Tariffs and Non-tariff Barriers

8/12/2019 Tariffs and Non-tariff Barriers

1/15

A Report on Tariff and

Non-Tariff Barriers

Submitted by:

Sakshi Kothari (11214)

Parth Trivedi (11242)

Priyank Bothra (11249)

Brinda Jadeja (11257)

Submitted to:

Dr. ansa Jain

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2/15

Table of Content

PROTECTIONISM

2

Sr No Title Pa!e No

" Prote#tionism $

% Reason for Prote#tion $

$ Ar!ument for Prote#tion $

& 'emerits of Prote#tion (

) Trade Poli#y (

* Tariff Barriers (

( Non-Tariff Barriers +

, Transition from Tariffs to Non-

Tariffs Barriers

"&

+ 'ifferen#e beteen Tariff and

Non-Tariff Barriers

")

". NTBs and India/s E0ports ")


3/15

!ne o" the #ost i#$ortant "eat%res o" the internationa& tradin' environ#ent is the

$ro&i"eration o" the trade arriers.

"ter the Se*ond +or&d +ar, there -as a $ro'ressive &iera&iation o" trade y thedeve&o$ed *o%ntries. S%**essive ro%nds o" ne'otiations in the /TT have *%t tari""s on

trade #an%"a*t%res "ro# an avera'e &eve& o" 40 $er *ent in 1947 to very &o- no- in the

ind%stria& *o%ntries.

ven tho%'h the $ro*ess o" e&i#ination o" the tari"" arriers has *ontin%ed, sin*e aro%ndthe #id 1970s the &iera&iation trend in the deve&o$ed *o%ntries has een re$&a*ed y a

'ro-in' $rote*tionis#. n%#er o" $ro&e#s &ike the *%rren*y *risis, oi& *risis, det

*risis, re*ession, and hi'h %ne#$&oy#ent and trade de"i*its $rod%*ed an at#os$here in

-hi*h de#ands "or $rote*tion in*reased dra#ati*a&&y. dded to these has een the'ro-in' *o#$etition "ro# Ja$an and the ne-&y ind%stria&iin' *o%ntries. s a res$onse to

this, the deve&o$ed *o%ntries have in*reased the nontari"" arriers (3TBs). n addition to

the hard*ore 3TBs s%*h as %otas, vo&%ntary e6$ort restraints, rn%&ti"ire arran'e#ents(8) et*., these in*&%de #eas%res s%*h as $ri*e restraints and hea&th and sa"ety

re'%&ations. The e6$orts o" deve&o$in' *o%ntries have een hit #%*h #ore than those o"

the deve&o$ed ones y s%*h $rote*tionis#.

Reasons for Prote#tion:

The #ain oje*tives o" i#$osin' trade arriers are to $rote*t do#esti* ind%stries "ro#

"orei'n *o#$etition, to $ro#ote indi'eno%s resear*h and deve&o$#ent, to *onserve the

"orei'n e6*han'e reso%r*es o" the *o%ntry, to #ake the a&an*e o" $ay#ents $osition"avora&e, to *%r *ons$i*%o%s *ons%#$tion, to #oi&ie reven%e "or the 'overn#ent and

to dis*ri#inate a'ainst *ertain *o%ntries.

Ar!ument for Prote#tion:

There are a n%#er o" ar'%#ents $%t "or-ard in "avor o" $rote*tion. So#e o" thesear'%#ents are va&id -hi&e so#e others are not. +e $rovide e&o- the 'ist o" the $o$%&at

ar'%#ents "or $rote*tion.

1"2 lnfant Industry Ar!ument:The in"ant ind%stry ar'%#ent advan*ed y &e6ander

a#i&ton, 8rederi*k ist and others asserts that a ne- ind%stry havin' a $otentia&

*o#$arative advanta'e #ay not 'et started in a *o%ntry %n&ess it is 'iven te#$orary$rote*tion a'ainst "orei'n *o#$etition. n esta&ished ind%stry is nor#a&&y #%*h

stron'er than an in"ant one e*a%se o" the advanta'eo%s $osition o" the esta&ishedind%stry &ike its &on'standin' e6$erien*e, interna& and e6terna& e*ono#ies, reso%r*e

$osition, #arket $o-er, et*. en*e, i" the in"ant is to *o#$ete -ith s%*h a $o-er"%&

