Terrigenous Clastic Depositional Systems

Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Barcelona Budapest Hong Kong London Milan Paris Santa Clara Singapore Tokyo

W.E. Galloway D.K. Hobday

Terrigenous Clastic Depositional Systems Applications to Fossil Fuel and Groundwater Resources

Second Completely Revised, Updated, and Enlarged Edition

With 288 Figures and 18 Tables

Springer

Prof. William E. Galloway University of Texas at Austin Department of Geological Sciences Austin, TX 78712, USA

Dr. David K. Hobday Earth Sciences and Resources Institute 1515 E. Mineral Square Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-64659-1 001: 10.1007/978-3-642-61018-9

e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-61018-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Galloway. William E. Terrigenous clastic depositional systems: applications to fossil fuel and groundwater resources/William E. Galloway, David K. Hobday. - 2nd completely rev .. updated, and enl. ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. 445-484) and index. ISBN 0-387-60232-1 (hardcover). - ISBN 3-540-60232-1 (hardcover) 1. Sedimentation and deposition. 1. Hobday, David K. II. Title. QE571.G27 1996 553.2 - dc20 95-47132

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1990, 1996 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1996

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Cover design: Springer-Verlag. E. Kirchner

Typesetting: Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong

SPIN: 10509771 32/3136/SPS - 5 4 3 2 1 0 - Printed on acid-free paper

Preface to the Second Edition

Nonrenewable energy resources, comprising fossil fuels and uranium, are not ran­domly distributed within the Earth's crust. They formed in response to a complex array of geologic controls, notably the genesis of the sedimentary rocks that host most commercial energy resources. It is this genetic relationship between economic re­sources and environment that forms the basis for this book. Our grouping of petro­leum, coal, uranium, and ground water may appear to be incongruous or artificial. But our basic premise is that these ostensibly disparate resources share common genetic attributes and that the sedimentological principles governing their natural distributions and influencing their recovery are fundamentally similar. Our combined careers have focused on these four resources, and our experiences in projects worldwide reveal that certain recurring geologic factors are important in controlling the distribution of com­mercial accumulations and subsurface fluid flow. These critical factors include the shape and stability of the receiving basin, the major depositional elements and their internal detail, and the modifications during burial that are brought about in these sediments by pressure, circulating fluids, heating, and chemical reaction.

Since the first edition of this book in 1983, there has been a quantum leap in the volume of literature devoted to genetic stratigraphy and refinement of sedimentologi­cal principles and a commensurate increase in the application of these concepts to resource exploration and development. Two wholly new chapters, 11 and 16, have been added to accommodate these advances, two chapters (7 and 8) have been com­pletely rewritten, and Chapters 3, 6, 9, 10, and 13 have been substantially revised.

We review the spectrum of terrigenous (land-derived or siliciclastic as opposed to in-place or biochemical) clastic depositional systems and their component genetic facies, with emphasis on subsurface as well as field recognition. These range from the most proximal, subaerial, and generally coarse-grained alluvial-fan systems through fluvial, deltaic, shore-zone, and shelf environments to the slope and base-of-slope system (Chapters 3 through 8). The lacustrine environment (Chapter 9) may contain elements of all of these systems but is considered separately. Eolian systems (Chapter 10) constitute a special case, which has received belated attention as. a repository of major commercial energy resources. This chapter is followed by a synthesis of deposi­tional systems and genetic facies in the context of sequence stratigraphy (Chapter 11). We then examine ground-water flow systems and how they evolve in relation to changing climatic regime, structural configuration, degree of compaction, diagenesis, and recharge (Chapter 12). These chapters set the stage for detailed accounts of coal, uranium, and petroleum resources in terms of their paleoenvironmental setting, mode of emplacement, preservation, and subsequent transformations. The relationship of petroleum to clastic depositional systems (Chapter 15) is widely documented, so only an overview is possible here. However, we cite some important studies from mature hydrocarbon provinces that provide excellent models and new insights for less-ex­plored or frontier basins. In contrast to petroleum, coal and sedimentary uranium have only relatively recently attracted a high level of detailed genetic sedimentological analysis. Analysis of coal basins in particular was retarded by undue emphasis on descriptive stratigraphy and formal classification. Although general environments of

