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TAKS Review, Objective 2
The student will demonstrate an understanding of the organization of
living systems.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Living things are . . .Living things are . . .• Made of cells
• Grow and develop
• Respond to the environment
• Use energy
• Reproduce
TAKS Review, Objective 2
• Tissues - like types of cells
• Tissue form organs
• Organs that work together form organ systems
• Organ systems that work together make an organism
Cells are organized into. . .Cells are organized into. . .
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Hydrochloric acid is produced by the lining of the stomach. What is its function?
Calories are how the energy contained in food is measured.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
‘Lipids’ is the name for fats and oils.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TaxonomyTaxonomy - how to classify life Biological Classification
Kingdom
Phylum Phylum
Class Class
Order Order
Family
Genus Genus
Genus
Family
Order
Family Family
Genus Genus
Class Class
Order Order
Family
Genus Genus
Genus Genus
Family
Genus
Order
Family Family
Genus Genus
Genus Genus
TAKS Review, Objective 2
49 Which of these classificationsis most specific?
A Family
B Genus
C Phylum
D Order
The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest are:
Kingdom (6)
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
species
TAKS Review, Objective 2
The Six KingdomsThe Six Kingdoms – – the the largest groupings of living largest groupings of living
thingsthings
Animalia
PlantaeFungi
Protista Eubacteria Archaebacteria
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Animal KingdomAnimal Kingdom(Animalia)
• Multicellular• Heterotrophic• Includes all
vertebrates (one major phylum) and invertebrates (several phyla)
• Insects, jellyfish, people…… all are animals
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Kingdom PlantaeKingdom Plantae
Multicellular &Autotrophic
~ all plants perform photosynthesis
Examples: mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants (grasses, trees, shrubs, most garden plants, wildflowers)
TAKS Review, Objective 2
chloroplast
Large vacuole
Cell wall –
Be careful…
Fungi & plants have walls……..
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Kingdom FungiKingdom Fungi
• Multicellular & some single-celled
• Most of these organisms are decomposers
• Includes mushrooms, yeasts, molds, and infections like athlete's foot
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Fungi are eukaryotic.
Athlete’s foot
Bread mold
mushroom
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Kingdoms of Single-CelledKingdoms of Single-CelledOrganismsOrganisms
• Protista• Eubacteria• Archaebacteria
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Kingdom ProtistaKingdom Protista Largest source of food
and oxygen for the entire planet.
Includes plankton, amoeba, and ciliates (like the paramecium)
Described as – unicellular eukaryotes
• What is the significance of “A?”• How do you know that this is not a
prokaryotic organism? What are the clues?
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Prokaryotic Kingdoms - Cells without membrane-bound organelles
1. Kingdom Eubacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes, often decomposers
2. Kingdom Archaebacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes from extreme environments
TAKS Review, Objective 2
8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with —
F growth
G defense
H digestion
J respiration
• Kingdom of Bacteria has beneficial and harmful members
• The best answer here is H, since digestive systems of mammals contain many bacteria.
• Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually result in illness, which would trigger the defenses; not help the organism
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Binomial ClassificationBinomial Classification
• Living things are given a two-part scientific name. The first part is the Genus which is capitalized. The second part is the species name, which is never capitalized.
• Scientific names are used because the same plant or animal in different places may have different common names.
• Man’s scientific name is Homo sapiens
TAKS Review, Objective 2
12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most closely related to the
F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki
G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax
H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Which are closely related? Which are most distantly related?
Organism family Genus species
Panthera leo (lion)
Carnivora Panthera leo
Equus caballus (horse)
Equidae Equus caballus
Panthera tigris (tiger)
Carnivora Panthera tigris
Felis domestica (cat)
Carnivora Felis domestica
Canis familiaris (dog)
Carnivora Canis familiaris
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Related (in biological terms) means family, genus, species.
F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki
G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax
H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus
• Genus is always a capital letter,
species is lower case.
• Most closely related would be in the
same genus, Rana.
• ANSWER? • H
TAKS Review, Objective 2
The Cell Theory
Matthias Schleiden, Robert Virchow, and Robert Brown all contributed to the formation of the cell theory, which states:
– 1. All living things are composed of cells.
– 2. Cells are the smallest working units of living things.
