rejects morality and the political process, promotes totalitarianism and threatens only democratic systems. It has now become an international phenomenon, with links between terrorist groups of all types and nationalities, irrespective of their political, religious, or ideological origins. International terrorism is sponsored by the Soviet Union and its allies”.
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Political allies obviously will be indicated by the Red Brigade, Red Army Faction, whose
actions showed that terrorism was a mean in their politics, and the goal—destruction and
intimidation of the capitalist order.
In the work of Fayazi (2017) there are obvious proves of States sponsoring international
terrorism for political gains. The USA State Department Country Reports (2016) on Terrorism
indicts Iran as the world’s biggest sponsor of terrorism globally with reports from the USA
document stating:
Iran backs anti-Israel groups as well as proxies in Iraq, Syria and Yemen. In addition, Iran supports’ Lebanon’s Hezbollah movement and continues to recruit from Afghanistan and Pakistan for Shi’’te militia members to fight in Syria and Iraq (Lee 2017). Essentially, Iran’s relationship with terrorist and militant groups is viewed as an essential component of Iran’s foreign policy (Byman 2017).
The above cited groups are fully aligned to the Al-Qaeda network, hence they continue to
propagate political agenda in countries where Iran has political interests. Political interests are
quite broad and Fayazi discoveries proves that the Al-Qaeda network transcends just a group
used by on nation to perpetuate its political woes.
The USA is well understood to have a long controversial backing or terrorism for political
gains such is the situation in 1970 when the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) deployed the
Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt as a distractor to frustrate Soviet expansion and curtail the spread
of Marxist ideology among Arab masses. Evidences have shown US open support to Sarekat
Islam against Sukarno in Indonesia and Jamaat-e-Islami terror group against Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto in Pakistan” (Chengu 2014).
Proves in from the British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook’s report to the House of Commons
indicates that:
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Al Qaeda and ISIS which were created and are still funded because they are a “product of Western intelligence agencies” (Ebrahim 2017). However, depending on whether Al Qaeda furthers the US’s interest or not, in a particular region, the US state department either funds or belligerently targets the group (Chengu 2014).
Saudi-Arabia is argued to be the biggest sponsor of terrorism and not Iran, despite Saudi Arabi
sanctioning Qatar for fostering and financing ISIS. Proves provided by Weinstein (2017)
indicates that Saudi Arabi fully sponsors the Wahhabism for promoting the country’s political
agenda in Islamic nations. Regardless, Donald Trump still sides with Saudi-Arabia – even
though the US has two essential bases in Qatar (New York Times Editorial Board 2017).
According to the above proves there is more to the concept of terrorism than just an element
trying to perpetuate terror and drive fear, instead they are better viewed a state creations to
drive their political agendas globally by disrupting pace and security. The US is not related to
what the term actually entails but it is rather used as a means to punish those who challenge
the US and reward those who advance American interests and those of its allies (especially
Israel). Hence, Iran is a major threat to US interests especially in the Middle East and thus is
labelled the ‘world’s leading state-sponsor of terrorism’.
Another link between terrorism and global terrorism is the promotion of religious ideologies.
Investigations into Iran’s motivations for utilizing terrorism in the work Sick (2003: 85),
proves that one of Iran’s historical motivations for terrorism was ideological, Iran’s major goal
was to ‘export its revolution to the world’. For instance, in the years directly after the
revolution, “Iranian militants with or without the official support of the government, attempted
to export the revolution by stirring up radical Islamist discontent in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and
other Gulf states” (2003: 85).
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Obviously Al-Shabaab and Al-Qaeda are pushing religious extremity in Somalia with full
backing of the Gulf States, prosecuting religious wars in the Horn of Africa. Despite the country
to be of total Muslim population, there are claims of the nation to be too moderate in practice
of Islamic rites and have highly embraced Western Culture. Hence there is massive attack of
the citizens of Somalia to embrace a full an ideology of complete Islamic way of life and
religious practice.
3.2 ORIGIN OF AL-QAEDA
The foundation of Al-Qaeda cannot be isolated from the 1979 Soviet attack of Afghanistan.
Between the years 1973 to 1978, Afghanistan was ruled by Daoud Khan, who announced the
nation a republic ending the monarchical system. Despite at first having the help of
Communists, Daoud Khan started to rotate to one side in 1977, in the light, most importantly,
of a profound downturn that was influencing the nation. The quest for higher outer pay and
Afghanistan's reduction on the reliance of the Soviets were the two components that prompted
the Afghan government starting discussions with Iran upheld by the United States, which
brought about the amount of US$2 billion being directed to Kabul within 10 years (
EWANS,2002).
The state's undertakings disturbed the protection from Daoud Khan, consolidating different
alliances of the Communist Party. The end of the coup d’état was the point at which an
endeavor was made by Khan to pull out all Communists from the military, the fundamental
organization concerning why they control the nation. Moscow, who feared being cast off in
Afghanistan from the political scene, organize the fusion of the Communists and the unseating
of Daoud Khan. By April 1978 between the 27th to 30th, The Democratic Republic of
Afghanistan was formed after the death of Daoud Khan and his entire family.
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A few changes were inspired by the Soviet model at the beginning of the new government,
with the point of modernizing the nation. Notwithstanding, the recently framed laws, for
example, that concerning marriage and agrarian were not welcomed by the citizens, and any
form of obstruction or discontent was cruelly put down by the public authority (COLL,2004).
Another significant event occurred in the year 1979 in the Middle East. A Shiite religious
government came surpassed Iran because of the Iranian Revolution of January, which disposed
of Shah Reza Pahlavi. The Saudi government in November saw a major revolt, which was an
endeavor by certain groups restricted to the Al-Said government to catch the Great Mosque of
Mecca. These marked an enormous revolt against the public authority establishment.
Considering this, it was feared by the global framework that Afghanistan could be on the way
to an inevitable Iranian solution, and the fear of the domestic breakdown of the Communist
system in Kabul, the USSR on the 24th of December 17979, invaded Afghanistan (SAIKAL,
2004).
The presence of a foreign force on Afghan soil was a significant impetus for the development
of opposition. Notwithstanding the international involvement in reducing the existence of the
USSR in the district overall the U.S. also, countries, for example, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan
(COLL, 2004), there was imagery around this event. These led to Muslim countries being
attacked by Communist states, providing air battle to the protection of Islam. Thus, bin Laden,
Ayman al-Zawahiri, and Abdullah Azzam began Al-Qaeda in August 1988, at a private
gathering in the city of Peshawar. In the beginning, the motivation behind Al-Qaeda was to
channel soldiers and assets to the Afghan resistance. With the withdrawal of the Soviet soldiers,
53
the group began to go with the battles of Muslims around the world, for example, rebel against
systems seen as renegades (BYMAN,2015a).
Bin Laden, however, got back to Saudi Arabia after the Soviet fiasco in Afghanistan. In any
case, he found U.S. troops who had been situated in Saudi since the attack of Kuwait by Iraq
in 1990, a move which he regarded unsuitable because of the presence of outsiders in frightened
Muslim terrains. These prompted an expansion in Bin Laden's resistance towards the U.S., just
as his aggression toward the Saudi Regime, which drove him to engage with groups restricted
to the Al Said government. Because of the multitude of acts, Bin Laden turned into a persona
non grata in the nation, with ousting, from the start in Sudan, somewhere in the range of 1991
and 1992, the only choice he had left (COLL,2004).
