Creative Problem-Solving Techniques

Brainstorming Used in creative problem solving and idea generation. Creative problem solving: a method for obtaining new ideas focusing on

the parameters. Reverse brainstorming

A group method for obtaining new ideas focusing on the negative. Brainwriting

Form of written brainstorming. It is a silent, written generation of ideas by a group of people.

Gordon method Method for developing new ideas when the individuals are unaware of the

problem. Checklist method

Developing a new idea through a list of related issues. Free association

Developing a new idea through a chain of word associations. Forced relationships

Developing a new idea by looking at product combinations Collective Notebook Method

Developing a new idea by group members regularly recording ideas. Attribute Listing

Developing a new idea by looking at the positives and negatives. Big-Dream Approach

Developing a new idea by thinking without constraints. Parameter Analysis

Developing a new idea by focusing on parameter identification and creative synthesis.

Illustration of Parameter Analysis

Idea Box

The Idea Box is a derivation of the Morphological analysis technique developed by Fritz Zwicky as a method for systematically structuring and investigating the total set of relationships contained in multi-dimensional problems. The Idea Box is a matrix tool in which you insert all of the different parameters of a design so that you can see them clearly.

Idea Box is a Morphological Analysis technique originally developed by Zwicky and variations described by Arthur VanGundy and Michael Michalko and is defined in detail in his book “Thinkertoys” and VanGundy's book, “Techniques of Structured Problem Solving” [1].The Idea box is a way of automatically combining parameters of a challenge into new ideas. You choose the number of the parameters for the challenge, generate parameters and list variations for each parameter. By combining up with different combinations of the variations of the parameters, you can create new ideas [3]. The box is a matrix where you put in all parameters, so that you can have a clear view of them and make all possible combination (see case study for example).The benefit of morphological analysis is that it breaks down problems or issues into smaller elements. For example a car showroom consists of cars, salves area, service area, mechanics, spare parts, tools, customers, and a coffee area and so on. These in turn can be further sub-divided into even smaller elements. Thus, there are different types of customers, tools, etc. In that way morphological analysis encourages participants to build relationships between elements that they may not have thought of previously [2]. It can be used as a problem solving and as an idea generation technique. This method is also a product improvement technique, permitting the in-depth analysis of products or processes [5].The difficulty of this technique is the large number of ideas deriving of the multiple combinations that can be made [5]. If the parameters are many and each of them has many variations then many combinations will occur making it very complex to check all the box’s possible combinations.It is mostly used as an individual technique but it can also be used as a team technique. Managers of all kinds, general staff, artists and every employee of every level of an organization’s hierarchy can use and benefit from this technique. It can be of great usefulness for New Product Development, Marketing, Creative and Design Departments.

2. How it is implemented?

Morphological analysis general procedure is described below:Step1. List all major elements involved in the issue or problem. The facilitator writes them up across the top of a flip chart or whiteboard.Step2. Each sub-element is then listed under each element.Step3. The facilitator asks the participants to start combining the sub-elements together to try to ascertain some novel ideas. These ideas may be ridiculous or impractical but can be developed or refined at a later stage. It is important, therefore, to suspend all judgment.Step4. Step 3 should be repeated until a sufficient number of ideas have been generated.

Step5. The ideas can then be discussed developed or refined in order to acquire a novel solution [2].

Idea box is a morphological analysis technique as stated above. There are specific steps to follow in order to implement the tool:Step1. Specify your challenge.Step2. Select the parameters of your challenge. To determine whether a parameter is important enough to add ask yourself “Would the challenge still exist without the parameter I’m considering adding to the box?”Step3. List variations. Below each parameter, list as many variations as you wish for that parameter. The number of parameters and variations will determine the box’s complexity. Generally, it is easier to find new ideas within a simple framework than a complex one. For instance, a box with ten parameters, each of which has ten variations, produces 10 billion potential combinations.Step4. Try different combinations. When the box is finished, make random runs through the parameters and variations, selecting one or more from each column and then combine them into entirely new forms. You can examine all combinations in the box to see how they affect your challenge. If you are working with a box that contains many parameters, you may find it helpful to randomly examine the entire box and then gradually restrict yourself to portions that appear particularly faithful. It is like hunting stars in a box [3].

3. What are the success factors? (Do/ Do not)

If you want to successfully implement the idea box then you should pay attention to the following tips:

Use a flipchart to design the box/ matrix you are going to use for the procedure. Write down your challenge, product or problem so that you can keep it clear [3]. To determine whether a parameter is important enough to add ask yourself

“Would the challenge still exist without the parameter I’m considering adding to the box?” [3]

It is easier to find new ideas within a simple box/ framework than a complex one. For instance, a box with ten parameters, each of which has ten variations, produces 10 billion potential combinations. So try to keep it as simple as possible to better satisfy your goal [3].

If you are working with a box that contains many parameters, you may find it helpful to randomly examine the entire box and then gradually restrict yourself to portions that appear particularly faithful. It is like hunting stars in a box [3].

If you have a problem to solve then state the problem and represent the parameters with factors, characteristics of the problem. Then list variations of each parameter and make combinations in order to generate possible solutions.

In practice, the box may be incomplete, a critical parameter or variation may not have been included. When you feel this may be the case, you should reconsider and adjust the parameters or variations accordingly [3].

4. Case Study: “New laundry hamper” [3]

Situation : I am a marketing director for a company that produces laundry hampers. The market has matured and the company needs a new design to capture the customer’s imagination. My challenge is: “In what ways might I improve the design of laundry hampers?”Description: I analyze laundry hampers and list their basic parameters. I decide to work with four parameters [material, shape, finish and position] and plan to use five variations for each.Idea box : I construct my box with the parameters on top, leaving five boxes beneath each parameter for the variations. To generate the variations, I ask myself:

What materials could be used to make hampers?What shapes can hampers be made in?What finishes can be used on hampers?What are the positions for hampers?

Improve design for laundry hamperMaterial Shape Finish Position

1 Wicker Square Natural Sits on floor2 Plastic Cylindrical Painted On ceiling3 Paper Rectangle Clear On wall4 Metal Hexagonal Luminous Chute to basement5 Net Material Cube Neon On door

Under each heading I list five alternatives.Idea search : The next step is to randomly choose one or more variations and connect them to create new possibilities. These random combinations may trigger new ideas or potential solutions.After making any random runs through the box, one combination of variations for the parameters provoked an idea for a new design.The idea: Using the random combination of net material, cylindrical, painted and positioned on the door, I came up with a laundry hamper fashioned into a basketball-type net, approximately 40 inches long, attached to a cylindrical hoop and hung on a backboard that is attached to a door. This allows kids to play basketball with dirty laundry as they fill the hamper. When it is full, a tug on a drawstring releases the clothes.Five alternatives for each parameter generate a possible 3.125 different combinations. If only 10 percent prove useful, that would mean 312 new ideas. In theory, a perfectly constructed Idea Box contains all of the possible solutions to a specified challenge. In practice, the box may be incomplete, a critical parameter or variation may not have been included. When you feel this may be the case, you should reconsider and adjust the parameters or variations accordingly.