– 3. All cells come from preexisting cells by cell division.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Cell PartCell Part FunctionFunction Cell membrane Controls what enters and leaves the
cell
Nuclear membrane Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus
Nucleus Control center of the cell
Chromosomes Genetic information in the nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum Transport system in cell
Ribosome Organelle makes proteins
Golgi Body Organelle packages proteins
Vacuole Stores water and/or waste
Lysosome Breaks down old cell parts
Mitochondria Organelle for cellular respiration – provides energy
TAKS Review, Objective 2
The cell membrane has many roles including maintaining homeostasis:
structure, regulating transport of nutrients and wastes into and out of the
cell, and basic protection of the cell.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Be familiar with the structure and function
of parts of cellsincluding bacteria. In biology….always
consider
FORM & FORM & FUNCTION!!FUNCTION!!
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Why? The muscle involved (the bicep) will
contract (shorten), andraise the upper
arm.
Choices one and four are bones and cannot cause movement by
themselves. Choice #2 is a tendon whose major function isattachment, not
movement
TAKS Review, Objective 2
VirusesViruses are different from cells and have different properties and
functions.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
This is the only answer that makes
sense….
Why are A, B and D not
good choices?
TAKS Review, Objective 2
• Chloroplasts – organelle responsible for photosynthesis
• Cell Walls – a structure outside of the membrane to provide support
• Large vacuoles to store extra water
Plant cells have….. but animal cells don’t
TAKS Review, Objective 2
This is a typical plant cell
• It contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, a very large vacuole.
• Why do plants need large vacuoles?
•ANSWER: This is where food and
water are stored.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry period will —
F be softer
G grow at a faster rate
H be thinner
J photosynthesize at a faster rate
These 3 would
indicate more water,
not less
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TAKS questionWhich structure
regulates gas exchange during the processes of photosynthesis and respiration?
• A Q• B R• C S• D T
= stomata
TAKS Review, Objective 2
• By animal By animal
• By windBy wind
• Floating in waterFloating in water
Mechanisms of Seed DispersalMechanisms of Seed Dispersal
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Animal Dispersal
Barbs get tangled in animal
fur and carried to new places.
Some animals bury seeds andthey grow into new plants.
Animals eat fruit, and after digestion
the seeds are dropped in new places.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TAKS question
Which of the following characteristics could help short plants survive in areas with limited sunlight?
F Broad leaf surfacesG Brightly colored flowersH Thick stemsJ Shallow roots
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TAKS question #4Which of these characteristics might help a
plant species survive in an area with limited sunlight?
• F Bright flowers• G Large leaves• H Short stems• J Thick cuticles
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TAKS question
This seed is best dispersed by —
• A water• B birds• C wind• D insects
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Cell Cell Reproduction Reproduction
• The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell. It has two parts. Mitosis is the process of nuclear division. What is interphase?
• During mitosis the nucleus separates into two new identical sister nuclei.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each daughter cell after mitosis?
• F 11
• G 19
• H 38
• J 76Mitosis is the normal division of any cell nucleus, so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then separate into two identical cells. So the answer is
H
TAKS Review, Objective 2
When cells reproduce out of control……..
• ……tumors are formed. Some tumors are malignant and are called cancer.
• However, tumors may or may not be malignant. A tumor that is not malignant is called benign.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Transporting into Cells -
• Passive movement - from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is diffusion.
• The diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.
Diffusion
Osmosis is the diffusion of H2O
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Why? Why? Because this means that water is moving from high Because this means that water is moving from high concentration (of water) to lower concentration (of water) concentration (of water) to lower concentration (of water)
across the membrane.across the membrane.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
What is active transport?
Energy is used to move selected molecules into a cell, even if they are at a low concentration
(that is….from low to high concentration)
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Ways to Maintain Homeostasis
• Passive transport – no ATP used– Diffusion– Osmosis– Facilitated diffusion
• Carrier proteins• Ion channels
• Active transport – ATP used– Carrier proteins
• Cell membrane pumps (sodium-potassium)
– Endocytosis– Exocytosis
TAKS Review, Objective 2
34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the
ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells
and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter the egg?
F Coagulation
G Sodium pump
H Active transport
J Osmosis
Means to clump together – Incorrect
Sodium is not being moved – Incorrect The egg would not use energy
to do this since it kills the cell.