"orei'n *o#$etitor, it -i&& e a *o#$etition et-een %ne%a& and this -o%&d res%&t in ther%in o" the in"ant ind%stry. There"ore, i" a ne- ind%stry havin' a $otentia& *o#$arative

advanta'e is not $rote*ted a'ainst the *o#$etition o" an %ne%a&&y $o-er"%& "orei'n

:


4/15

ind%stry, it -i&& e denyin' the *o%ntry the *han*e to deve&o$ the ind%stry "or -hi*h it

has s%""i*ient $otentia&. The intention is not to 'ive $rote*tion "or ever %t on&y "or a

$eriod to ena&e the ne- ind%stry to over*o#e its teethin' tro%&es. The $o&i*y o"$rote*tion has een -e&& e6$ressed in the "o&&o-in' -ords;


5/15

*on*essions "ro# "orei'n $o-ers, #ay e e#$&oyed y others to e6tra*t additiona&

$rote*tion "ro# the ho#e 'overn#ent.

((2 Employment Ar!ument: Prote*tion has een advo*ated a&so as a #eas%re tosti#%&ate do#esti* e*ono#y and e6$and e#$&oy#ent o$$ort%nities. ?estri*tion o"

i#$orts -i&& sti#%&ate i#$ort *o#$etin' ind%stries and its s$read e""e*ts -i&& he&$ the

'ro-th o" other ind%stries. These, nat%ra&&y, *reate #ore e#$&oy#ent o$$ort%nities.

This #ethod o" e#$&oy#ent 'eneration, ho-ever, has so#e $ro&e#s. 8irst, -hen -ered%*e i#$orts "ro# "orei'n *o%ntries e#$&oy#ent and in*o#e -i&& shrink aroad and

this is &ike&y to &ead to a "a&& in the de#and "or o%r e6$orts. Se*ond&y, the "orei'n

*o%ntries -i&& e te#$ted to reta&iate in order to $rote*t their e#$&oy#ent.

1,2 National 'efense:ven i" $%re&y e*ono#i* "a*tors do not j%sti"y s%*h a *o%rse o"a*tion, *ertain ind%stries -i&& have to e deve&o$ed do#esti*a&&y d%e to strate'i* reasons.

De$endin' on "orei'n *o%ntries "or o%r de"ense re%ire#ents is rather "oo&ish e*a%se

"a*tors &ike *han'e in $o&iti*a& re&ations *an do serio%s da#a'e to a *o%ntry@s de"ense

interest. en*e, it is advisa&e to deve&o$ de"ense and other ind%stries o" strate'i*

i#$ortan*e y $rovidin' $rote*tion i" they *annot s%rvive -itho%t $rote*tion.

(+2 5ey Industry Ar!ument:t is a&so ar'%ed that a *o%ntry sho%&d deve&o$ its o-n key

ind%stries e*a%se the deve&o$#ent o" other ind%stries and the e*ono#y de$ends a &ot on

the o%t$%t o" the key ind%stries. en*e, i" -e do not have o%r o-n so%r*e o" s%$$&y o"key in$%ts, -e -i&& e $&a*in' o%rse&ves at the #er*y o" the "orei'n s%$$&iers. The key

ind%stries sho%&d there"ore e 'iven $rote*tion i" that is ne*essary "or their 'ro-th and

s%rviva&.

The ar'%#ents #entioned aove have een 'enera&&y re'arded as @serio%s@. There are,ho-ever, a n%#er o" other ar'%#ents a&so -hi*h have een randed as @nonsense@,

@"a&&a*io%s@, @s$e*ia& interest@, et*. =o##on a#on' the# are the "o&&o-in';

1".2 5eepin! Money at 6ome:This ar'%#ent is -e&& e6$ressed in the "or# o" a re#ark"a&se&y attri%ted to raha# in*o&n;


6/15

"ro# the in*rease in the $%r*hasin' $o-er o" the -orkers e#$&oyed in ind%stries

si#i&ar&y $rote*ted. t #ay e $ointed o%t a'ainst this that $rote*tion o" a'ri*%&t%re -i&&

har# the nona'ri*%&t%rists d%e to the hi'h $ri*es o" a'ri*%&t%ra& $rod%*ts and the$rote*tion o" ind%stries -i&& har# a'ri*%&t%rists and other *ons%#ers d%e to hi'h $ri*es

en*o%ra'ed y $rote*tion.