VI Preface to the Second Edition

coal formation have been known since the last century, it was the detailed studies of modern environments, including an appreciation of peat-mire evolution, that led to comprehensive genetic and predictive models for coal. These coal models are currently undergoing revision and refinement as a result of new studies of mire ecology and organic facies development and are benefitting from the application of recent advances in genetic stratigraphic sequence analysis (Chapter 13). Sandstone-type uranium em­placement (Chapter 14) provides a classic example of the principles elaborated in this book as it requires a particular combination of sedimentological framework, geochem­istry, and fluid flow, all controlled by the depositional environment. Finally, we synthe­size the current information base on the rapidly developing field of reservoir and aquifer characterization (Chapter 16). Optimal commercial development of hydrocar­bons and sediment-hosted minerals, with due regard to broader environmental issues, as well as sustainable development of ground-water resources, represents a new and expanding area of geologic endeavor.

The emphasis throughout is on principles or concepts, backed by our own experi­ence and reference to other workers, rather than a comprehensive catalog of recent progress. We believe that this application of genetic stratigraphic/sedimentologic prin­ciples and techniques will increasingly be viewed as indispensable in these extractive and resource-management industries. Our targeted readership of advanced students and industry professionals will find that the concepts and procedures we advocate provide a basis for advancing their understanding of the genetically determined distri­butions of sedimentary rocks, particularly sandstones, and the relationship of petro­leum, energy mineral resources, and ground water to these highly variable but largely predictable sedimentary rock geometries and properties. This unifying theme, and the successful transfer of technologies and principles from the upstream energy sector to the environmental industry, make this book equally relevant to scientists and students concerned with ground water as a resource in its own right, and with problems of shallow subsurface contamination. After all, neither hydrologists nor petroleum geolo­gists and engineers should be primarily concerned with the rocks themselves, but in the fluids they contain, and the effects on fluid flow of the permeability distributions within unconsolidated sediments and sedimentary rocks.

Our views are necessarily prejudiced by our own backgrounds, but we acknowledge the prevailing state of the art in basin analysis, especially the relevance of geologic conditions to the distribution of petroleum, fuel minerals, and ground water. We present a deliberate bias toward examples from our own careers, generally as part of teams within both industry and academia. We have benefitted greatly from exten­sive interaction with our colleagues of diverse geologic affinities and views on five continents.

January 1996 W.E. Galloway D.K. Hobday

Preface to the First Edition

The reserves, or extractable fraction, of the fuel-mineral endowment are sufficient to supply the bulk of the world's energy requirements for the immediately forseeable future - well into the next century according to even the most pessimistic predictions. But increasingly sophisticated exploration concepts and technology must be employed to maintain and, if possible, add to the reserve base. Most of the world's fuel-mineral resources are in sedimentary rocks. Any procedure or concept that helps describe, understand, and predict the external geometry and internal attributes of major sedi­mentary units can therefore contribute to discovery and recovery of coal, uranium, and petroleum.

While conceding the desirability of renewable and nonpolluting energy supply from gravitational, wind, or solar sources, the widespread deployment of these systems lies far in the future - thus the continued commercial emphasis on conventional nonrenew­able fuel mineral resources, even though their relative significance will fluctuate with time. For example, a decade ago the prognostications for uranium were uniformly optimistic. But in the early 1980s the uranium picture is quite sombre, although unlikely to remain permanently depressed. Whether uranium soars to the heights of early expectations remains to be seen. Problems of waste disposal and public accep­tance persist. Fusion reactors may ultimately eliminate the need for uranium in power generation, but for the next few decades there will be continued demand for uranium to fuel existing power plants and those that come on stream.