This is the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the fresh water) to low
concentration (inside the EggEgg)
TAKS Review, Objective 2
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2Carbon dioxide plus Water Produces Glucose and Oxygen
This is
photosynthesis:
SUNLIGHT
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
• Occurs in ALL living things(In mitochondria of eukaryotes)
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TheGenetic Code
• All of the information to All of the information to make a new cell/organism make a new cell/organism is contained in the is contained in the chromosomes of the cell. chromosomes of the cell.
• Chromosomes are made Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
• Chromosomes contain Chromosomes contain genes, each of which genes, each of which codes for a single protein. codes for a single protein. There may be There may be hundreds/thousands of hundreds/thousands of genes on each genes on each chromosome.chromosome.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
DNADNADNA is formed of nucleotides, which have 3 parts; a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogen base.
The 4 different nitrogen bases of DNA are:
o Adenineo Thymineo Cytosineo Guanine
The process of copying DNA is called replication
A REPLICA of each side of the strand of DNA is made.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
The Code of Life • The structure of DNA is
called a double helix.• The base Guanine
always pairs to Cytosine. Adenine pairs to Thymine
• Apples in Trees, Cars in Garages
• Mutations are caused when these pairings are not made.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
F Amount of adenine
G Number of sugars
H Sequence of nitrogen bases
J Strength of hydrogen bonds
Adenine is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases; it can’t code for anything by itself.
Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar so, G is not correct.
Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to code for trait changes.
38 In DNA, which of the following determines the traits of an organism?
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Transcription . . . • messenger RNA reads the DNA in the nucleus and then leaves the nucleus to take the information to the ribosome.
• the DNA then wraps back up until next time.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
RNA vs. DNACharacteristic RNA DNA
Strands 1 2
Sugar molecule
Ribose Deoxyribose
Bases A, U, C, G A, T, C, G
Where
Found
Nucleus and cytoplasm
Nucleus only
Building block
Nucleotide Nucleotide
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Kinds of RNAKinds of RNA
There is only one kind of DNA, but There is only one kind of DNA, but there are 3 kinds of RNA.there are 3 kinds of RNA.
–Messenger RNA (mRNA)Messenger RNA (mRNA)
–Transfer RNA (tRNA)Transfer RNA (tRNA)
–Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TranslationTranslation . . . code into words . . . code into words • mRNA takes the code mRNA takes the code
from the nucleus to the from the nucleus to the ribosome where it pairs ribosome where it pairs with transfer RNA to put with transfer RNA to put amino acids into chains amino acids into chains called proteins. called proteins.
• mRNA pairs to tRNA in mRNA pairs to tRNA in the ribosomes This protein the ribosomes This protein building is called building is called TRANSLATIONTRANSLATION..
TAKS Review, Objective 2
What does this chart represent?
It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it must be
mRNA.
How would you find the amino acid coded by GAC?
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Mutations are changes in the sequence of base pairs in the DNA molecule. There is no guarantee that mutations will be dominant or recessive. In fact, the term “homozygous recessive” refers to what would happen if two copies of a mutated gene were present in a cell. In a skin cell where the mutation occurred, this is not the case.
Mutations effect DNA, not RNA. However, mutations must occur with the DNA coding region for mRNA codons to affect the skin cell. They would not affect offspring unless they were passed on in a gamete (sex cell).
Offspring don’t get their parent’s skin cells; only their gametes.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Following the base pairing rules for DNA
(A-T and G-C),AATCGC would have the complement TTAGCG, and run from 5’ to 3’.
Uracil (U) is not found Uracil (U) is not found in DNA – only in RNAin DNA – only in RNA
This does not follow the base-pairing rule
TAKS Review, Objective 2
53 The table shows a comparison of some amino acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in the table that are most closely related are —
A Q and T B R and SC Q and R D Q and S
TAKS Review, Objective 2
To be closely related means the amino acid composition should be almost the same, since that is what the DNA is coding. Between Q and T, only 4 levels are
the same – Between R and S only 4 levels are
the same – Between Q and S 5 of the levels
are the same, but – Between Q and R 5 of the levels
are the same and differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent. Answer:
Not A
Not B
Not D
C
TAKS Review, Objective 2
What is the DNA base pair rule(Chargaff’s Rule)?