1"$2 Eualisation of Costs of Produ#tion:So#e $rote*tionists have advo*ated i#$ortd%ties to e%a&ise the *osts o" $rod%*tion et-een "orei'n and do#esti* $rod%*ers and tone%tra&ie any advanta'e the "orei'ner #ay have over the do#esti* $rod%*ers in ter#s o"

&o-er ta6es, *hea$er &ao%r, or other *osts.


7/15

The "o&&o-in' de"e*ts are 'enera&&y attri%ted to $rote*tion;

1. Prote*tion is a'ainst the interest o" *ons%#ers as it in*reases $ri*e and red%*es variety

and *hoi*e.

2. Prote*tion #akes $rod%*ers and se&&ers &ess %a&ity *ons*io%s.

:. t en*o%ra'es do#esti* rnono$o&ies.

4. ven ine""i*ient "ir#s #ay "ee& se*%re %nder $rote*tion and it dis*o%ra'es innovation.

5. Prote*tion &eaves the arena o$en to *orr%$tion.

. t red%*es the vo&%#e o" "orei'n trade.

7. Prote*tion &eads to %ne*ono#i* %ti&iation o" -or&d@s reso%r*es.

Trade Poli#y-Introdu#tion nternationa& Trade $o&i*ies dea& -ith the $o&i*ies o" the nationa& 'overn#ents

re&atin' to e6$orts o" vario%s 'oods and servi*es in vario%s *o%ntries either on

e%a& ter#s and *onditions or on dis*ri#inatory ter#s and *onditions.

Trade $o&i*ies a&so ai# at $rote*tin' the do#esti* ind%stry "ro# the *o#$etition

o" the advan*ed *o%ntries thro%'h i#$osin' %otas and %i&d *o#$eten*ies y

$rovidin' s%sidies.

Instruments of Trade Barriers:

Broad&y *&assi"ied into;

Tari""

3ontari""

Tariff Barriers

t re$resents ta6es on i#$orts o" *o##odities into a *o%ntryEre'ion and is a#on' theo&dest "or# o" 'overn#ent intervention in the e*ono#i* a*tivity.

Types of Tariff Barriers:

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8/15

On t4e Basis of Purpose:

o ?even%e Tari"";

To $rovide state -ith the reven%e.

evied on &%6%ry 'oods.

o Prote*tive Tari"";

To #aintain and en*o%ra'e those ran*hes o" ho#e ind%stry$rote*ted y the d%ties.

On t4e Basis of Ori!in and 'estination:

o d Fa&ore# D%ty ;

evied as the $er*enta'e o" the tota& va&%e o" the i#$orted

*o##on d%ty.

o S$e*i"i* D%ty;

evied $er $hysi*a& %nit o" the i#$orted *o##odity.

o =o#$o%nd D%ty;

evied a $er*enta'e ad va&ore# d%ty $&%s a s$e*i"i* d%ty on ea*h

%nit o" the *o##odity.

o Sin'&e =o&%#n Tari"";

%ni"or# rate o" d%ty is i#$osed on a&& si#i&ar *o##odities

irres$e*tive o" the *o%ntry "ro# -hi*h they are i#$osed.

o Do%&e =o&%#n Tari"";

T-o di""erent rates o" d%ty have een i#$osed.

o Tri$&e =o&%#n Tari""; T-o or #ore tari"" rates &evied on ea*h *ate'ory o" *o##odity.

;4o


9/15

Ot4er Impa#ts of Tariff Barriers:

Tariff Barriers tend to In#rease:

o n"&ationary $ress%res.

o S$e*ia& interestsC $rivi&e'es.

o /overn#ent *ontro& and $o&iti*a& *onsideration in e*ono#i* #atters.

Tariff Barriers tend to ;ea9en:

o Ba&an*eo"$ay#ents $ositions.

o S%$$&yandde#and $atterns.

o nternationa& re&ations.

Tariff barrier tend to restri#t:

o an%"a*t%rersC s%$$&y so%r*es.

o =hoi*es avai&a&e to *ons%#ers.

o =o#$etition.

Non-Tariff Barriers

3ontari"" arriers (3TBs), so#e o" -hi*h are des*ried as ne- $rote*tionis#

#eas%res (as a'ainst tari""s -hi*h are re'arded as traditiona& arriers), have

'ro-n *onsidera&y, $arti*%&ar&y sin*e aro%nd the e'innin' o" the 190s. Thee6$ort 'ro-th o" #any deve&o$in' *o%ntries has een serio%s&y a""e*ted y the

3TBs.