New ideas and inventions are merely new combinations of existing bits and pieces. The Idea Box snaps existing information together into provocative new patterns, and the ideas appear, almost by accident, out of nowhere. When the ideas appear, you’ll grin like a kid who has caught his first fish [3].

BrainstormingBrainstorming is a group creativity technique by which a group tries to find a solution for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously

contributed by its members.

Brainstorming has become a popular group technique and has aroused attention in academia. Multiple studies have been conducted to test Osborn’s

postulation that brainstorming is more effective than individuals working alone in generating ideas . Some researchers have concluded that the statement is

false (brainstorming is not effective), while others uncovered flaws in the research and determined that the results are inconclusive. Furthermore,

researchers have made modifications or proposed variations of brainstorming in an attempt to improve the productivity of brainstorming. However, there is

no empirical evidence to indicate that any variation is more effective than the original technique.

Brainstorming is used to generate a large number of creative ideas when problem solving and achieving objectives. It can even be used

for decision making.

The brainstorming technique was created by Alex Osborn in 1938. The term refers to the “disconnected thought” or “creative thought”. This tool asks people to leave their mind free to explore new ways, to invent new associations, to abandon old mental patterns. It is based on a group crossed discussion managed by a moderator. The brainstorming discussion provides a list of ideas, which should be used as a hint to solve a specific problem and which could be evaluated and elaborated subsequently.

This technique is based on the consideration that ideas refer to other ones, if they are expressed by different people. This process is metaphorically called cross-fertilization.

The process of brainstorming is very simple: when focusing on a specific problem this technique allows the group to create as many solutions as possible, as far as possible, without a pre-established order (see fig.1). The technique provides a great number of ideas and the linkages between them stimulate the generation of new proposals, in an auto-feeding process.The most important thing which must be taken into consideration during the discussion is that each idea must be respected and must not be judged a priori.

The entire process is synthetizable in four main assumptions:

1. Deferred critical judgement

An idea should not be judged or evaluated at the same time in which it is generated. If the idea is judged, the one who produced it will try to protect it strongly instead of thinking about other possibly better ideas. The deferment of the assessment phase represents the most important feature of the brainstorming.

2. Unconventionality is welcome

Everyone should be stimulated to produce as much unconventional ideas as possible, without being worried to appear ridiculous. In this way everyone’s imagination can act freely.

3. Multiplication of ideas

Quantity rather than quality of ideas must be encouraged. They will be selected later.

4. Encourage the good ideas of other people

When several ideas are generated, everyone is encouraged to take into consideration and to modify other people’s ideas. This produces new ideas, better than the initial one.

Fig.1. The generation of ideas in the brainstorming process.

The only strictly formal characteristic related with this technique is a written report of all the ideas generated. One or more people should write down each of these ideas, count them later on, without associating the name of the proponent. The list will be used as hints to find a solution for the considered problem.

Limitations of a brainstorming session

Besides positive aspects there are also some limitations of the brainstorming technique that must be taken into consideration. As observed by Osborn (1992), sometimes brainstorming sessions don’t produce results as expected, fundamentally for two main reasons:

1. faulty operation: lack of adhesion with procedures based on experience2. overrated expectation: sometimes people forget that miracles do not happen that often.

HeuristicHeuristic refers to experience-based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery. Heuristic methods are used to speed up the process of finding

a satisfactory solution, where an exhaustive search is impractical. Examples of this method include using a "rule of thumb", an educated guess, an intuitive

judgment, or common sense.

In more precise terms, heuristics are strategies using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings

and machines.

Heuristic Ideation is a very efficient group technique that helps to generate new and innovative ideas. The participants compare two items or concepts that are not apparently related, in order to stimulate idea generation. Hereunder you find the technique procedure:

Example 1

1. Choose two items of interest that are already in existence but are not apparently connected.

A businessman selects a Chinese mug and a greetings card among his products;

2. Make a list of “components” for each selected item.

The mug “components” may correspond to: square-shaped, floral design, coffee sized..;The greeting card “components” may correspond to: poetic message, to be sent by post, glitter decoration...;

3. Set up a matrix where the rows list the components of the one product and the columns list the components of the other, and each cell corresponds to a combination of two “components” from different products (see Figure 3-7) 

Figure 3-7 “Components” crossing matrix

4. Cross out any matrix cells that correspond to existing products.

“Floral design, card”;

5. Identify any cells with a natural market potential.

“Mug, sent by post”;

6. Looking at the matrix from another angle, try to identify any cells that look creative thought provoking;

7. Develop cells 5 and 6 into workable ideas.

SYNECTICSSynectics is a problem solving methodology that stimulates thought processes of which the subject may be unaware.

The name Synectics comes from the Greek and means "the joining together of different and apparently irrelevant elements."

Synectics is based on a simple concept for problem solving and creative thinking - you need to generate ideas, and you need to evaluate ideas. Whilst this

may be stating the obvious the methods used to perform these two tasks are extremely powerful.

Synectics is a way to approach creativity and problem-solving in a rational way. "Traditionally, the creative process has been considered after the fact... The

Synectics study has attempted to research creative process in vivo, while it is going on." 

According to Gordon, Synectics research has three main assumptions:

The creative process can be described and taught;

Invention processes in arts and sciences are analogous and are driven by the same "psychic" processes;

Individual and group creativity are analogous.

Preliminary planning

In advance, hold a preliminary planning meeting with the problem owner(s). This checks that there are genuine problem owners, wanting new options that

they themselves can implement, within their authority; helps you to understand the problem-owners' perceptions of the problem area; gives a feel for the

number and quality of solutions needed; helps to ensure realistic expectations about results; and allows you to agree team membership.

Procedure during the session

1. Problem owner provides headline and wish: They describes the issue, how it is experienced, the background, what has been tried, and the

possible scope of action. It is then expressed in one or more ‘big wish’ statements of the form: ‘I wish (IW)...’ or ‘How to (H2) ...’. NB that this is

not a ‘problem definition’ but a wish reflecting the way the issue is experienced. The group listen imaginatively, rather than analytically.

