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The task-based approach to language teaching hasevolved in
response to a better understanding ofthe way languages are learnt.
Traditionally,language learning has been regarded as aprocess of
mastering a succession of steps, eachone building on the one
before. Teachers presentthe target language in ready-to-assimilate
pieces,starting with the easy parts and gradually movingtowards the
harder parts. Learners must mastereach part and incorporate it into
their knowledgeof the target language. The PPP model oflanguage
teaching ('presentation, practice,performance') is based on the
assumption that alanguage is best presen ted to learners as a
syllabusof structures, and that through controlled practicea fluent
and accurate performance of the'structure of the day' can be
achieved. Errors areevidence of poor learning, requiring more
PPPtreatment.In contrast, the contemporary view of
languagelearning, based upon research findings in bothlinguistics
and psychology, is that learners do notacquire the target language
in the order it ispresented to them, no matter how carefullyteacher
and textbooks organize it. Languagelearning is a developmental,
organic process thatfollows its own internal agenda. Errors are
notnecessarily the result of bad learning, but are partof the
natural process of interlanguage formsgradually moving towards
target forms (Ellis1994).Such a view of language learning has
profoundimplications for language teaching, and has led tothe
development of various task-basedapproaches (for example, Prabhu
1987, Longand Crookes 1991). These approaches aresomewhat
disparate, but they share a commonidea: giving learners tasks to
transact, rather thanitems to learn, provides an environment
whichbest promotes the natural language learningprocess. By
engaging in meaningful activities,such as problem-solving,
discussions, ornarratives, the learner's interlanguage system
isstretched and encouraged to develop. Interactivetasks are
sometimes considered particularlybeneficial, especially the
information-gap type, inwhich learners have to transfer information
to apartner who does not have it (Pica et al. 1993).These tasks
rely on a successful transfer of
meaning in order to be completed, and aresupposed to focus the
learners' attention moreclosely on the comprehensibility of the
languagethey and their partners are using, thus increasingthe
likelihood that interlanguage forms will bepushed towards target
language norms.The danger in a task-based approach to teaching
isthat learners might be encouraged to prioritize afocus on meaning
over a focus on form, and thusbe led to use fluent but
unchallenging orinaccurate language. Because language does nothave
to be well-formed in order to be meaningful,it is easy to see how
learners could successfullycomplete a task using ill-formed or
undemandinglanguage, supplemented by gesture andintonation, rather
than trying out their 'cuttingedge' interlanguage.The challenge for
a task-based pedagogy,therefore, is to choose, sequence, and
implementtasks in ways that will combine a focus on meaningwith a
focus on form. Skehan (1996) hasdeveloped a theoretical framework
for task-based teaching that claims to balance thedevelopment of
fluency with accuracy andinterlanguage restructuring. Willis (1996)
hasproduced a detailed practical framework for thetask-based
classroom in which learners are ledthrough cycles of task planning,
performance,repetition, and, finally, comparison with
native-speaker norms. There is already strong empiricalsupport for
some of these ideas. Foster andSkehan (1996) have shown that giving
learnerstime to plan before they begin a task
significantlyincreases the complexity, accuracy, and fluency ofthe
language they use, and that these effectsincrease in relation to
the cognitive difficulty ofthe task.Continuing research into task
design andimplementation should help task-based teachingdevelop in
ways that have a sound and convincingpsycholinguistic basis. The
final challenge willthen be to persuade teachers of the merit
inadopting a task-based approach in theirclassrooms.Pauline Foster,
Thames Valley UniversityReferencesEllis, R. 1994. The Study of
Second LanguageAcquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ELT Journal Volume 53/1 January 1999 Oxford University Press
1999 69
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Foster, P. and P. Skehan. 1996. 'The influence of Prabhu, N. S.
1987. Second Language Pedagogy.planning and task type on second
language Oxford: Oxford University Press,performance' . Studies in
Second Language Skehan, P. 1996. 'A framework for the
imple-Acquisition 9: 12-20. me ntation of task-based instruction'.
AppliedLong, M. and G. Crookes. 1991. 'Three Linguistics
17/1:38-62.approaches to task-based syllabus design'. Willis, J.
1996. A Framework for Task-BasedTESOL Quarterly 26: 27-55.
Learning. Harlow: Longman.Pica, T., R. Kanagy and J. Falodun.
1993.'Choosing and using communication tasks for The authorsecond
language research and instruction'. In Pauline Foster taught EFL in
the USA, Japan,S. M. G ass and G. Crookes (eds.). Task-based and
the UK before becoming a full-timelearning in a second language.
Clevedon, Avon: researcher and PhD student at Tham es
ValleyMultilingual M atters. University.
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