3onTari"" #eas%res in*&%de a&& #eas%res, other than tari""s, the e""e*t o" -hi*h is

to restri*t i#$orts, or to si'ni"i*ant&y distort trade.

Types of NTBs:

rie" a**o%nt o" the i#$ortant 3TBs is 'iven e&o-;

Spe#ifi# 7imitations on Trade:

o G%otas

o #$ort &i*ensin' re%ire#ents

o Pro$ortion restri*tions o" "orei'n to do#esti* 'oods

o ini#%# i#$ort $ri*e &i#its

o #ar'oes

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10/15

Customs and Administrati3e Entry Pro#edures:

o Fa&%ation syste#s

o ntid%#$in' $ra*ti*es

o Do*%#entation re%ire#ents


11/15

%ota on the e6$ort o" a $rod%*t "ro# a *o%ntry #ay e i#$osed i" the 'overn#ent

"ee&s that e6$orts in e6*ess o" that -i&& a""e*t interests o" the do#esti* *ons%#ers.

So#eti#es, an e6$ort %ota is the res%&t o" an internationa& *o##odity a'ree#ent.

The ai# o" i#$ort %ota, ovio%s&y, is to restri*t the %antity o" i#$orts. The %antitative

restri*tion #ay e to $rote*t the interests o" the do#esti* $rod%*ers or to *onserve "orei'n

e6*han'e reso%r*es. #$ortant ty$es o" i#$ort %otas are des*ried e&o-;

" Tariff >uota; tari"" %ota *o#ines the "eat%res o" the tari"" as -e&& as the %ota.Ander a tari"" %ota, the i#$orts o" a *o##odity %$ to a s$e*i"ied vo&%#e are a&&o-ed

d%ty "ree or at a s$e*ia& &o- rate> %y any i#$orts in e6*ess o" this &i#it are s%je*t to

d%ty or a hi'her rate o" d%ty.

% ?nilateral >uota; n a %ni&atera& %ota, a *o%ntry %ni&atera&&y "i6es a *ei&in' on the%antity o" the i#$ort o" a $arti*%&ar *o##odity.

$ Bilateral >uota; i&atera& %ota res%&ts "ro# ne'otiations et-een the i#$ortin'

*o%ntry and a $arti*%&ar s%$$&ier *o%ntry, or et-een the i#$ortin' *o%ntry and e6$ort

'ro%$s -ithin the s%$$&ier *o%ntry.

&Mi0in! >uota; Ander the #i6in' %ota, the $rod%*ers are o&i'ed to %ti&ie do#esti*ra- #ateria&s %$ to a *ertain $ro$ortion in the $rod%*tion o" a "inished $rod%*t@.

The %ota on the e6$ort o" a $rod%*t "ro# a *o%ntry #ay e i#$osed i" the 'overn#ent

"ee&s that e6$orts in e6*ess o" that -i&& a""e*t interests o" the do#esti* *ons%#ers.

So#eti#es, an e6$ort %ota is the res%&t o" an internationa& *o##odity a'ree#ent.

7i#ensin!:

G%ota re'%&ations are 'enera&&y ad#inistered y #eans o" &i*ensin'.

Ander the i#$ort &i*ensin' syste#, the $ros$e*tive i#$orters are o&i'ed to otain a&i*ense "ro# the &i*ensin' a%thorities; the $ossession o" an i#$ort &i*ense is ne*essary to

otain the "orei'n e6*han'e to $ay "or the i#$orts. n a &ar'e n%#er o" *o%ntries, i#$ort&i*ensin' has e*o#e a very $o-er"%& devi*e "or *ontro&&in' the %antity o" i#$orts

either o" $arti*%&ar *o##odities or a''re'ate i#$orts i#$orts. 6$orts o" *ertain

$rod%*ts #ay a&so e re'%&ated y &i*ensin'.

Embar!o:

#ar'o is a s$e*i"i* ty$e o" %otas $rohiitin' the trade. s -e&& as %otas, e#ar'oes#ay e i#$osed on i#$orts or e6$orts o" $arti*%&ar 'oods, re'ard&ess o" destination, in

res$e*t o" *ertain 'oods s%$$&ied to s$e*i"i* *o%ntries, or in res$e*t o" a&& 'oods shi$$edto *ertain *o%ntries. &tho%'h the e#ar'o is %s%a&&y introd%*ed "or $o&iti*a& $%r$oses,the *onse%en*es, in essen*e, *o%&d e e*ono#i*.