2. Group generates large numbers of ‘springboards’: The mood here should be expansive and unconstrained. The springboards use the same

formats as the ‘big wish’ (IW, H2, etc.). They are not ideas for solutions, but articulate further wishes to open up space for invention: ‘It would be

nice if we could do X but we don’t yet know how to.’. A wide range of springboard triggering techniques have been developed, e.g. various uses

of Analogies; various types of Excursions; the essential paradox/book title technique, and others ( Free Association, Random Stimuli, Drawing

techniques, etc.)

3. Select an interesting springboard: The mood now switches to a more focused approach than in Steps 1-2. Problem owner and group

members choose their favourite springboards (more on the basis of interest or appeal than on the basis of logical relevance). They share their

choices, but final choice rests with the problem-owner. However, the process can always be repeated, so the choice is not critical. The

assumption is that within any springboard will be creative possibilities that can usefully be explored.

4. Ideas to help achieve the selected springboard are generated, using the trigger techniques mentioned in Step 2 (or any other idea-

generation methods). The problem-owner selects some that seem interesting.

5. Check understanding of these by paraphrasing them and checking with their authors until the paraphrase is correct. An idea is selected for

the Itemised Response.

6. Itemised response. Every conceivable positive features of the selected idea is listed. Then (and only then), a single concern / problem / issue is

expressed as a problem for solution (e.g. ‘How to ...’). Solutions for these are expressed by all in terms of ‘What you do is (WYDI)...’.

7. Recycle or end: Back to 4. until sufficient ideas for this spring board have been explored. Then back to 3. for another springboard. Cycle until

the problem-solver has a solution s/he is happy to run with, or until time runs out.

EXAMPLETeacher-facilitators can use synectics in the classroom by leading students to:

Describe the Topic: The facilitator selects a word or topic then asks students to describe the topic, either in small group discussions or by individually writing a paragraph; e.g., MUSIC. 

Create Direct Analogies: The facilitator selects another word or topic then asks the students to generate a list that would have the same characteristics as those words or phases listed in Step 1 (a direct analogy is set up to make comparisons between the two words, images, or concepts). How are MUSIC and BIAS alike? Ask them to generate vivid mental images. Mental images are powerful tools in the process. 

Describe Personal Analogies: Have students select one of the direct analogies and create personal analogies. Students "become" the object they choose and then describe what it feels like to be that object. How would it feel to be music that is biased? 

Identify Compressed Conflicts: Ask the students to pair words from the list generated in Step 3 which seem to fight each other. Always have the students explain why they chose the words which conflict. Then have the students choose one by voting. How are auditory symbolism and personal inclination different? 

Create a New Direct Analogy: With the compressed conflict pair voted upon by the students, ask them to create a different direct analogy by selecting something that is described by the paired words. How are auditory symbolism and personal inclination like a painting, poem, movie, political party, etc.? 

Reexamine the Original Topic: Return to the original idea or problem so that the student may produce a product or description that utilizes the ideas generated in the process. They may concentrate on the final analogy or use analogies created in the other four steps (Gunter, et al., 1990).

For the same thing just different try the following. For best results go through each step, then put it away for a while, then go through the next step. Don't look

at any list until you get to the last step, redefine.

Metaphors/Analogies

Analogies are a key feature of many approaches to creativity. For instance, they were central to the earlier forms of Synectics and they are an important element in various types of Excursion. The term bionics has been used to describe the systematic use of biological and botanical analogies to solve novel engineering problems.

Often analogies are used very informally: 'This problem makes me think of X (analogy) - that suggests to me that maybe we could try Y (idea drawn from analogy X)'. But the underlying logic will be along these lines:

1. Identify what it is you want ideas for, and try to find a core verb phrase that captures the essential functional nature of what you are looking for - e.g.: 'How to make X'. 'How to prevent Y', 'How to speed up Z', 'How to become better at A'.

2. For each verb phrase generate a list of items (people, situations, objects, processes, actions, places, etc.) that is 'like' it in some way - e.g. analogies to 'making X' (having a baby, making a pudding, the Genesis creation story, a robot car factory, ...etc.).

3. Pick one of these analogies that seems interesting - preferably where the verb phrase and analogy are from different domains - e.g. a biological analogy for a mechanical problem.

4. Describe the analogue, including active aspects (such as how it works, what it does, what effects it has, how it is used) as well as passive aspects (size, position, etc.).

5. Use this description to suggest ideas relevant to your problem. Does the analogue have features you can use directly? Do the differences suggest other ways of looking at your problem?

Analogies can be:

Close / direct: A straight functional parallel e.g. selling science is like selling baked beans or the human arm is like an

anglepoise lamp. The direct analogy compares the problem with homogeneous facts, information or technology. A heating

system might be compared with a volcano and from this new ideas may arise. A direct analogy is a mechanism by which

we try to make comparisons with analogous facts, information or technology. In making use of this device we have to

search our experiences and knowledge to collect together phenomena that seem to exhibit familiar relationships to those

How do we IOWF want to manage

the office?

So that peace reigns all the time

Solution: adopt style of

management based on conflict

avoidance

in the problem in hand. It is often fruitful to compare animate systems with inanimate systems, or to make comparisons

between biological, ecological and other natural science systems and social systems.

Fantasy: What is the image that comes into your mind if you were to solve it in your wildest fantasy or within some other cartoon / fantasy world. Fantasy analogy is based on Freud’s notion that creative thinking and wish fulfilment are strongly related. It is usually prefaced by the words “How do we in our wildest fantasy...’ For example, when considering a problem dealing with managing difficult staff at work we might pose the question: “How do we in our wildest (IOWF) fantasy manage difficult staff without undue acrimony in the workplace?” This may well take us into the realm of considering conflict avoidance or conflict mollification management strategies.

Fantasy analogies take the most desirable solutions, which may be impossible to implement but which may lead to some

further practical ideas. This is similar to the intermediate impossible technique advocated in lateral thinking.

Figure 2. Fantasy

analogy – peaceful management

Symbolic analogy is the use of objective and personal images.

If the problem is to fit 50 people into a small conference room it may be likened to cramming sardines into a can or the London

Underground.

Symbolic analogy involves making use of objective and personal images to describe a problem (e. g. like an Indian rope trick,

like a thief in the night, like a pirate).

Figure 1. Symbolic analogy – the Scarlet Pimpernel

Personal / component: Here you become a component in the system. eg. Pretend you are someone’s favorite old shoe.  What makes you a favorite?  Why would someone put you on instead of a shiny shoe?  What do you like?  How do you make the foot that you’re on feel? Personal analogy, defined as “the description of how it feels to identify with a concept, process, or living or non-living thing, gives feelings and emotions to both animate and inanimate objects by treating the object as if it were human.”  Using personal analogy is an indirect way to develop a new context for familiar content and for getting a better understanding of the content.  They are appropriate for all grade levels and content areas.  They are particularly useful for content normally viewed as far removed from the human experience.