In Sudan, the Al-Qaeda was corralled dependent on the condition that the group would be
created, by methods for concurrence with the Sudanese government. In any case, Bin Laden
through his fortune made commitments to the development of infrastructure projects in Sudan.
In any case, the Sudanese government likewise gave the group instructional courses and more
conditions for their activities (MIGAUX, 2007). In any case, the connection between Khartoum
and Al-Qaeda did not last for a little while because the exercises of Bin Laden started to draw
the consideration of the Persian Gulf governments. These prompted pressure on Sudan by
Middle Eastern countries on the premise that Bin Laden, should be ousted from the nation. The
Sudanese government, because of the global sanctions forced on them, had no choice but to
ask Bin Laden and his fighters to leave the country (BYMAN 2015a).
Al-Qaeda's next objective was Afghanistan, which was then constrained by the Taliban system.
According to Stern and Bergen (2015, p. 179), Al-Qaeda brought itself officially down to the
54
Taliban through a pact conceded to by Bin Laden and Mullah Omar, the then Taliban leader.
At the onset, the Taliban consented to the launch of instructional courses in Afghanistan for
Al-Qaeda use. An assessment has highlighted that somewhere in the range of 10,000 and
20,000 volunteers were trained after Bin Laden oversaw those spaces (9/11 COMMISSION
REPORT, 2004, p. 67). Notwithstanding, the aid was not free, the group's yearly pre 9/11
spending plan of US$20-30 million would fill in the Taliban's assets consistently (BYMAN,
2015A, p.22).
Following the 9/11 assault, pressure increased immensely on the Taliban to turn in Bin Laden.
Because of the refusal of the Taliban to do as such, on the 7th of October Operation Enduring
Freedom was dispatched. On the 13th of November 2001, the Taliban group fell, neither its
primary leaders nor Bin Laden was caught. It has been generally assessed that about 80% of
Al-Qaeda individuals were lost and its instructional courses (BYMAN, 2015A, P. 42). Though
the group ability to carry out different activities was harmed, Al-Qaeda played key roles in
different terrorist assaults, to be specific, an assault on a place of worship in Tunisia, the Bali
club blast, the two of which occurred in 2002, train stations blasts in Madrid in 2004 and metro
stations in London in 2005.
At long last, in May 2011, Bin Laden was executed by the U.S. troops in Abbottabad, Pakistan,
knocking al-Zawahiri up to the highest point of Al-Qaeda.
3.3 OBJECTIVES OF AL-QAEDA
The origin of Al-Qaeda above shows that the ascent of the group was as respect to a violent
connection between the West and the Muslim world. Because of the Status quo which the
expected to change was one of imbalance, in which, as seen by the modern Islamist group,
55
Islam was as often as possible attacked by the Western nations, mostly by the U.S. also its
allies' impedance in the Middle East. Nonetheless, Al-Qaeda had three primary objectives. To
start with, it was to go about as a terrorist group all by itself. Second, it was to go about as a
coordinator, enrollment specialist, and strategic supplier for other militant Muslims, urging
them to battle past Afghanistan. Additionally, al-Qaeda was to be the vanguard of the
opposition, binding together, and driving the jihadist development, and giving it reason and
course (BYMAN, 2015a).
It is anyway important to cease the investigation that will, in general, comprehend Islamist
militants, most particularly the vicious ones, as just the advanced expression of obscurantism
whose primary goal is Western modernity. As indicated by Esposito (2005), the development
and groups, for example, Al-Qaeda, are appearances of inconsistencies of modernity itself,
which had Europe as a lead and was appeared to the world not just through specialized or
logical, military, and economic strength, however through European colonization.
It can therefore be argued that since the eighteenth century, the Muslim world has pledged
itself as being in decay, specifically concerning European nations. Because of this sequence of
events, a few theories have contrasted the circumstance with the distinction of Muslim
governments from Muhammad's teachings. An illustration of a famous movement coming
starting here was Wahhabism, which was set up by Muhammad ibn and al-Wahhab between
1703 to 1793. Wahhab here demonstrates that the consequence of the issues of the time, which
were political and social was a re-visitation of the consistent and faultless wellsprings of Islam,
which were the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Later on, basically from the 1950s and 60s, Sayyid
Qutb's impact went ahead. Qutb's ideology turned into the fundamental administration of the
Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, articulating a dream of Muslim society partitioned between two
56
isolated and contradictory fields; the believers and the unbelievers. Qutb additionally regards
the announcement of an Islamic state as fundamental as it is through to that God's plan on Earth
would be acknowledged ( ESPOSITO, 2005).
Thusly, it very well may be said that the objectives of Al-Qaeda somewhat show to some degree
the political and ideology symbolism. Bearing this in mind, it very well may be said that the
group was without question, impacted by the thoughts of Qutb, who considers the West be a
verifiable adversary of Islam and the jihad which as per him was to be an armed struggle, was
the solution to the situation. As per Bin Laden and his contenders, the reason for decadence in
the Muslim world was because of diversion in Muslim teachings by the government actors and
the involvement of foreign actors. More so, it very well may be said that the U.S. was prominent
in the public declarations of Al-Qaeda. A fatwa was published by Al-Qaeda calling for jihad
to battle the U.S. conquest of Saudi Arabia and other Muslim states in 1992. Furthermore, a
fatwa which, was distributed in 1996, reviles Saudi Arabia and the presence of the U.S. in the
Arabian Peninsula, which had to do with regional battles to the worldwide enemy of U.S. battle.
Nonetheless, there were innumerable claims against the Saudi government, having permitted
unbelievers into the Holy Land, which is the holiest place for Muslims; Mecca and Medina
which are likewise in Saudi Arabia additionally put on pause Islamic law, misuse of wealth
gotten from oil in the nation and overlook the Palestine case, among other wrongdoings
(BYMAN, 2015a). Besides, it likewise gave Al-Qaeda uphold in the Chechnya, Bosnia, and
Palestine clashes. Bin Laden's first strategy was to overcome the U.S. in other for triumph to
be attained in these territorial clashes ( COLL, 2014).
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In sum, it tends to be said, that the political target of Al-Qaeda concerning the political and
ideological intension of fundamentalist Muslim imagery, is to return to what was viewed as the
Muslim world's situation of submission to that of the West. The essential objective of Al-Qaeda
was to center endeavors against the U.S., bearing in mind that it is the fundamental driver of
lapses in the countries of the region. Nonetheless, the following stage was to eliminate apostate
governments, establishing the conditions for the development of genuine Muslim governments.
3.4 STRUCTURE OF AL-QAEDA
58
Figure 1: organizational structure and hierarchy of Al-Qaeda.
59
3.4.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF AL-QAEDA
Al-Qaeda has steadily formed into four levels;
1. Core Al-Qaeda: Ayman al-Zawahiri heads this group. Zawahiri is the senior head of
Al-Qaeda who holds a few mix-ups of the offshoots and settles contrasts among
accomplices and gives vital direction. Be that as it may, Zawahiri has been experiencing
a few difficulties from the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS) while imposing Al-
Qaeda's decisions.
2. Affiliated groups: There are a few groups who are faithful to core Al-Qaeda, for
example, Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), which was established in 2009
as an association of Al-Qaeda's branches in Saudi Arabian and Yemeni, Taliban and
the Haqqani Network in Afghanistan, Al-Shabab in Somalia torment with Al-Qaeda
since 2007, Boko Haram in the northern part of Nigeria, Al-Qaeda in the Islamic
34dcMaghreb (AQIM) situated in Algeria and neighboring states, and Jabhat al-Nusrah
situated in Syria.