Administrati3e and bureau#rati# delays at t4e entran#e:

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12/15

#on' the #ethods o" nontari"" re'%&ation sho%&d e #entioned ad#inistrative and

%rea%*rati* de&ays at the entran*e, -hi*h in*rease %n*ertainty and the *ost o"

#aintainin' inventory.

Import deposits:

nother e6a#$&e o" "orei'n trade re'%&ations is i#$ort de$osits. #$ort de$osits is a "or#

o" de$osit, -hi*h the i#$orter #%st $ay the ank "or a de"inite $eriod o" ti#e (non

interest earin' de$osit) in an a#o%nt e%a& to a&& or $art o" the *ost o" i#$orted 'oods.

t the nationa& &eve&, ad#inistrative re'%&ation o" *a$ita& #ove#ents is *arried o%t#ain&y -ithin a "ra#e-ork o" i&atera& a'ree#ents, -hi*h in*&%de a *&ear de"inition o"

the &e'a& re'i#e, the $ro*ed%re "or the ad#ission o" invest#ents and investors. t is

deter#ined y #ode ("air and e%ita&e, nationa&, #ost"avorednation), order o"nationa&iation and *o#$ensation, trans"er $ro"its and *a$ita& re$atriation and dis$%te

reso&%tion.

@orei!n e0#4an!e restri#tions and forei!n e0#4an!e #ontrols:

8orei'n e6*han'e restri*tions and "orei'n e6*han'e *ontro&s o**%$y a s$e*ia& $&a*ea#on' the nontari"" re'%&atory instr%#ents o" "orei'n e*ono#i* a*tivity. 8orei'n

e6*han'e restri*tions *onstit%te the re'%&ation o" transa*tions o" residents and

nonresidents -ith *%rren*y and other *%rren*y va&%es. &so an i#$ortant $art o" the#e*hanis# o" *ontro& o" "orei'n e*ono#i* a*tivity is the esta&ish#ent o" the nationa&

*%rren*y a'ainst "orei'n *%rren*ies.

Administered Prote#tion:

d#inistered $rote*tion en*o#$asses a -ide ran'e o" %rea%*rati* 'overn#ent a*tions,

-hi*h have 'ro-n in aso&%te as -e&& as re&ative i#$ortan*e over the &ast de*ade or #ore.ore re*ent F?s is in "a*t re'arded as the o%t'ro-th o" ad#inistered $rote*tion a*tions.

ention has a&ready een #ade o" one o" the ad#inistrative #eas%res, vi., &i*ensin'.

!ther i#$ortant ad#inistrative $rote*tion #eas%res in*&%de the "o&&o-in'.

Safe!uards: Sa"e'%ard a*tions -hi*h %nder +T! rti*&e HH ena&es *o%ntries to%ndertake te#$orary restri*tions a'ainst s%r'es threatenin' the viai&ity o" do#esti*

ind%stries, have e*o#e a *o##on "or# o" ad#inistered $rote*tion. &tho%'h s%*h

#eas%res are initia&&y resorted to $rovide so#e reathin' s$a*e and "&e6ii&ity "orstr%*t%ra& adj%st#ent, they o"ten &ead to so#e or other "or# o" $er#anent arrier.

The Ar%'%ay ?o%nd has so%'ht to &i#it the #is%se o" sa"e'%ard a*tion. The Ar%'%ay

?o%nd 'ree#ent -hi*h seeks to rationa&ie the sa"e'%ard a&so sti$%&ates that a #e#er@

sha&& not seek, take or #aintain any vo&%ntary e6$ort restraints, order&y #arketin'arran'e#ents or si#i&ar #eas%res on e6$ort or i#$ort trade. The 'ree#ent, ho-ever,

$rovides "or s$e*ia& *onsideration "or the deve&o$in' *o%ntries.

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13/15

6ealt4 Standards:Severa& hea&th and $rod%*t standards i#$osed y deve&o$ed *o%ntries

hinder the e6$orts o" deve&o$in' *o%ntries e*a%se o" the added *osts o" te*hni*a&

re%ire#ents. The need "or #aintainin' hea&th and $rod%*t standards is %n%estiona&e.The oje*tion sho%&d e to their %se -ith the de&ierate intention o" trade restri*tion or

dis*ri#ination.