This book is, to some extent, a hybrid. It is directed toward the practicing explora­tion and development geologist who is, of necessity, something of a generalist. How­ever, the stress on process and principle may also make this a suitable text for courses in resource geology.

Our grouping of coal, uranium, and petroleum may appear to be incongruous and artificial. However, our basic premise is that there are common genetic attributes shared by all three, and that the sedimentological principles governing their distribu­tion are fundamentally similar. We have both had geologic careers divided among all three of the fuel minerals. Factors that we have found to be important include deposi­tional processes and environments and their resultant genetic facies, interrelationships of genetic facies within depositional systems, early postdepositional modifications by circulating ground water, and, finally, the changes that take place at depth as sedimen­tary basins evolve in response to tectonic and regional hydrologic controls.

In many instances the paleoenvironmental factor is preeminent in controlling the distribution of fuel minerals. The origins of peat and both syngenetic and placer uranium are directly related to depositional environment. Peat is subsequently modi­fied to coal by burial and heating during the normal sequence of basin evolution.

However, many attempts to relate fuel-mineral deposits to genetic facies associa­tions alone have met with mixed success. Sedimentary facies with apparently all of the necessary attributes for hosting fuel minerals commonly prove to be singularly barren, whereas some rich deposits in ostensibly unfavorable host facies defy conventional explanation. These exceptions indicate the need to consider additional factors, some of which may not be reflected in static facies elements. For example. it was recognized 30

VIII Preface to the First Edition

years ago that the role of postdepositional ground-water flow is crucial in sandstone­type uranium mineralization. Hydrologic setting is important in peat genesis, and critical to its preservation as coal; it may even have influenced the distribution of placer uranium in early Precambrian Witwatersrand-type algal mats. Thus, differences in ground-water circulation arising from topographic, structural, or climatic controls explain differences in uranium mineralization in sandstones of similar origin. They may also explain mutually exclusive distributions of coal and epigenetic uranium in identi­cal, coeval facies in different parts of a sedimentary basin. For these reasons, we summarize principles of ground-water flow in large sedimentary basins and explore implications for fuel-mineral genesis.

Numerous excellent textbooks and other compilations are devoted to sedimentary facies, environments, and processes, reflecting the burgeoning interest and involve­ment of geologists in these fields. There has been a corresponding recent proliferation of literature on fuel minerals from the standpoint of their geographic distribution, regional geologic setting, host rock associations, and economic and engineering aspects of their exploitation. This book attempts to bridge the gap between process-related studies of sedimentary rocks and the more traditional economic geology of commercial deposits of coal, uranium, and petroleum. Due attention is paid to subsurface tech­niques which, integrated with outcrop data, enable the most realistic reconstructions of genetic stratigraphy, and offer the greatest application in exploration. After reviewing depositional systems and their component genetic facies with emphasis on field and subsurface recognition, we examine ground-water flow systems - how they evolve in relation to changing structural configuration, consolidation, climatic regime, and to­pography in the recharge area. This sets the stage for an account of the associated fuel minerals in terms of their paleoenvironmental setting, emplacement, and subsequent transformations.

Our views are necessarily prejudiced by our own experience, but we attempt to do justice to the prevailing state of the art in basin analysis. Prodigious volumes have been published on the relationship of petroleum to clastic depositional systems, so only an overview is possible here. However, we document important studies in mature hydro­carbon provinces that provide excellent models for exploration in less-explored basins. In contrast, with a few conspicuous exceptions, coal and sedimentary uranium have only recently attracted the same level of detailed attention from sedimentologists. This stems in part from the early dominance of petroleum as a fuel, the temporary eclipse of coal, and the relatively recent emergence of uranium; and probably also from an overemphasis on descriptive stratigraphy, particularly in coal basins. The burgeoning studies of sedimentary uranium have presently reached a plateau, which permits a fairly comprehensive synthesis. Although general environments of coal formation have been known since the last century, it was only with detailed studies of modern fluvial and deltaic environments, starting with the Mississippi, that predictive models were developed. These coal models are currently undergoing considerable refinement. Those that we describe have all shown economic application in exploration and mine development.