3. Allied groups: There is a couple of allied Salafi-Jihadist elements situated in Asia, the
Middle East, Africa, and the Caucasus whose authority has not indicated loyalty to the
core Al-Qaeda. These permit the group to remain independent and look for their targets,
yet be that as it may, work with Al-Qaeda on special tasks and training.
4. Motivated people and organizations: This group, as a rule, has no immediate contact
with core Al-Qaeda, and anyway moved by Al-Qaeda cause and offered by abuse of
Muslims in Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Palestine, and so on, and tend to be convinced
by scions of the west and allied organizations in the Middle East.
3.5 AL-QAEDA’S AFFILIATES
3.5.1 AL-QAEDA IN THE ARABIAN PANINSULA (AQAP):
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As stated by the United States government, the AQAP, is viewed as the most effective and
dangerous part of the Al-Qaeda organization, which is, situated in Yemen and Saudi Arabia.
The AQAP has made America express that Yemen should be the group's next operational
training center for its militants from around the globe.
The AQAP was established in January 2009, when the Saudi Arabian and Yemeni branches
met up under the banner of Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula as an association during the rule
of Nasir al-Wuhayshi, who was then the individual secretary to Bin Laden. The point of the
group was to expel the Yemeni government and the monarchical framework in Saudi and
enforce its supreme analysis of Islamic Law all through the Arabian Peninsula. Reports have
additionally shown many Somali militants in association with Al Shabab, a notable terrorist
group also sending its men to go assist Al-Qaeda in the battle to oust the Yemeni government
who they likewise allude to as the foe of Allah.
3.5.2 AL-QAEDA IN ISLAMIC MAGHREB (AQIM):
AQIM is officially known as the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC), split from
the Armed Islamic Group (GIA), a key participant in the Algerian Civil War in 1998. GSPC,
in the year 2006, turned into a formal offshoot of Al-Qaeda and changed its name to Al-Qaeda
in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). AQIM is a jihadist terrorist group situated in North Africa
and the Sahel. The group is devoted to destroying regional governments and executing sharia
law in the regions it operates, mostly Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Libya, Tunisia, and Niger. The
group is said to be the wealthiest Al-Qaeda offshoot and one of the richest terrorist associations
on the planet. It is broadly known for kidnapping Westerners for ransom, which is its primary
source of revenue and dynamic in the trafficking of both humans and drugs. However, since
AQIM merging with Al-Qaeda in 2006, its resentment towards the West, governments in the
region, and beyond for instance Nigeria, has expanded just as its call for jihad against the
United States, France, and Spain has expanded moreover. Its activities remain geographically
61
limited to Algeria and the Sahel, and the information accessible on it does not see AQIM as a
danger to the U.S. country.
At the start of it all, AQIM's global strategy depended on the three-sided dynamic of the Middle
East (where Iraq fills in like a magnet for expected volunteers), North Africa (where the group
functions as a territorial jihadi enlisting center point), and Europe (where it seeks after forceful
propaganda against the French and Spanish "Crusaders"). The downfall of al-Qaeda in Iraq
imperiled this grand plan, subverting AQIM's capacities on the two sides of the Mediterranean,
although it essentially targets Western "Crusaders" in its own Algerian and Saharan
environment, AQIM stays wedded to a global agenda.
3.5.3 AL-QAEDA IN AFGHANISTAN:
Afghanistan was the fundamental base of Al-Qaeda's activity when Osama Bin Laden resided
there from 1996 to 2001. Nonetheless, the group's agents and its defenders in the Taliban
government, which ruled those equivalent years, were caught and sent out of Afghan during
the battle period of Operation Enduring Freedom, which started in October 2001. As
announced by the late 2010 administration audit on Afghan, the U.S. mission in Afghan has to
carry out 98,000 U.S. forces, notwithstanding the 41,000 forces from different nations, with
the point of denying Al-Qaeda safe haven in Afghan and the Taliban the capacity to oust the
Afghan government.
As per U.S. officers, Al-Qaeda assailants are a larger number of facilitators of aggressor
assaults on Afghan than dynamic warriors in the Afghan revolt. A few individuals from Al-
Qaeda, including Arabs, Uzbeks, and Chechens were caught or slaughtered in battle in Afghan
in recent years as satiated by the U.S. authorities, which a portion of the fighters had a place
with Al-Qaeda affiliates, for example, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU). The
62
Director of Central Intelligence Leon Panetta, on 27th June 2010, expressed that the strength
of Al-Qaeda fighters in Afghan has decreased to 50 to 100. In any case, some NATO and ISAF
authorities stated the group, may have moved to distant territories of Kunar and Nuristan locale.
3.6 IMPACTS OF AL-QAEDA ATTACKS ON GLOBAL SECURITY
Gasper (2008:12) states that “human security redirects attention in discussions of security from
the national or state level to human beings as the potential victims; beyond physical violence
as the only relevant threat or vector; and beyond physical harm as the only relevant damage.”
Human security includes economic security, food security, health security, environmental
security, personal security, community security and political security. Terrorism is deemed to
be a usurper of human security in general. This also breeds an environment for the emergence
of terrorists.
The state of nature is presented by Morgenthau (1993:29) as “international politics, like all politics is the struggle for power and whatever the ultimate aims of international politics power is always the immediate aim.”
The desire to acquire power or see power as a means to an end pushes terrorist to try and
perform their evil acts against the people to attract attention as one of their objectives. Terrorists
need dominance, their formation and the motives they pursue differ but they are united by the
major common thing of death to induce fear in targeted society. It pains to note that the
terrorists do not care about human life as extracted from the writings of Campos (2009:1) in
preface quoting Himmler, that;
“The best political weapon is the weapon of terror. Cruelty commands respect. Men may hate us. But, we don’t ask for their love; only for their fear.”
Such kind of thinking is criminality at the expense of fostering a peaceful world. Reading
through the above statements, one can argue that the state of nature is unequivocally inevitable
and is perpetually conflictual.
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The researchers extracted a few selected terrorist incidences to demonstrate that it is the
humankind that suffers most in any action of terrorism from 2000, 2001 and 2002. The basis
of selection is that the 9/11 is the major attack in the decade, while 2000 is prior to the 9/11
attacks and 2002 is after the catastrophic events of the decade. Koberston (2007:88) states that
“in 2000, Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam bomb killed C.V Gooneratine, Sri Lanka’s
industrial minister and 20 others, on 18 May a bomb exploded and Buddhist temple in
Battilacoa, Sri Lanka killing 23, on 12 October Al Qaeda attacked USS Cole, moored outside
Aden, Yemen where two suicide bombers rammed the ship and small boat loaded with
explosives killed 17 sailors, on 24 December multiple Christian Church bombed in Indonesia
killing and injuring 100” while in “2001, in March IRA car bomb exploded outside British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Television Offices in West London, Hamas bombs Netanya
Israel killing 3 and 65 wounded, on May 27 Abu Sayyaf members kidnapped 20 people from
resort in Palawan, Philippines, on 11 June Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh executed,
on 11September the WTC bombing and Pentagon in New York killing over 3000 people of
various nationals, on 1 October suicide attack on legislature in Kashmir and Janmu leaving 31
people dead, on 7 October USA invaded Afghanistan, on 1 and 2 December Hamas suicide
bombers strucked targets in Jerusalem and Itaifa killing two dozens,‟ and “ in 2002, on January
17 Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade shooter killed six in Israel, 16 February PFLP suicide bomber
killed 4 people and West Bank food court, 20 March bomb exploded across from USA embassy
in former Peru, killing 10 people, 11 April 19 tourist died when Al Qaeda detonate track bomb
outside a synagogue in Tunisia, 19 June Hamas suicide bomber killed 6 people on bus in West
Jerusalem, on 31 July Hamas bomb detonated at Hebrew University killing 9, on 12 October
Jemaah Islamiah bombed two night clubs in Bali, Indonesia killing 202 predominantly Tunis
and on 27 December truck bomb destroyed headquarters of Russia government in Grozny
Chechnya killing 80 people.” The deaths by terrorists have claimed a lot of lives including
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children of the school going age. The researcher argues that the perpetrators of violence must
receive severe punishment because of the crimes against humanity and it is the human’s burden
to restore destroyed infrastructure and the environment.