Personal analogy is the use of emotions and feelings to identify an individual with the subject of a problem.

The problem may be how to vary a food product such a fish finger. It may feel pain, be boring and may have a fishy odour which may not appeal to people. This may lead to some new element such as a tomato sauce filling being added to the product to negate the undesirable characteristics.

Getting hold of the boss is like finding

the Scarlet Pimpernel. “We seek her

here, we seek her there, we seek her

everywhere!”

Personal analogy can involve:

(a) describing the object by listing its basic characteristics and relating these to the problem;

(b) describing the emotions the object might have in a given situation;

(c) describing how someone feels when using the object;

(d) describing what it feels like to be the given object.

Based upon such an approach it might then be possible to develop solutions to the problem.

We might then look at ways of how we could try to incorporate these feelings into the promotion of the product (or, where negative, compensate for them in our promotional messages!). It is through such a technique that we are able to release ourselves from looking at a problem in terms of its previously analysed elements.

What is Value Analysis?It is an orderly and creative method to increase the value of an item. This " item" can be a product, a system, a process, a procedure, a plan, a machine, equipment, tool , a service or a method of working. Value Analysis, also called Functional Analysis was created by L.D. Miles.

Value Analysis can be defined as a process of systematic review that is applied to existing product designs in order to compare the function of the product required by a customer to meet their requirements at the lowest cost consistent with the specified performance and reliability needed.

The value of an item is how well the item does its function divided by the cost of the item (In value analysis value is not just another word for cost):

 value of an item = performance of its function / cost

 An item, that does its function better than another, has more value. Between two items that perform their function equally well, the one that costs less, is more valuable.The "performance of its function" could include that it is beautiful (where needed).Do not be surprised if as a result of value analysis the cost of an item is less that half of its previous cost.

Select the item to be studied and form a study groupTo make a value analysis we form a study group of 4 to 6 persons, preferably each with different knowledge, with different backgrounds. They meet in a room free from interruptions.

Then we select the item to be studied. The item should be one that gives the impression that its cost is too high or that it does not do its function well.

Value AnalysisThe value analyst should always be aware of functions, not of products, shapes, or processes. The main function is what the item does, is that which somebody wanted to archive by creating the item. Express this function (if possible) with just two words, a verb and a noun.

If the item is composed of various parts, it is useful to ask for the function of each part, and how they contribute to the main function of the item.

Do not be distracted by mere aggregate functions such as the rubber on a pencil's end or the ice producing part of a refrigerator. These were functions added since it was economical or easy to do so. They have no relationship with the main function.

Gather informationFind the main function and the secondary functions of an item. Get the cost of realizing each function.The attitude of a value analyst should be critical, aggressive, nonconformist, never satisfied with what she/he receives for the money given.The first action of the group should be to gather all the information about the item. Ask the best specialist of the field, not the person most accessible. Get a detail of costs. Collect drawings, specifications, all the written data on the item. Don't be satisfied with verbal information.

For a pencil, for instance:

What is it? (a pencil) What is it for? (make permanent marks) What is the main function? (make marks, write lines) What is the method, material or procedure that was used to realize the main function? (a graphite stick and wood) What are the corresponding secondary functions? ("transfer graphite to paper" and "facilitate holding the graphite" What does the item cost and how can we distribute the cost of realizing the main function into each secondary

function? Comparing these costs to an item of a similar function, how much should each function and the total cost?

(This example, the pencil, is already a high value item).

Center the attention of the value analysis group on the main function, because, during the analysis, the secondary functions may change. The group may choose different secondary functions to realize the main function.

It is not important that the individual costs assigned are imprecise. Because even an imprecise numerical value is much better than an expression such as "very costly" or "of low cost".

Measure the value of the way each secondary function is realized, is materialized:

Does it contribute value? (Is there something that does not contribute value?) Is the cost in proportion to the function realized. Does it need all its parts, elements, procedures? Is there something better to do the same function? Is there a standard part that can do the function?

Remember: All that does not contribute to the main function is waste and should be eliminated.

Creativity (the brainstorming session)The objective is to find a better way to do the main function. We try to find a different material, or concept, or process, or design idea, that realizes the main function.People looked for conditions under which the human mind produces really original ideas, a method that helped creativity. These conditions and procedures are stated below and need strict adherence:

1- State the main function clearly and shortly on paper or a blackboard (verb and noun), so that the group can fix their attention on it. State it without mentioning the physical object or the specific process. (Do not state secondary or aggregate functions).

2- The leader of the group says "We begin now" and when the ideas do not flow so fast anymore (about 15 to 20 min.) The leader says "That's all".

3- Members of the group state loudly any solution to the problem they can think of. It is very important that they do not analyze their own thoughts or those of others. They should not smile or react when exotic, improbable or senseless ideas are stated. They should not criticize or speak with others. They should only let their imagination run wild and state ideas. An idea can be inspired by a previous idea. (If no rare ideas are stated, then the members are analyzing, not making a brain storm).

4- The leader registers all ideas on paper or a blackboard.

5- When the session has finalized, if there is any doubt what was meant by an idea, the leader clarifies the idea with the help of members. He does not analyze or discard any idea.

This finalizes the brainstorm.

EvaluationThe evaluation should be done after an interval, at best about two days after the brainstorm, to allow the group to gain perspective.

Now the group analyzes each idea. They group similar ideas. When evaluating, do not think why the idea would not work, why it is not possible. Develop each idea, making it more practical, making it function better. Estimate a very approximate cost for each idea and investigate carefully ideas with an apparently low cost. When an idea is canceled, that should be based on facts, not opinions.

Identify barriers and eliminate them tactfully.Barriers are excuses or preconceived ideas that cannot be substantiated with numbers, facts, detailed and precise information or experimental evidence. Barriers can be honest beliefs. Normally there is gold behind a barrier. Now select the two to four ideas having the lowest cost.Obtain information for analyzing and developing an idea. Do not work in isolation. Once the group has advanced as far as it can

on its own, make contact with specialists. This may be necessary in the selection and also during the development of ideas. The value analyst is a coordinator of specialists, of groups of experts in other companies (Pay them for their contribution in some manner).Obtain information from the best source, not the nearest or most accessible one. Do not take into account an answer by a person or specialist that lies outside his field of expertise. The use of specialists is a powerful way of tearing down barriers. Avoid generalizations. Do not accept second hand information. Ask for copies of documents.