The importance of sedimentary facies in affecting the quality and extraction of fuel minerals is also being more widely appreciated. For example, the roof and floor properties of coal mines are largely determined by subfacies characteristics. Knowl­edge of the depositional framework and associated fluid flow and engineering prop­erties has long been important in hydrocarbon production. Progressively more sophisticated geological input is used in genetic-predictive modeling, and this trend is likely to increase as reserves become depleted.

Compilation of a book which focuses on the geology and mineral deposits of many parts of the world brings one face to face with the problem of units of measurement. There is no ready solution to the complexity of English and metric units applied in

Preface to the First Edition IX

different countries, or in the same country at different times, or for different commodi­ties. We have attempted to cite measurements in their original units and to provide equivalencies in parentheses. Where original figures are rounded off, conversions are similarly rounded. In reality, the resource geologist must remain, for some time to come, conversant in both English and metric.

W.E. Galloway D.K. Hobday

Acknowledgments

The breadth of subject material included in any synthesis of the sedimentology and stratigraphy of terrigenous clastic deposits obviously extends far beyond the experi­ence of two authors. We have both been graced with numerous colleagues and friends who have been willing to invest their time and share their knowledge. Without their help, our labors would have been greater and our results less fruitful. To each one we extend sincere gratitude.

Milo Backus, Ian Bryant, Elisabeth Kosters, Marc Marshall, and Virginia Pendleton provided illustrations and references. Several figures that have appeared in publica­tions of the Bureau of Economic Geology were generously located and made available to us by Dick Dillon, Chief Cartographer.

Drafts of various chapters were reviewed and greatly improved in content and clarity by Mike Blum, Ron Boyd, Dick Buffler, Bruce Cairncross, Jed Damuth, Frank Ethridge, Robert Finley, Doug Hamilton, Gary Kocurek, Cliff Mallett, John McPherson, Andrew Miall, Joe Moore, Bob Morton, Hans Nelson, Robert Ressetar, William Ross, Jack Sharp, Michelle Smyth, Don Swift and Tony Tanka. Although we did not follow every suggestion, their comments always necessitated thoughtful recon­sideration of our proposition, often resulting in new insights.

Preparation of the manuscript incorporated the work of several professionals who patiently persevered over the long haul with us. Dennis Trombatore, Geological Sciences librarian at the University of Texas, was never defeated in the search for a reference, no matter how obscure. Patrice Porter drafted all of our new illustrations with patience, skill, and artistry. Jim Jaworski contributed his timely and often creative photographic talent to the task of graphics preparation. Betty Kurtz created the com­plex tables, completed inserts and corrections, and aided immensely in the last push to complete the manuscript. Amanda Masterson, a seemingly indefatigable editor, re­viewed each chapter and the final manuscript speedily and efficiently, turning up hundreds of inconsistencies, fuzzy language, and typos too tricky for the spell-checker. Finally, we acknowledge support for travel, time, and logistical needs provided by the Morgan Davis Centennial Professorship in Petroleum Geology, Department of Geo­logical Sciences, the University of Texas at Austin (WEG), and by the Earth Sciences and Resources Institute at the University of Utah and the University of South Carolina (DKH). John Barwis read the final manuscript and helped detect various errors and omissions.