The people have also suffered from biological weapons though mainly used during warfare but
terrorists are capable of accessing such weapons. Garrison (1993:62) listed the types of
biological weapons as follows “incapacitation weapons designed to cause sickness and lethal
weapons which cause massive deaths.” In 1993 Japan released anthrax with the intend to cause
an epidemic and on 20 March 1995 it released sarin nerve gas on a train system leading to
death of 12 and 5 000 injured. During the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq as pre-emptive
strategy to counter- terrorism, the USA soldiers were fought by biological weapons leading to
deaths, sickness and ill health. Human Security comprises of environment in relation to
mankind versus sustainable development. Mankind has over the years greatly modified the
environment. As environment degrades and change due to human influence, new diseases arise
and old diseases in lethality. The effects of terrorism to the environment can be equated to the
times of war. Thus, the analysis given on the environmental effects of terrorism blends
terrorism and war. It can be argued that terrorism is a form of war. In the Geographical Paper
number 169, Mannion (2003:5) states that “many European cities were substantially altered by
bombing raids during the World War Two (WW2) for example London, Coventry, Berlin, and
Dresden while in Berlin 125 000 people died, half of the buildings and one third of the
industrial plant were razed to the ground.” This is reminiscent of the terrorist attacks that saw
the destruction of the UN offices in Dar es- Salaam, Tanzania where USA embassies were
destroyed including over 250 injured and 10 lives were lost. In Kenya about 5 000 injured in
Nairobi, Kenya living building destroyed at the USA embassy. Mannion (2003:7) states that
“devastation wrought by terrorist bombing of the resort of Kuta on the island of Bali, Indonesia
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on 13 October 2002 is still evident.” This leads to destruction and annihilation of the buildings
which cause environmental damage. In Iraq from 2003, there was a lot of destruction of
buildings which is not environmentally friendly. The bombings can be equated to the aerial
bombing of the palace of the late Libyan leader Gaddafi and Ivory Coast, Gbagbo. The
bombings were offensive and kill creatures, young children and animals which are not part of
the targets propounded by Gulio Douhet in his ideas on air strategy.
The terrorists can also use biological weapons which are so harmful to the environment and
the people. Mannion further states that “NATO bombing raids in Belgrade in 1999, the petrol-
chemical plants in the suburbs leaked hazardous substances into the air and the release of oil
from these plants led to the killing of fauna and flora while they have contaminated above- and
below-ground water.” The release of hydrochloric acid and mercury compound do not only
affect the targeted state but also the downstream states while bombing of factories which
produce ammonia and plastics resulting in the release of chemicals such as chlorine and vinyl
chloride causing local air pollution and health hazards.
According to American Psychological Association the Impact of Terrorism and Disasters on
Children states that most children suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This
condition “develops in response to witnessing or experiencing threatening or harmful events
that elicits fear, helplessness or horror.” This condition can affect the children even after 15
years. A research survey indicated that six months after 9/11 attacks, approximately 75 000
New York City public school children in grades 4 through 12 were suffering from PTSD
including children who were not directly affected by the event.
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It can be argued that terrorism highly affects individual security and education of both adults
and young. The continued killings and bombings leaves people with no sense of pride in
education as the fruits are not realized due to terrorism.
3.6.1 SPECIFIC IMPACT OF GLOBAL TERRORISM ACROSS VARIOIUS STATES
The 9/11 assaults have been named by the U.S. Department of State as the most exceedingly
awful global terrorist assault ever. Four diverse yet coordinated hijacks of the commercial
planes were done by 19 criminals having a place with the Al-Qaeda terrorist group. Two fuel-
loaded planes were purposely collided with the twin World Trade Center in New York,
prompting the total breakdown of the two towers and killed more than 3,000 individuals. A
third plane, nonetheless, collided with the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. Since the planes had
recently taken off and were with jet fuel, its effect was like that of a bomb detonating.
Regardless, the fourth plane slammed in a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania (U.S. Department
of State, 2002).
The 19 hijackers on 9/11 were said to come from the Middle Eastern nations. The question of
how they came into the country was raised, which indicated they came into the country
lawfully. With more than 6000 mi of land borders, 95,000 mi of seacoast, and numerous air
terminals, ensuring all conceivable passage focuses on the nation and keeping out any terrorist
is almost impossible.
3.6.2 GOLBAL EFFECTS OF THE 9/11 ATTACKS
A resolution was passed by the United Nations censuring the 9/11 assaults (Columbia
University, 2003). Interpol has concentrated on bringing the 9/11 terrorist to justice (Interpol,
2001) by organizing an 11 Task Force about the assaults on that day (Interpol, 2003a). Different
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nations because of the 9/11 assault on the United States, had directly or by implication brought
into the fray against terrorists. Countries like Yemen, Pakistan, Kuwait, Tunisia, and Kenya,
have all experienced terrorist activities said to be carried out by the supposedly arranged by the
group liable for the 9/11 assault, Al-Qaeda (Hosenball et al., 2002; McGeary, 2002). Suicide
bombers in Palestine blew up buses in Israel. Australians were killed, in the Bali eatery. An oil
tanker off to Yemen blew up by terrorists. Likewise, suspected terrorists have been arrested in
France, Germany, and England. More so, foreign tourists were killed in an eatery bombed by
terrorists in the Philippines (Gibbs, 2002; Nussbaum, 2002). The United States attacked
Afghanistan and Iraq (White House, 2002).
3.6.3 THE EFFECTS OF 9/11 ON THE UNITED STATES IN GENERAL
The 9/11 assaults had various immediate effects on the United States in general. The underlying
tenor of the populace in the United States was stun, distress, and shock after the assault.
Assessments of individuals changed. Because of this, individuals developed to loathe and
oppress Muslims and Arabs (Quinn, 2003), just as another national curiosity to learn and find
out about Islam (Ghio, 2001). Individuals started giving blood and cash to the casualties of
9/11. Workers turned out to be keener on investing energy with friends and family and
simultaneously adjusting work and home just as stretching out more endeavors to helping other
people in need. The general population of the U.S. turned out to be a lot closer to one another,
as well as a notable increase in the solidarity of the general population (Cohen, 2002).
Numerous changes were made at the administrative level. Organizations of intelligence and
law enforcement like the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and (FBI) were stressed. A sum
of forty government offices and units were allocated to accumulate data on terrorism. A bureau
level division of Homeland Security was formed in the national government (U.S. Department
of Homeland Security, 2003a). Congress set up a Transportation Security Administration
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which recruited and employed more than 40,00 government baggage screeners and oversees
the screening of checked things at the 429 U.S. airport (Peraino, 2002). President Bush,
however, pronounced a "War on Terrorism" which got tremendous support. There was an
attack on Afghanistan by the U.S., and its allies to discover and destroy those believed to be
the culprits of 9/11. Additionally, there was an attack on Iraq, which was formally recorded by
the U.S. Department of State as a sponsor of terrorism (White House, 2002).