Development of the two to four ideas selected.Make a real effort to develop the ideas of lowest cost that do the main function. Make tests, prototypes, get quotes of cost. Estimate costs of short term alternatives, of long term alternatives and of any new ideas produced during the evaluation.

At the end of this process, the idea of least cost should have been identified. Ask yourself: Would I spend my own money on this solution? If not, modify it.

RecommendationIf you work in an organization or enterprise, be sure that the person really interested in applying the solution gets to see it. Present the final solution in writing, on a single sheet of paper, to the person that should implement it. Give a copy to his boss. This sheet should state the savings, costs and a detailed plan for implementing the idea. It should have all the information needed so that a person that does not know this subject can understand it and do it.The value analysis group should not itself implement the idea, if this is outside its normal area of work.

Implementation and Follow UpValue analysis is not a method of controlling the work of others or of investigating errors.Normally the amount of work to implement an idea is greater than the amount of work needed to produce the idea. Therefore it is a good procedure to let the people that implement the idea get most of the praise and merit. That produces excellent relations.Obtain that the group that implements the idea informs of the savings produced and, if possible, benefits from these savings. If needed, help them to establish the way the implementation will be checked and the savings calculated.

Metaphor and Problem SolvingMetaphor is a device commonly used in legend, children's and fairy stories in which a seemingly innocuous tale full of colourful characters is used to carry a far deeper underlying principle into the reader's consciousness. As well as being a device for conveying such meanings, metaphor can also be useful for problem solving. The technique that follows demonstrates how to actively use metaphor as a tool for remodelling problems into forms which make them amenable to approach by tangential and original thinking in a form that can yield unique, and otherwise inaccessible solutions when such are restructured in terms of the given problem.

Step 1: Remodel the ProblemThis is the first creative stage wherein the original problem is redefined into a similar but unrelated problem by means of metaphor. The NOUNS in the problem definitions represent content, whereas the VERBS, represent process. To successfully model a metaphor of the original problem, the content must be redefined and accordingly all the nouns should be replaced by new ones. Likewise, to encourage lateral thinking in the subsequent stage, verbs should be replaced but - unless some really wild ideas are to be explored - some vague similarity should exist between the old verbs and the new ones since verbs represent process. [e.g. 'How to Climb a Mountain' could effectively cross-map to 'How to Raise the Titanic' since the verbs are similar, whereas 'How to Lay a Garden Path' would be a more awkward mapping - but might possibly throw up some good tangential ideas.] Here are some examples of problems and effective modelling metaphors:

-------Basic Problem---------------------------------Metaphor-------How to Attract More Customers----------How to Catch a FishMaking my Car Thief Proof----------------Protecting the King's CastleIncreasing Factory Production-------------Growing Bigger TomatoesHow to Stay Healthy-------------------------Looking After My Car

As indicated above, it is perfectly feasible to make a metaphor of anything with anything else - for example 'How to Stay Healthy' could be cross-mapped to 'How to Keep Slugs off Dahlias' - but the correspondence is vague and strained, and consequently difficult to work with. 

Step 2: Ignore Original Problem; Brainstorm to Solve MetaphorAs far as possible, all thoughts of the original problem should now be erased from the problem solver's mind - indeed, a very effective strategy here is to give the metaphor to a person, or group of people, who have no idea whatsoever as to the identity of the real problem. Attention is now focused on solving the problem(s) set by the metaphor, with as many diverse and possible means of solving the meta-problem, enthusiastically AS IF IT WERE THE REAL ISSUE, being generated and noted down uncritically by the individual or group. 

In a group environment, it is important that ideas are not criticised since this will inhibit their generation AND, since the group are attempting to solve what is a meta-problem, some of the more bizarre ideas may well bear unexpected fruit during the next stage of the process.An example worksheet for the meta-problem 'How to Catch a Fish' is presented below:

>Example:HOW TO CATCH A FISHBuy a bookWatch an expertUse correct baitGet a good rodUse a netChoose correct swimUse groundbaitWith a hand grenadeGo spear-fishingBuy a trawlerUse a lureChoose right time of dayLearn correct weather conditionsLearn fishes' habitsThink like a fishUnderstand fish motivationObserve feeding patternsUse correct technique for each type of fishDrain the pondGet a good pegHamper other predatorsUse correct lineUse the right hook>

Stage 3: Back MapThis is often the most difficult part of the process yet at the same time it can be the most rewarding when a Eureka moment occurs. Each and every idea generated to solve the meta-problem is now back-mapped and adapted as necessary to be applicable to the original problem, noting that each idea may have none, one or more than one possible application. The example below for 'How to Catch a Fish' (original problem 'How to Attract More Customers') illustrates the process in action:

Example: HOW TO CATCH A FISH[Back mapping to 'How to Attract More Customers']Buy a book[book on sales technique, shop design, product sales statistics]Watch an expert[see how the competition do it, hire an expert sales consultant]Use correct bait[advertising, make products appealing, check out window design, check out product range and prices, use loss leaders]Get a good rod[advertising, check out premises]Use a net[spread message further, make sure message appeals to widest potential audience]Choose correct swim[relocate, open new branch, think about mail order]Use groundbait[loss leaders, attractive advertising, generate interest]With a hand grenade[stun the customers?]Go spear-fishing[target individual customers, select carefully, look at repeat business, keep records]

Worksheet

This is conveniently set out during stage 2, where a largish sheet of paper is divided into two with a vertical line and the meta-problem is written down at the head of the left hand column. The ideas generated by brainstorming are written down on the left. When brainstorming is complete, and only then, the 'real' problem title is written down at the head of the right hand column & the back-mapping carried out.

Forced Relationships

Use this creativity technique by making analogies between your challenge or project and something that has little or nothing to do with it. Forced relationships can yield unorthodox ideas. Forced relationships work best the farther apart the elements are. What ideas will come about when you compare your organization to vegetable farming, or build a relationship between your

church's guest services and a board game? How about a marriage and a Bugs Bunny cartoon? Far-fetched scenarios yield far-out ideas.

Example.

What happens when you force a relationship between a theme park and a bicycle? Walt Disney came up with the "hub and spoke" design of Disneyland--a central meeting and reference point with other activities radiating out from the center, much like a bicycle tire. It revolutionized theme park design and has been copied by virtually every theme park built since.

Action Ideas.

Take a list of objects, places and people and put them on index cards. Select one at random and make analogies between that element and your challenge or project.

Use a random input technique to generate an object or topic with which to form a forced relationship with your project.

Forced AnalogyForced analogy is a very useful and fun-filled method of generating ideas. The idea is to compare the problem with something else that has little or nothing in common and gaining new insights as a result.