William E. Galloway David K. Hobday

Contents

1 Fuel-Mineral Resource Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Energy Resource Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Relevance of Depositional Systems to Energy Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Applications in the Environmental Arena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Approaches to Genetic Stratigraphic Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Introduction: Depositional and Sediment Dispersal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Applied Depositional System Analysis ............................... 9 Seismic Stratigraphy and Facies Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Recognition of Depositional Systems: An Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Base Level Change and Vertical Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Integrated Depositional System Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 Alluvial Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Processes Acting on Alluvial Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Spectrum of Alluvial Fan Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Fan Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Ancient Alluvial Fan and Fan Delta Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Basin-Fill Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Alluvial Fans Through Geologic Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Resource Potential of Alluvial Fan Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4 Fluvial Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Depositional Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Fluvial Environments and Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Spectrum of Fluvial Depositional Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Eroding Rivers: Stable Channel and Valley-Fill Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Fluvial Evolution Through Geologic Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Ancient Fluvial Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5 Delta Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Delta Process Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Delta Environments and Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Process Classification of Delta Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Fluvial-Dominated Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Wave-Dominated Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

XIV Contents

Tide-Dominated Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Delta System Recognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Delta System Stratigraphic Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Evolution of Delta Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6 Shore-Zone Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Spectrum of Shore-Zone Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Shore-Zone Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Shore-Zone Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Shore-Zone Depositional Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Stratigraphy of Shore-Zone Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Shore-Zone Systems Through Geologic Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

7 Terrigenous Shelf Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Shelf Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Shelf Sediment Sources and Dispersal Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Shelf Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Spectrum of Shelf Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Stratigraphic Architecture and Evolution of Shelf Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Shelf Systems in Marine Basin Fills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

8 Slope and Base-of-Slope Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Slope Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Bedding Architecture of Slope Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Slope Environments and Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Slope System Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Slope Systems in Time and Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

9 Lacustrine Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Factors Controlling Lake Geometry and Hydrology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Stratification of the Water Column. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Lacustrine Environments and Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Lacustrine Sequence Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Lake Systems Through Geologic Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

10 Eolian Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Supply and Transport of Eolian Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Eolian Bedforms and Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Biogenic Structures................................................ 256 Dune Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Interdune Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Sand Sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Coastal Dune Fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Interior Sand Seas (Ergs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Eolian Sequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Contents XV

Associations with Other Depositional Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Hydrocarbons and Minerals in Eolian Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

11 Depositional Systems and Facies Within a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Morphodynamics: Concepts of Regime and Grade Adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . 272 Sequence Stratigraphic Paradigm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Lessons of the Quaternary - Stratigraphic Signature of High-Frequency,

High-Amplitude Sea-Level Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Depositional Systems and Sequences: Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Sequences in Other Kinds of Basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Integration of Sequences, Systems, and Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

12 Depositional Systems and Basin Hydrology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Fundamentals of Groundwater Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Properties of the Aquifer Matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Geochemical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Basin Geohydrology............................................... 304 Meteoric Flow Regime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Compactional and Thermobaric Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Hydrology of Depositional Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Example of a Confined Coastal Plain Aquifer System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

13 Coal and Coalbed Methane. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Coal Through Geologic Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Coal-Forming Depositional Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Coal Petrography and Paleoenvironment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Coal Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Cyclicity in Peat-Forming Environments and Coal-Bearing Strata. . . . . . . . 339 Depositional Systems and Coal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Geometry and Evolution of Coal Basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Coal-Basin Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

14 Sedimentary Uranium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Uranium Ore Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Classification of Uranium Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Applications to Resource Evaluation, Exploration, and Development. . . . . 386

15 Petroleum.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Distribution of Petroleum in Time and Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Depositional Systems and Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production. . . . . . 392 Distribution of Petroleum in Depositional Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Example: Intracratonic Basin Depositional Systems

and Hydrocarbon Occurrence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

XVI Contents

Example: Frio Depositional Systems, Northern Gulf Coast Basin. . . . . . . . 417

16 Facies Characterization of Reservoirs and Aquifers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Types and Scales of Heterogeneity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Styles of Heterogeneity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Depositional Systems, Genetic Facies, and Fluid Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Sequence Stratigraphic Applications to Reservoir

and Aquifer Characterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485