The U.S. economy was adversely affected by 9/11, with business collapsing significantly
(Cooper and James, 2002). As indicated by Oster (2000), terrorist strikes were the greatest
misfortune for the insurance business in 2001. The 9/11 assault had both immediate and long
haul economic effect, some of which continues to date. Because of these assaults, the stock
market was shut for seven days, and it caused the Dow to drop just about 700 points,
exacerbating the 2001 recession. Be that as it may, it cost Al-Qaeda an estimate of $400,000
to $500,000 to design and execute the attacks, it cost the U.S. much more.
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Figure 1: Cost of Al-Qaeda attack in billions.
3.6.4 DAMAGE IMPACT OF 9/11 ATTACKS
It has been estimated by a report from the New York Comptroller’s Office in 2002 that the cost
of 9/11 actual harm was at $55 billion, which $24 billion of it is the expected income of lives
lost. The estimation of the World Trade Center structure alone was $8billion. PCs, furnishings,
and vehicles cost $6 billion, while the harm of utilities and subway framework was additionally
$6 billion, and harms to different structures cost $5 billion. $5billion was also used to treat
wounds, including those endured by people on call who breathed in poisonous dusty and $1
billion to tidy up the territory.
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Figure 2: Cost of damage in billions.
3.7 IMMEDIATE ECONOMIC IMPACT
After the assaults, the stock market was shut for four trading days, which was the first since
the time of President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the Great Depression, which he closed the trades
for two days in March 1933 to stop a bank run. Additionally, the Federal Reserve dropped the
fed subsidizes rate a half a point to 3.0%. Nonetheless, the stock market returned on September
17, 2001. The oil value tumbled from $23.77 a barrel in August 2001 to $15.95 in December.
Although oil costs decrease in the fall, this was a more honed decay than expected. Another
reason was the dollar value, which rose strongly between August and December. The aircraft
business lost $5 billion from the assaults. The four-day closure cost $1.4 billion alone.
Travelers feared flying for at least a year. Therefore, 1,000 planes were stopped during that
time, and thousands of workers were furloughed. On September 22, Bush endorsed into law
$15 billion in government loans.
3.7.1 2001 RECESSION
The 9/11 assaults deteriorated the 2001 recession, which had started in March 2001. The
economy had contracted 1.1% in the principal quarter however ricocheted up 2.4% in the
subsequent quarter. The assaults made the economy contract 1.7% in the second from last
quarter, expanding the recession. Development got back to 1.1% in the final quarter. The Y2K
alarm had at first caused the recession. It made a boom and subsequent bust in web
organizations. Unemployment kept on increasing until June 2003, when it arrived at 6.3%. That
was the peak of that recession.
3.7.2 WAR ON TERROR
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On Sept. 20, 2001, President Bush called a War on Terror. He stated, "Americans ought not to
anticipate one fight however a protracted mission, dissimilar to some other we have ever
observed." Osama bin Laden was at the top of the al-Qaeda association that launched the 9/11
assaults. In its first year, Congress appropriated $29.3 billion in crisis financing for the war.
On March 21, 2003, President Bush sent soldiers into Iraq. He said the CIA had discovered
weapons of mass pulverization. He added that Iraq's leader, Saddam Hussein, was helping al-
Qaeda agents. Congress appropriated $36.7 billion in crisis financing for the battle in Iraq in
its first year. The expenses for the two wars continued mounting, coming to nearly $6 trillion
out of 2019.
3.7.3 DEBT CRISIS
The main economic effect of the 9/11 assaults was how the increased defense spending
prompted the U.S. debt crisis. Without the War on Terror, 2020 debt would be $20 trillion or
less. That is $26 trillion total debt, as of now, minus $6 trillion. If it were $20 trillion, it would
be 103% of the nation's economic output. The U.S. gross domestic product was $19.5 trillion
as of the second quarter of 2020. This total is as yet higher than the 77% debt to-GDP tipping
point suggested by the World Bank. In any case, it is superior to the actual 133% level. The
War on Terror reduced funds for development projects to help the nation out of the 2008
monetary crisis. Fewer positions were made, which implied less expense income and further
increase debt. That additionally implied less financing for infrastructure fix and replacement.
3.8 BALI BOMBINGS IMPACT
At approximately 11:20 pm, Saturday, October 12, 2002, the idyllic island paradise of Bali,
was rocked by a series of devastating explosions. Paddies Bar and the Sari Club on the main
street of Kuta bore the brunt of the impact. Both entertainment venues were packed with
unsuspecting tourists, staff, and revelers; many others were in the vicinity. Despite medical and
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emergency response efforts, 202 people died as a result of these blasts, and hundreds more
were injured with varying degrees of severi132ty (ABC Online 2003). Revealed as an act of
terrorism, the Bali Bombings affected more than just the direct victims and their families.
Amidst altruism and adversity, the community of Bali has struggled to regain some sense of
stability and normalization following this tragedy. While international media attention assured
emotional and financial support, negative images, and growing concerns regarding safety
served to undermine the tourism industry (Kalla 2003). Depending on the income generated
through tourist expenditure, many individuals and businesses in Bali have been faced with the
loss of their livelihoods. Beyond the immediate response, rehabilitation of physical
infrastructure, and short-term provision of aid, successful disaster recovery efforts need to
address all impacts on the community with an aim of sustainability. Implicit in such
revitalization is greater local resistance and resilience. The challenge for Kuta and Bali has
been for the various organizations and agencies to effectively collaborate, strategize, and
achieve, in a situation of limited resources.
3.8.1 IMPACTS OF THE BOMBING
The Bali bombings had a significant negative impact on the local and regional economies. Bali
is heavily dependent on tourism, which plummeted in the wake of the attacks. Indeed, while
some analysts have argued that the economic impact of the bombings was negligible given that
the contribution of tourism to the Indonesian GDP was only 4 to 6 percent. However, the impact
of the bombings on the livelihood of everyday Balinese cannot be easily dismissed. Besides,
the attackers reject arguments that the bombings had an adverse economic consequence for
Bali. Samudra argues that any business activities which involve the consumption of alcohol
and the encouragement of sexual promiscuity—activities the targets certainly condoned, he
argues—are impermissible in Islam. Samudra also contends that even businesses that only
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obliquely profited from the nightlife industry, such as handicraft stalls, were illegitimate. He
states that the proprietors of such businesses are guilty of associating with “un-Islamic”
activities. With these arguments as justification, Samudra suggests that there was no significant
harm done to Bali by the bombings. Indeed, Samudra expressed his hopes that Allah would
replace lost businesses with more legitimate and “Islamic” ones.
3.8.2 IMPACTS ON STATES SOCIETY RELATIONS
Despite Imam Samudra’s arguments, the impact of the bombings was far-reaching. State-
society relations throughout the region were significantly affected as a result of the attacks,
especially in Indonesia. In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, the mainstream Muslim
intelligentsia in Indonesia was not inclined to accept that there could be radical elements among
them prepared to condone the deaths of innocent civilians in pursuit of a pan-Islamic caliphate.