The 'ree#ent on Te*hni*a& Barriers to Trade (a&so kno-n as the Standards =ode)evo&ved y the Tokyo ?o%nd o" the /TT &ays do-n that -hen 'overn#ents or otherodies ado$t te*hni*a& re'%&ation or standard "or reasons o" sa"ety, hea&th, *ons%#er or

environ#enta& $rote*tion, or "or other $%r$ose, these sho%&d not *reate %nne*essary

osta*&es to trade. 6$orters "ro# deve&o$in' *o%ntries *o#$&ain, ho-ever, that this *odeis not res$e*ted y deve&o$ed *o%ntries in severa& *ases.

Standards:

Standards take a s$e*ia& $&a*e a#on' nontari"" arriers. =o%ntries %s%a&&y i#$ose

standards on *&assi"i*ation, &ae&in' and testin' o" $rod%*ts in order to e a&e to se&&

do#esti* $rod%*ts, %t a&so to &o*k sa&es o" $rod%*ts o" "orei'n #an%"a*t%re. Thesestandards are so#eti#es entered %nder the $rete6t o" $rote*tin' the sa"ety and hea&th o"

&o*a& $o$%&ations.


14/15

arran'e#ents have invo&ved #ain&y restrainin' the 'ro-th o" s$e*i"i* e6$orts "ro# Ja$an

and the ne-&y ind%stria&iin' *o%ntries (3=s).

Monetary Controls;

n addition to "orei'n e6*han'e re'%&ations, other #onetary *ontro&s are so#eti#ese#$&oyed to re'%&ate trade, $arti*%&ar&y i#$orts. 8or instan*e, to tide over the "orei'n

e6*han'e *risis in 199091 and 199192, the ?eserve Bank o" ndia took severa&

#eas%res -hi*h in*&%ded a 25 $er *ent interest rate s%r*har'e on ank *redit "or i#$ortss%je*t to a *o##er*ia& rate o" interest o" a #ini#%# 17 $er *ent, the re%ire#ent o"

s%stantia&&y hi'h *ash #ar'in re%ire#ent on #ost i#$orts other than *a$ita& 'oods, and

restri*tions on the o$enin' o" &etters o" *redit "or i#$orts.

En3ironmental Prote#tion 7as;

The 'ro-in' *on*ern "or environ#enta& $rote*tion has &ed to the e6tension o"

environ#enta& $rote*tion re'%&ation to the i#$orts. 8or e6a#$&e, the AS has i#$osedrestri*tions on the i#$ort o" shri#$ harvested -ith *o##er*ia& "ishin' te*hno&o'y -hi*h

does not %se t%rti&e e6*&%sion devise.

@orei!n E0#4an!e Re!ulations:

8orei'n e6*han'e re'%&ations are an i#$ortant -ay o" re'%&atin' i#$orts in a n%#er o"

*o%ntries. This is done y the State #ono$o&isin' the "orei'n e6*han'e reso%r*es and not

re&easin' "orei'n e6*han'e "or i#$ort o" ite#s -hi*h the 'overn#ent do not a$$rove o""or vario%s reasons. ?estri*tions on *%rren*y *onvertii&ity *an a&so a""e*t i#$orts.

Mis#ellaneous:

6$orts "ro# deve&o$in' *o%ntries "a*e $ro&e#s in deve&o$ed *o%ntries on s%*h iss%es

as %se o" *hi&d and s-eat &ao%r (as in *ar$et and *&othin' ind%stries), environ#enta&

$ro&e#s, et*.

Impa#ts of NTBs:

ave e#er'ed as $otent Prote*tionist too&.

t ein' &ess trans$arent, its di""i*%&t to identi"y and %anti"y its i#$a*t.

3TBs %s%a&&y dis*ri#inate a'ainst the &o-est *ost so%r*es o" i#$orts.

t is $ointed o%t that ndian, e6$orts o" iron and stee&, *he#i*a&s, te6ti&es,

ve'eta&es and a&&ied *ate'ories "ind #arket a**ess very di""i*%&t in the deve&o$ed-or&d, essentia&&y y the i#$osition o" a variety o" 3TB.

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Documents

Tariffs and Non-tariff Barriers