You can force a relationship between almost anything, and get new insights - companies and whales, management systems and telephone networks, or your relationship and a pencil.

Forcing relationships is one of the most powerful ways to develop ways to develop new insights and new solutions. A useful way of developing the relationships is to have a selection of objects or cards with pictures to help you generate ideas. Choose an object or card at random and see what relationships you can force.

Use mind-mapping or a matrix to record the attributes and then explore aspects of the problem at hand.

Reverse BrainstormingA different approach to brainstormingReverse brainstorming helps you solve problems by combining brainstorming and reversal techniques. By combining these, you can extend your use of brainstorming to draw out even more creative ideas.To use this technique, you start with one of two "reverse" questions:Instead of asking, "How do I solve or prevent this problem?" ask, "How could I possibly cause the problem?"Instead of asking "How do I achieve these results?" ask, "How could I possibly achieve the opposite effect?"How to Use the Tool:

1. Clearly identify the problem or challenge, and write it down.

2. Reverse the problem or challenge by asking:"How could I possibly cause the problem?", or"How could I possibly achieve the opposite effect?".

3. Brainstorm the reverse problem to generate reverse solution ideas. Allow the brainstorm ideas to flow freely. Do not reject anything at this stage.

4. Once you have brainstormed all the ideas to solve the reverse problem, now reverse these into solution ideas for the original problem or challenge.

5. Evaluate these solution ideas. Can you see a potential solution? Can you see attributes of a potential solution?

Tip:Reverse brain-storming is a good technique to try when it is difficult to identify solutions to the problem directly.

Example:Luciana is the manager of a health clinic and she has the task of improving patient satisfaction.There have been various improvement initiatives in the past and the team members have become rather skeptical about another meeting on the subject. The team is overworked, team members are "trying their best" and there is no appetite to "waste time" talking about this.So she decides to use some creative problem solving techniques she has learned. This, she hopes, will make the team meeting more interesting and engage people in a new way.Perhaps it will reveal something more than the usual "good ideas" that no one has time to act on.To prepare for the team meeting, Luciana thinks carefully about the problem and writes down the problem statement: "How do we improve patient satisfaction?"

Then she reverses problem statement: "How do we make patients more dissatisfied?"

Already she starts to see how the new angle could reveal some surprising results.At the team meeting, everyone gets involved in an enjoyable and productive reverse brainstorming session. They draw on both their work experience with patients and also their personal experience of being patients and customers of other organizations. Luciana helps ideas flow freely, ensuring people to not pass judgment on even the most unlikely suggestions.Here are just a few of the "reverse" ideas: Double book appointments.

Remove the chairs from the waiting room.

Put patients who phone on hold (and forget about them).

Have patients wait outside in the car park.

Discuss patient's problems in public.

When the brainstorming session runs dry, the team has a long list of the "reverse" solutions. Now it's time to look at each one in reverse into a potential solution. Well resulting discussions are quite revealing. For example:

"Well of course we don't leave patients outside in the car park – we already don't do that.""But what about in the morning, there are often patients waiting outside until opening time?"Mmm, true. Pretty annoying for people on first appointments.""So why don't we open the waiting room 10 minutes earlier so it doesn't happen""Right, we'll do that from tomorrow. There are several members of staff working already, so it's no problem".

And so it went on. The reverse brainstorming session revealed tens of improvement ideas that the team could implement swiftly and easily.Luciana concluded: "It was enlightening and fun to looking at the problem in reverse. The amazing thing is, it's helped us become more patient-friendly by stopping doing things rather than creating more work".

Key Points:Reverse brain-storming is a good technique for creative problem solving, and can lead to robust solutions. Be sure to follow the basic rules of brainstorming to explore possible solutions to the full.

GORDONs METHOD

The Gordon’s method is one of the creative techniques developed by Osborn in his famous book “L’arte della creativity”.

“In “Operational Creativity” by William J.J.Gordon, collective discussion firstly addresses every conceivable aspect of a broad problem solving approach. For example, to devise a new tin opener, the Gordon group discusses the “opening” theme and examines any possible meaning of this word and any possible example of opening (items, nature, etc.). This process helps to discover unusual approaches to the planning of a new tin opener. Afterwards, the group studies and develops these approaches.” (Osborn, 1992) 

Gordon's Problem Solving Process (with suggested modification by Dr. Mac)

Step 1: Identify and define the problem or situation.  Good solutions depend on accurate identification of the problem at hand. Questions that should be asked at the beginning include "What is really going on here?"  "What problems are we having?'  "What exactly do we need to solve or do?" and "is there another deeper problem here?"

Step 2: Generate alternatives.  Once the problem is clarified a number of possible solutions should be generated.  To help bring forth ideas, questions and statements such as the following are usually helpful: "What can we do differently?"  What rules or procedures do we need to follow?"  "Let's see how many ideas we can come up with." and "Are there still more solutions we can think of?"

Step 3: Evaluate the alternative suggestions. When alternatives have been specified, participants are asked to comment on them.  The goal is to choose a solution that is agreeable to all.   It is appropriate to ask for each proposal, "What do you think of this suggestion?"  "What are its advantages and disadvantages?"  "What problems does it leave unsolved?" and "if we try this idea, what do you think will happen?"

Step 4: Make the decision.  After examining the alternatives, the one that seems to suit most people best is selected for trial.

Dr. Mac's suggested additional step: Practice the selected response through the use of role play. Arrange for the student to experience an approximation of the expected upcoming event. In repeated roleplays, have the student respond to variations on the expected situation in order to assist him/her in becoming more competent and flexible in the use of the selected action.

Step 5: Implement the solution or decision. The trial solution is put into place with the understanding that it may or may not work as anticipated and that it can be changed if necessary.

Step 6: Conduct a follow-up evaluation. The results of the trial solution or decision are analyzed and evaluated.  Helpful questions include "Was this a good decision?"  "Did it solve the problem?"  "Is everyone happy with the decision" and "How effective was our decision?" If the solution or decision is judged to be satisfactory, it is kept in place. If unsatisfactory, a modified or new solution is proposed and put to the test. 

Checklist technique

A checklist is simply a list of points that should be considered when looking at developing a new train of thought. This approach is based on the fact that most ‘new’ ideas are in fact a derivative of things that already exist.

There are a number of predefined lists that help you with this task.

This is probably best defined with an example. Lets jump back to your large notepad where you have collected a number of images or items that you like.

The next thing is to apply one of these checklists. In this case we will use one called SCAMPER

S = Substitute

C = Combine

A = Adapt

M = Magnify

P = Put to Other Uses

E = Eliminate (or Minify)

R = Rearrange (or Reverse)

In our example we could use the above by asking the following questions;

S (Substitute): "What can I substitute in some of the images or items?"