For example, Nadhatul Ulama (NU), one of Indonesia’s largest Muslim groups and a mostly
moderate organization, accused the US of resorting to “unethical political maneuvers” to
pressure Indonesia, and warned Washington not to antagonize Indonesia with “propaganda
tricks.” However, after the perpetrators were arrested and put on trial, they publicly accepted
responsibility for the attacks. The bombings also sparked the recognition of the threat posed by
terrorism in the security strategies of Southeast Asian governments. This acknowledgment
resulted in increased law enforcement coordination and intelligence sharing within the region.
This cooperation may not have eradicated radical networks, but it certainly weakened them.
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CHAPTER FOUR INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO AL-QAEDA IN RELATION TO GLOBAL
SECURITY
4.0 INTRODUCTION There have been continued efforts from United States and its allies in their efforts to diminish
the threats posed by non-state actor such as Al Qaeda. Through criminal legislation, the United
States and the UN have sought to erode the capability and operations of terrorist organizations
by limiting the international terrorists’ access to operating finances. Also legal methods are
also applied to criminalize territorial terrorism, a veritable manner of operations by Al-Qaeda
which will be studied in this chapter and how such methods help to curtail the operations of
the terrorist group.
4.1 LEGAL AND FINANCIAL CLAMPDOWN In the work of Nineteen days after the attack, President George W. Bush addressed a joint
session of Congress and stated;
“Our war on terrorism begins with Al Qaeda, but does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, and defeated.”1 In essence, the president confirmed the opening of the US-led global war on terrorism (GWOT). Unlike previous experiences in which the United States has gone to war, in this new era of warfare, the enemy is fundamentally different (Kalic, 2005:1).
In the post-Cold War security environment, transnational threats such as terrorist groups
emerged to fill the void left by the demise of the Soviet Union. However, unlike the days of
the Cold War where military and diplomatic solutions provided the best options to combat the
expansive enemy, the United States and the international community remained unsure of how
to target and prosecute transnational terrorists. Essentially, the United States and other nations
used criminal and financial methods to prosecute and bring terrorist organizations to justice
for two reasons. First, the use of criminal proceedings to combat terrorism allows the US
government and other nations to apply legislation that has a proven track record in fighting
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crime. By characterizing transnational terrorist groups as criminal enterprises, the nations of
the international community can use the well-established international networks, such as
INTERPOL, to combat the actions and movement of terrorist members. Through the
application of criminal legislation, the United States and the international community are
attempting to decapitate and erode the membership of transnational terrorist organizations.
Experience in fighting transnational organized crime factions provided the model the United
States and other nations used to begin their attack on nonstate terrorist organizations (Baveja,
2002).
By using their experiences to combat the influence of transnational organized crime
groups, the United States and the UN have expanded the scope and application of traditional
criminal legislation to apply to terrorist groups. The objective behind the application of
criminal statutes is to weaken the leadership of terrorist organizations by degrading their
operational capability. Law enforcement agencies have been successful in applying this
approach to capture leadership in Al Qaeda. However, this method has not curbed membership
at the lower levels.
In conjunction with the application of criminal legislation, the United States and the UN
have sought to erode the capability and operations of terrorist organizations by limiting the
international terrorists’ access to operating finances. Money is a vital component in the
operations carried out by terrorist organizations. Therefore, the United States and the UN have
surmised that if the international community can limit a terrorist organization’s access to its
capital, the nations of the world can slowly destroy the operational capability of terrorist
organizations. The Banking Secrecy Act and the Money Laundering Control Act are two
examples of legislation used by the United States to deprive terrorist organizations of their
operating funds (Smith, 2004). As with the use of criminal legislation, the experience gained
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from fighting and prosecuting organized crime groups provides vital insight into the adaptation
and evolution of financial legislation for the war on terrorism.
The United States and its allies in the war on terrorism extensively use criminal and
financial methods to erode the growing presence of transnational terrorist organizations.
Clinton established a precedent when he used executive orders as an additional tool to fight
transnational terrorism. Specifically, Clinton issued Executive Order (E.O.)12947 on 23
January 1995 to deter potential terrorists from disrupting or attempting to stop the Middle-East
peace process. Clinton stated in the E.O. 12947 “grave acts of violence committed by foreign
terrorists that disrupt the Middle-East peace process constitute an unusual and extraordinary
threat to the national security, foreign policy, and economy of the United States” (Clinton,
1995). The executive order also outlawed an individual or a group’s “financial, material, and
technological support and/or assistance” to terrorist organizations identified as hostile to the
Middle-East peace process (Executive Order (E.O.) 12947, 5079). Although Clinton issued
E.O. 12947 to ensure stability in the peace process, the document provides another example
of US legislative attempts to reduce the support and influence of terrorist organizations in the
years prior to the attacks by Al Qaeda.
In addition to the use of criminal legislation, financial legislation, and executive orders to
fight terrorism, military force is yet another tool available to political leaders as they attempt
to curb the threat posed by groups such as Al Qaeda. However, until the openly declared
“GWOT” by President George W. Bush, the military option remained the most reserved and
guarded response used by US presidents.
As the United States expanded its fight against terrorism in the 1990s, so did the UN.
Scholars Jane Boulden and Thomas G. Weiss argue “prior to the 1990s, the General Assembly
of the UN approached the issue of terrorism as a general international problem” (Boulden and
Weiss, 2004). Within this period, the General Assembly strove to develop “an international
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framework for cooperation among states,” while still directly avoiding a definition of terrorism
(Boulden and Weiss, 2004). Based on increased terrorist activity in the 1990s, the persistent
issue of terrorism slowly gravitated toward the jurisdiction of the Security Council and away
from the General Assembly. Boulden and Weiss observe that the “attempted assassination of
Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, the bombing of American embassies, and first attacks on
the World Trade Center” led the Security Council to begin issuing sanctions as a way to deal
with the state sponsorship of terrorism (Boulden and Weiss, 2004). The Security Council
directed these actions against nations such as Libya and Sudan, which supported terrorism,
and any other nation refusing to cooperate with the rest of the international community in the
condemnation of terrorism. In the aftermath of the Al Qaeda attacks on the World Trade Center
in New York and the Pentagon in Washington DC, the UN and the Security Council
fundamentally embraced the position of President George W. Bush in his efforts to eradicate
the threat posed by terrorism by initiating a “global war on terrorism.”
Although efforts to combat terrorism before 11 September 2001 had been well established,
the severity and high casualties in the Al Qaeda attacks reinforced the sentiments within the
United States and the international community that terrorism needed to be stopped.
International actors such as the UN and NATO, as well as individual nations such as Britain
and Russia, pledged to assist in the US war to eradicate transnational terrorist groups. The
response to terrorism by the United States and the nations of the world fundamentally changed
after 11 September 2001.
For the United States, actions taken against terrorist groups prior to 11 September 2001
focused on the criminal actions and financial assets of transnational terrorist networks in an
effort to reduce their operational capability. In the period after the attacks, President George
W. Bush established that the United States would use all means necessary to combat the forces
of terrorism. Bush warned that nations assisting, supporting, or conducting terrorist operations
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would be held accountable for their actions. Bush openly declared a GWOT and broke with
previous administrations by arguing the transnational terrorist threat, posed specifically by Al
Qaeda and its leader bin Laden, demanded overt military force. Bush and his National Security
Council viewed the attacks as “acts of war” (Briscoe, Kiper, Schroder, and Sepp, 2003). As
the administration officially linked Al Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks, Bush’s cabinet
moved to align the nation for a “campaign against terrorism” (Briscoe, Kiper, Schroder, and
Sepp, 2003). Congress supported the president’s decision by “approving a joint resolution that
authorized the use of armed force against those responsible for the attacks” (Briscoe, Kiper,
Schroder, and Sepp, 2003). Secretary of State Colin Powell diplomatically maneuvered to
align nations with the US position, while Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and his staff
at DoD worked on putting together a military package to use against Al Qaeda and the Taliban
government in Afghanistan.
On 7 October 2001, Operation ENDURING FREEDOM began. The initial stage of the
attack consisted of “aircraft and cruise missile attacks on Taliban forces, Al Qaeda fighters,
training sites, command and control systems, and radar installations” in Afghanistan (Duncan,
2004). The second phase of the operations entailed the landing of US Special Forces and Army
Rangers (Briscoe, Kiper, Schroder, and Sepp, 2003). Behind the special forces and rangers,
US Marine Corps Expeditionary Units (MEUs) followed to establish a base in the vicinity of
Kandahar, from which US forces could fight for control of the nation (Briscoe, Kiper,
Schroder, and Sepp, 2003).
The combat operations carried out in Afghanistan by the United States were not unilateral.
The British, Russian, and Pakistani governments as well as other nations overtly supported
and contributed to the combat effort (Washington DC: State Department, 2004). The sustained
combat operations in Afghanistan by the United States and its allies against the Taliban and
Al Qaeda therefore represent a fundamental break with how nations attempted to combat
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terrorism prior to September 2001. The use of overwhelming military force is not what made
this action different; rather it was the alliance forged in the wake of 11 September 2001 to
reduce the international security threat posed by transnational terrorist groups.
In conjunction with the use of military power, the United States and the international
community recognized the fight against terrorism demanded the application of a whole
spectrum of approaches. The work done before 11 September 2001 became fundamentally
significant because it provided a foundation upon which the United States and the international
community began to build and expand common links found throughout the national systems.
The link of transnational organized crime, arms traffickers, and narcotics traffickers to terrorist
organizations proved to be one such connection made and pursued in the international
community’s fight to eradicate transnational terrorist groups. The use of criminal, financial,
and immigration legislation, combined with the use of force by law enforcement and military
organizations, converged to offer the nations allied in the GWOT a plethora of tools to combat
the transnational terrorist activity. In the aftermath of 11 September 2001, the international
community worked diligently with the United States to establish a loosely grouped cooperative
network of national and international laws designed to curtail and eventually eradicate threats
posed by terrorist organizations. The actions taken by the United States and the international
community discussed thus far describe how Al Qaeda’s attacks forced the United States and
the international community to focus on transnational terrorism as an international security
issue. The second part of this study details the adaptation of terrorist groups since they were
first identified as a potential security risk in the immediate post-Cold War environment.
4.2 EXAMINING THE PROGRESS IN THE FIGHT AGAINST TERRORISM
Other experts and scholars on terrorists and terrorism share Hoffman’s pessimistic
characterization of the impact of the war on terrorism on Al Qaeda and other like-minded
terrorist organizations. A terrorist specialist from the University of Saint Andrews, Dr. Rohan
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Gunaratna, argues that since 11 September 2001 Al Qaeda has adapted to the GWOT by
“identifying loopholes and gaps in the western security architecture,” thereby enabling them to
maintain an operational capability in an increasingly complex security environment
(Gunaratna, 2004) Gunaratna uses excerpts from Ayman al-Zawahiri’s “Knights Under the
Prophets Banner: Meditations on the Jihadist Movement,” printed in December 2001 to build
his case that Al Qaeda has adapted to the GWOT, as well as maintained its commitment to its
ideological struggle (Gunaratna, 2002). According to Gunaratna, al-Zawahiri advocated the
“escalation of terrorism.” After the GWOT had already commenced, al-Zawahiri stated Al
Qaeda needed to:
inflict the maximum casualties against the opponent, no matter how much time and effort such operations take; the need to concentrate on the method of martyrdom operations as the most successful way of inflicting damage on the opponent and the least costly to the Mujahideen in terms of casualties; the targets as well as the type and method of weapons used must be chosen to have an impact on the structure of the enemy and deter it enough to stop its brutality, arrogance, and disregard for all taboos and customs; and focusing on the domestic enemy alone will not be feasible at this stage (Gunaratna, 2002:27).
Gunaratna argues that despite the US-led efforts to weaken and eradicate Al Qaeda, the
transnational terrorist organization continues to adapt to the efforts designed to counter its
operations. Increasingly, Al Qaeda called on militant Islamic groups around the globe to ally
in the fight against the West. In the wake of 11 September 2001, Al Qaeda co-opted political
parties, Islamic charities, and other militant Islamic groups to strengthen and expand its
international support base (Gunaratna, 2002)
Although the US and its allies continue to erode the leadership of Al Qaeda, membership
flourishes. According to former director of the US Congressional Task Force on Terrorism and
Unconventional Warfare Yosef Bodansky, in the pre-11 September 2001 era Al Qaeda relied
on “approximately 250,000 individuals willing to die for the cause, while an additional 2.5-5
million people supported their efforts” (Lefkovitz, 2004). In the post-11 September 2001 era,
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Bodansky claims “as many as 500,000-750,000 people are willing to be trained” as suicide
bombers, while a further 10 million more radical Muslims are willing to “support the operations
of suicide bombers” (Lefkovitz, 2004). In addition to the 10 million plus cited by Bodansky,
he states an additional “50 million more Muslims are willing to offer financial support” to Al
Qaeda’s cause (Lefkovitz, 2004). Based on these numbers, Bodansky concludes that “America
is losing the war on terrorism” based upon actions taken within the context of the GWOT and
Operation IRAQI FREEDOM (Lefkovitz, 2004).
In addition to expanding its global support base, Al Qaeda has also sought to increase its
destructive power by investing in surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), rocket-propelled grenades
(RPGs), and light antitank guns (Davis, 2002). Documents recovered in Kabul after the US
invasion of Afghanistan and in the aftermath of a UK police raid on suspected Al Qaeda safe
houses, revealed the terrorist organization possessed manuals on the use and manufacture of
chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) weapons (Gunaratna, 2002). While it appears that
Al Qaeda has not yet developed or produced a CBR weapon, experts agree it will attempt to
do so in the near future (Lefkovitz, 2004). Acquisition of a CBR weapon by a terrorist
organization has been the nightmare scenario envisioned by successive US presidents since the
1990s.
Al Qaeda appears to be readily adaptive to the post-11 September 2001 security environment.
Since 11 September 2001, Al Qaeda has consistently maintained its commitment to its
ideological struggle by expanding its international support base while also improving its
weapons cache. In addition to these adaptations, Al Qaeda and other terrorist organizations
have maneuvered to maintain high levels of international funding, despite sanctions and actions
taken by nations to impede the funding of terrorist organizations. One of the most significant
changes to Al Qaeda’s post- 11 September 2001 operations has been its willingness to partner
with international drug traffickers (Bernad, 2003). In the group’s early genesis as an emerging
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international security threat, bin Laden and Al Qaeda renounced drug traffickers for religious
purposes. Two main factors led to the partnership with this once taboo element. First, Al Qaeda
and bin Laden recognized that through their association with the Taliban government in
Afghanistan, they could easily get involved in the international trafficking of heroin to
supplement their finances (Gunaratna, 2004). Second, Al Qaeda ignored its previous
theological aversion to participating in narcotics trafficking, claiming the production and
subsequent sale of heroin contributes to the “social degeneracy” of the US and Western
population (LeBlanc, 2004).