C (Combine): "How can I combine some of these images or items?"

A (Adapt): "What can I adapt or copy from the images or items?"

M (Magnify): "Is there part of these images or items that I could magnify?"

P (Put to Other Uses): "Is there something that I could use in another way?"

E (Eliminate): "Could I improve some of these items by removing something?"

R (Rearrange): "How can I change, reorder or reverse some of these items or images?"

From here you can see that you are starting to generate new trains of thought.

Checklists

This creative technique is used mainly for product improvement or modification. It involves applying a series of words, verbs, adjectives or phrases contained in checklists or tables to an existing product or service or its attributes. Osborn’s Checklist is the best known and includes the verbs: put to other uses, adapt, modify, magnify, minify, substitute, rearrange, reverse and combine. Each verb contains also an expanded definition in the form of questions. For example, the description of the verb substitute is: Who else instead? What else instead? Other ingredient? Other material? Other process? Other power? Other place? Other approach? Other tone of voice? (Osborn 1963). The method is to apply each of the verbs and its expanded description to a product or service. See Annex:, Table 3: Osborn’s checklist).

Free Association

Free association contains elements of several other idea-generating techniques and depends on a mental ‘stream of consciousness’ and network of associations of which there are two:

Serial association, start with a trigger, you record the flow of ideas that come to mind, each idea triggering the next, ultimately reaching a potentially useful one.

Centred association, (which is close to classical brainstorming) prompts you to generate multiple associations to the original trigger so that you ‘delve’ into a particular area of associations.

As a rule the serial mode is used to ‘travel’ until you find an idea that you find of some interest, you then engage the centred mode to ‘delve’ more deeply around the interesting item. Once you have exhausted the centred investigation, you being to ‘travel’ again, and so on. Three hints:

Suspend judgement. Try not to repress your natural flow of thoughts. Unusual ideas, that may seem ‘off the wall’ are perfectly acceptable, such as:

Rude ideas

‘Not you’ ‘Silly’ ‘Taboo’ ‘Unethical’ ‘Tactless’ ‘Politically incorrect’

They are acceptable because they are thoughts you generally suppress; they could be an alternative starting point promoting all sorts of possibilities. Undoubtedly and ‘open’ strategy requires a ‘safe’ environment where the use of a variety of material is fully recognised and understood. Friendly laughter can be a breathtaking cure for any passing awkwardness that free-expression may cause!

Follow the intriguing and look for ideas that attract your attention as particularly strong, intriguing, surprising, etc. even if they don’t seem instantly appropriate to your problem. This attraction frequently signals links to a useful set of associations, and so could possibly justify a further phase of centred free association around the ‘attractive’ idea.

Use solution-oriented phrasing. The idea ‘blue’ is not much use as it stands. However, when transformed into a phrases such as:

‘Could we colour it blue?’

‘In what ways might I make it ‘blue?’ ‘I wish it were ‘bluer’ ‘How might it help it if were bluer’?’

Makes the idea ‘blue’ potentially a more useful one.

Introduction to the Scientific MethodThe scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of the world.Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions and our interpretations of natural phenomena, we aim through the use of standard procedures and criteria to minimize those influences when developing a theory. As a famous scientist once said, "Smart people (like smart lawyers) can come up with very good explanations for mistaken points of view." In summary, the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the experimenter when testing an hypothesis or a theory.

I. The scientific method has four steps

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.

2. Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics, the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation.

3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.

4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.

If the experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of nature (more on the concepts of hypothesis, model, theory and law below). If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified. What is key in the description of the scientific method just given is the predictive power (the ability to get more out of the theory than you put in; see Barrow, 1991) of the hypothesis or theory, as tested by experiment. It is often said in science that theories can never be proved, only disproved. There is always the possibility that a new observation or a new experiment will conflict with a long-standing theory.

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process for forming and testing solutions to problems, or theorizing about how or why things work. 

It tries to reduce the influence of "faith" or bias or prejudice of the experimenter so that the process is valid anywhere in our world

STEPS:

State the problem and observe conditions

Observe or wonder about something in your world, or in your class,

and wonder how, why, when, something occurs

Create a short, meaningful title

of your project

Write out a statement of purpose

that describes what you want to do

Make a careful, step-by-step notation

of your observation

Be objective!

and do not guess why something is happening. That takes place later

Gather information of similar research

This is a literature review

Identify significant conditions

or factors of the situation

Summarize the problem

in a clear, simple statement. Emphasize the end result or effect

Form your hypothesis

Research options:

What are possible causes for what you observed?

Could they reliably and consistently predict or determine the same outcome?

What causes are the least likely to affect the outcome?

What are the best choices?

Choose the best option

or answer to your problem as your hypothesis.

This will be an "educated guess" based upon both your observation and past experiences

State your hypothesis

in a simple, clear statement

Hypothesis:

a possible explanation for a cause and effect of a given situation or set of factors that can be tested, and can be repetitively proved right (or

wrong!) (Remember: A hypothesis is not an observation or description of an event, that is in the first, observation stage!)Test

Types of data you need

The physical sciences of chemistry and physics rely heavily on numbers as data, and on replicable experimentation to

measure and calculate results

Sciences such as sociology rely on interviews and observation due to limitations of experimentation with human

subjects, and use descriptions and inferences to arrive at results

Design an experiment to test your hypothesis

Make a step-by-step procedure with each step's purpose

List and obtain materials and equipment you will need

Identify two groups in the test: the control group is your reference point; no variables are changed; the experimental

group is the focus of changes to affect the outcome

Rely on your past experience to identify variables, but consult with a knowledgeable person for a second opinion

Run a series of experiments

Change only one variable in each experiment in order to isolate effects reliably

Make and record accurate measurements

Repeat the test as often as necessary with the experimental group to verify your results. Always change only one

thing, or variable, in each test

Repeat successful tests with other groups to verify your findings

Common mistakes

The hypothesis is assumed

to be the "answer" and is not supported with testing

Data is ignored

that doesn't support your outcome

Beliefs/bias blind you to fatal flaws

in the testing phase

Systematic errors are not noticed

and are repeated within each experiment. These bias the outcome's standard deviation

Equipment or conditions are not adequate

Draw conclusions

Summarize your results and conclusions use graphs and tables to illustrate these

Refer back to your observations, data, and hypothesis for consistency

Note difficulties and problems, items for further research, or what you would do differently if you could

If you did not prove your hypothesis, you have succeeded in another sense!