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CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 INTRODUCTION There are various results and findings that have been gathered from the previous chapter where
a thematic analysis has been carried out. The findings that will be expatiated on in this chapter
centers around the connection between terrorism and global security with information deduced
cites political, ideological and religious elements as connecting factors between terrorism and
security the world over, considering the involvement of various like Iran, Saudi Arabia and the
United States. Broad impacts which regarding the activities of Al-Qaeda on security is
discussed, while specific effects are also touched with findings proving how terrorism actions
in the US, Britain and Bali had terrible economic impacts. Other findings prove that there are
actions mostly by the US to curtail the Al-Qaeda network, with efforts of the UN also, first
making laws to criminalize territorial terrorism and controlling the access to money by the
terrorist network.
5.1 SUMMARY
The focuses on Al-Qaeda as a case study, the group has been in existence for some time and
has carried out different operations, for example, the 9/11 assault in the U.S., the bombing of
train stations in Madrid 2004, and London 2005, the Bali club bombing, and some more.
Notwithstanding this has affected people and the world at large, economically, psychologically,
and socially.
More so, it is also important to outline the fact that people consistently play a key role with
regards to terrorism, which could be in form of killings, kidnapping, taking of hostages, and
the releasing of violence. Due to all these, their memories consistently bear traumatic and
torturing events to people. However, this essay tends to focus on this problem and find a
solution to manage the act of terrorism with the help of the research questions.
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From the various scholarly works findings prove that terrorism has negatively affected
collective state effort in maintaining international peace and security. The decade in the
millennium witnessed the major attack of a superpower where almost 3000 people dead of over
50 nationalities.
The concept of collective security has been discussed in detail but it has remained very difficult
for states to collectively co-exist. This is because of the ideological and geographical
differences between and among member states of the UN. The global security agenda is
overridden by state interest. This is accompanied by refusal by some member states to be bound
by the rules of the UN. This concept is based on the pacifist settlement of disputes but on the
other hand diverge from the real practice of politics and peace. The concept is usually favored
during large conferences whose idea is to stimulate research while on the ground states act
together with friends than enemies. As noted earlier, the concept of global security is
outweighed by the clear reasons why states are reluctant to fight terrorism collectively. It states
that politics is ridden by selfishness and egoism of states and individuals who are always in
pursuit of power. Politics is thus the struggle for power and peace. States exercise hard power
in a political world.
Iran has been pitched as one of the nations that clearly and openly sponsor terrorism, it is even
a part of the nation’s diplomatic objectives. Their objectives cut using the various terrorist
groups to perpetuate political agenda across Muslim territories like Palestine and Pakistan.
Saudi Arabia according to the study is confirmed as the biggest sponsor of terrorism in
cooperation with other Gulf States they have been able to penetrate major parts of the Horn of
Africa including Somalia and Yemen using the Al-Shabaab and Al-Qaeda networks. The US
is also found as one of the actors funding terrorism with evidence of the actions of the Muslim
Brotherhood in Egypt attempted coup on ex-President Mubarack and it is also confirmed that
85
the US at some point sponsored Al-Qaeda to prosecute political intents in the middle east
surviving as a detractor.
Based on the Theory of Realism This researcher argues that, the concept of Collective Security
is not very effective in combating terrorist activities. It goes without saying that, the concept is
based on pacifist tract and is muted from the writings of Immanuel Kant (1975 Section 1) which
stated that “ A state is a society of men whom no-one else has any right to command or dispose
except the state itself and it is a trunk with its own roots.” This means that a state can decide
whether to be part of the collective security or not. Collective security is guided by morality
and consensus to an extent that fighting terrorism is likely to be ineffective. Realism offers a
more credible reason why the states are driven by their zest for the struggle for power and
individual interest. These interests have led to the following incidences.
5.2 CONCLSUION
Based on the findings the study concludes that the US assemble and sponsor terror networks
mostly for short term purposes and where they are no longer useful, they are disposed, although
sometimes disposing such network is not the easiest of tasks.
Political intentions remain the major link between terrorism and global security with major
actors, while promotion of religious ideologies come as the minor indications because they are
not which much state sponsorship like the political element.
Regarding the specific impacts of terrorism on Economic Security, findings includes the
reduction of FDI, reduced capital inflows, stalls stock markets, shifts investment both capital
and labour. It ushers in higher uncertainty thus reducing confidence among potential investors.
The state shifts its priority from projects designed for growth to higher demand for security
and once security is given higher priority, transport sector suffers especially dealing with cross
border. Besides industry will act below capacity or forced to close due to the lack of labour.
86
The Effects of Terrorism on Individual Security. The research study explained security not
only to mean insulated from physical harm but also from environmental security, food security,
community security, economic security and even health security among other securities. The
continuous advancement in technology has led to the emergence of cyber-terrorism, Narco-
terrorism, biological terrorism and even nuclear terrorism. These are designed to inflict pain
and insecurity upon the citizens of a government which will then fail to protect its citizens. The
Mumbai attacks, Black September, 9/11, bombing of the WTC in 1993, hostage taking and
kidnapping have all caused human insecurity.
There have been continued efforts from United States and its allies in their efforts to diminish
the threats posed by non-state actor such as Al Qaeda. Through criminal legislation, the United
States and the UN have sought to erode the capability and operations of terrorist organizations
by limiting the international terrorists’ access to operating finances. Money is a vital
component in the operations carried out by terrorist organizations. Therefore, the United States
and the UN have surmised that if the international community can limit a terrorist
organization’s access to its capital, the nations of the world can slowly destroy the operational
capability of terrorist organizations. The Banking Secrecy Act and the Money Laundering
Control Act are two examples of legislation used by the United States to deprive terrorist
organizations of their operating funds
Despite the substantial progress made in the GWOT, Al Qaeda and other like-minded
organizations remain operational. Since 11 September 2001, the United States and the
international community have increasingly sought to reduce the financial support of terrorist
organizations by freezing their financial assets, as well as those of their supporters. In an effort
to recuperate their financial resources, terrorist organizations have increasingly allied with drug
traffickers. These nefarious alliances are emblematic of the major adaptive efforts taken by
terrorist organizations to maintain their violent presence within the GWOT. The United States
87
and the international community have recognized the significance of this scheme and have
worked diligently in the past years to curb these associations.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Understanding the adaptive and resilient nature of transnational terrorist groups provides the
allies in the GWOT with critical insight into the enemy. By incorporating this data into
antiterrorist doctrine, strategy, and tactics, the allies in the GWOT can adjust their operations
to meet the changing demands of the security environment. Against a dynamic enemy such as
Al Qaeda, it is necessary to leverage the full spectrum of political, diplomatic, military, and
law enforcement measures in the fight against terrorism. To date, the United States and its allies
have consistently applied a broad spectrum of resources to combat the terrorist threat. As the
fight continues and the enemy adapts, the allies in the GWOT need continually to reassess the
threat and adjust accordingly. In the context of the GWOT, the United States and its allies need
to maintain a constant awareness of how best to eradicate the terrorist threat by assessing and
adjusting the best mixture of political, diplomatic, military, and law enforcement measures to
apply. By retaining flexibility and maintaining constant pressure on transnational terrorists, the
United States and its allies will prevail in the GWOT.
88
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