Unsuccessful experiments provide information that can lead to answers by eliminating options

save someone the trouble of repeating your experiments

suggest other ways of solving similar problems

Attribute Listing

Attribute listing is a technique from the early 1930's which

takes an existing product or system,

breaks it into parts,

identifies various ways of achieving each part, and then

recombines these to identify new forms of the product or system.

It has many variants, and is an important precursor to techniques such as Morphological Analysis and Value Engineering.

A new kind of pen or project management method probably has much the same major functional elements as any other kind of pen or project management

method, but with some important difference in the way the elements are achieved or put together. So to generate a new way of doing something, you could

list all the key attributes of current approaches, and try to improve on some of them. So:

1. Identify the product or process you are dissatisfied with or wish to improve.

2. List its attributes. For a simple physical object like a pen, this might include: Material, Shape, Target market, Colours, Textures, etc.

3. Choose, say, 7-8 of these attributes that seem particularly interesting or important.

4. Identify alternative ways to achieve each attribute (e.g. different shapes: cylindrical cubic, multi-faceted….), either by conventional enquiry, or via

any idea-generating technique.

5. Combine one or more of these alternative ways of achieving the required attributes, and see if you can come up with a new approach to the

product or process you were working on.

Unfortunately, classic Attribute Listing offered no advice about the ‘combinatorial explosion’ that occurs as the number of attributes and alternatives

increases. If you have N attributes and each could be achieved in M alternative ways, there are MN combinations – so even with only 5 attributes, each with

only 4 alternatives, you already have over 1000 logically different combinations! The designer is left to explore different possible combinations using

imagination and intuition.

Using randomly chosen combinations to stimulate ideas: If you prefer a more mechanical and less intuitive way of using this array of alternatives, you could

generate provocative combinations by working through each attribute in turn and picking one of the ways of achieving that attribute at random (e.g. with

dice). You can then use this either as a random stimulus to trigger more ideas (cf. Random Stimuli) or you can attempt a form of constructive evaluation by

identifying what would be good about it, and what problems it would create (e.g. Plusses, potentials and concerns, or Receptivity to ideas). This process of

generating random combinations and then using them to stimulate ideas can be repeated ad lib.

Attribute listing is a great technique for ensuring all possible aspects of a problem have been examined. Attribute listing is breaking the problem down into smaller and smaller bits and seeing what you discover when you do.

Let's say you are in the business of making torches. You are under pressure from your competition and need to improve the quality of your product. By breaking the torch down into its component parts - casing, switch, battery, bulb and the weight - the attributes of each one - you can develop a list of ideas to improve each one.

Attribute Listing - Improving a torch

Feature Attribute Ideas

Casing Plastic Metal

Switch On/Off On/Off low beam

Battery Power Rechargable

Bulb Blass Plastic

Weight Heavy Light

Attribute listing is a very useful technique for quality improvement of complicated products, procedures for services. It is a good technique to use in conjunction with some other creative techniques, especially idea-generating ones like brainstorming. This allows you to focus on one specific part of a product or process before generating a whole lot of ideas.

Matrix Chart

Matrix Chart - a two dimensional visual display of a portfolio using bubbles plotted on 2 dimensions.

A matrix is a form to chart how categories of data or information are related to each other.

The chart uses circles or bubbles to represent each element of the portfolio. So in a project portfolio each circle would be plotted against 2 axes, chosen to represent an important strategic consideration in decision making.

Prioritization Matrix

What is it?A Prioritization Matrix is a useful technique you can use with your team members or with your users to achieve consensus about an issue. The Matrix helps you rank problems or issues (usually generated through brainstorming) by a particular criterion that is important to your organization. Then you can more clearly see which problems are the most important to work on solving first.

Who uses it?Members of your team, or a group of users, can participate in the process.

Why use it?To determine what your users or your team members consider to be the most pressing problem with your program or health service.

When to use it?When you need to prioritize problems, or to achieve consensus about an issue.

How to use it:1. Brainstorm--Conduct a brainstorming session on problems users or team members have with your program or

service. Go to the Brainstorming tool to learn how to conduct a group brainstorming session.

2. Fill out the Prioritization Matrix chart with the group:Problem Frequency Importance Feasibility Total Points

         

         

         

3. In the first column, write down the problems that were mentioned in the brainstorming session.

4. In the second to fourth columns, define your criteria. Examples of some typical criteria are:

o Frequency: How frequent is the problem? Does it occur often or only on rare occasions?

o Importance: From the point of view of the users, what are the most important problems? What are the problems that you want to resolve?

o Feasibility: How realistic is it that we can resolve the problem? Will it be easy or difficult?

You can choose other criteria if they better fit the situation you are discussing. For example, for a more quantitative comparison, you could use cost, amount of time, or other numerical indicators as the criteria.

5. Rank/Vote--Each participant now votes three times for each criteria. Each participant votes nine times in total.6. Total all the votes together. The totals help you see clearly how to prioritize the problems.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom.[1]

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, all of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans.

Maslow studied what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy." Maslow studied the healthiest 1% of the college student population.

Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality.

Maslow’s-Hierarchy of Needs Theory: This theory was proposed by Abraham Maslow and is based on the assumption that people are motivated by a series of five universal needs. These needs are ranked, according to the order in which they influence human behavior, in hierarchical fashion

Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obvious — they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function.

Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species.

Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety -- due to war, natural disaster, or, in cases of family violence, childhood abuse, etc. -- people (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder and trans-generational trauma transfer. In the absence of economic safety -- due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities - these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, and the like.

Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security

Financial security Health and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

Love and belonging (SOCIAL NEEDS)

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve feelings of belongingness. The need is especially strong in childhood and can over-ride the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies with respect to this aspect of Maslow's hierarchy - due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism etc. - can impact individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:

Friendship

Intimacy Family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.

Esteem

All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. Note, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter one ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness.

Maslow also states that even though these are examples of how the quest for knowledge is separate from basic needs he warns that these “two hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated” (Maslow 97). This means that this level of need, as well as the next and highest level, are not strict, separate levels but closely related to others, and this is possibly the reason that these two levels of need are left out of most textbooks.

Self-actualization

“What a man can be, he must be”. This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions. As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs.

Problems with the Maslow Model

There are several problems with the Maslow model when real-life working practice is considered:

- Individual behaviour seems to respond to several needs - not just one

- The same need (e.g. the need to interact socially at work) may cause quite different behaviour in different individuals

- There is a problem in deciding when a level has actually been "satisfied"

- The model ignores the often-observed behaviour of individuals who tolerate low-pay for the promise of future benefits

- There is little empirical evidence to support the model. Some critics suggest that Maslow's model is only really relevant to understanding the behaviour of middle-class workers in the UK and the USA (where Maslow undertook his research).