24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strandwill be —F 3' TCTACGTAG 5'G 5' CTACGTAGA 3'H 3' AGATGCATC 5'J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'
TAKS Review, Objective 2
In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C
5' AGATGCATC 3‘
TCTACGTAG
• Base pair each letter by the above rule.
• So the answer is:
• F
TAKS Review, Objective 2
• Father of Genetics is Gregor Mendel.
• Dominant traits always are visible, and are represented by capital letters.
GeneticsGenetics – How traits are inherited…..
TAKS Review, Objective 2
GeneticsGenetics
Recessive traitsRecessive traits are hidden unless both are hidden unless both alleles are the recessive one alleles are the recessive one (know ~ homozygous v. heterozygous) (know ~ homozygous v. heterozygous)
At least one pair of At least one pair of allelesalleles determines the determines the trait in genetic inheritance.trait in genetic inheritance.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
TAKS question:• The diagram illustrates
the parts of this flower. Which of these parts are not directly involved in sexual reproduction?
• A Stigma and style• B Sepal and pedicel• C Anther and filament• D Receptacle and
ovary
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Example: Punnett Square
Y y
Y
y
Yy—heterozygous
Yy—heterozygous
YY Yy
Yy yy
25% = YY homozygous dominant
50% = Yy heterozygous
25% = yy homozygous recessive
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Punnett SquaresPunnett Squares
D D
d Dd Dd
d Dd Dd
d d
D Dd Dd
d dd dd
D d
D DD Dd
d Dd dd
D d
D DD Dd
D DD Dd
Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive
Heterzoygous & Heterozygous
Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous
Homozygous Recessive & Homozygous Dominant
TAKS Review, Objective 2
These percentages are not possible.
To get this genotype percentage one of the parents would need to
be homozygous smooth and the other parent
would need to be wrinkled.
The homozygous tall parent is TT for height and the short parent is tt for
height. This will give each offspring a Tt genotype for height. Both parentsare wrinkled making them ss for this trait. This will give each off spring agenotype of ss for the wrinkled trait.
This make 100% of the offspring Ttss.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
gg is not possible!
Half will inherit long beak from the male (Ll) and half will be short beak (ll)
Half, not all will be short beak.
Why? All the offspring must have green feathers
because all children receive the G gene from
the male.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Phenotype is what is seen…..
• Phenotype refers to what is visible – the dominant trait or the recessive trait.
• How do you know the phenotype?
• LOOK!!
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Genotype – actual combination of alleles
• Only 3 possibilities• BB = Homozygous
Dominant• Bb = Heterozygous • bb = Homozygous
recessive • How do you know?
Must look at inheritance pattern to find out.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Inheritance of Traits
• Pedigree—family history that shows how a trait is inherited over several generations.– Helps identify carriers of genetic disorders
• Carriers—individuals who are heterozygous for a genetic disorder but do not show symptoms—can pass the mutant allele to their offspring
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Pedigree Shows the Family Tree
Colorblindness Inheritance
Male ParentFemale Parent
Carrier
Male Colorblind Male Normal Female ?Female ?
Male Female
Male
Male Female
Male Colorblind Female
P = Father has colorblindness; Mother is a carrier
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Pedigree Shows the Family Tree
Colorblindness Inheritance
XcY XCXc
XcY XCY XX ?XX ?
Male Female
Male
Male Female
XCY Female
P = Father has colorblindness; Mother is a carrier
TAKS Review, Objective 2
HomeostasisHomeostasis
• … is the maintenance of the normal operating conditions of an organism
• …control of body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and hormone levels all need to be maintained…..a “steady state.”
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Structural System – 1(Musculoskeletal System)
• Bones– Support & give
structure – Make blood cells – Allow movement – Muscle
attachments– Ligaments hold
joints together
TAKS Review, Objective 2
• 3 types of muscles – Smooth,
involuntary – Striated, voluntary – Cardiac, heart
muscle somewhat like both above
• Allow for movement • Attached by tendons
above and below joints
Structural System – 2
TAKS Review, Objective 2
17 Which structure in the upper arm isresponsible for raising the lower arm?A 1B 2C 3D 4
In order to raise it, it must be attached, so its not 1 or 2.
4 is a bone not a muscle, so its answer:
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Nervous SystemNervous System - 1
Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves Voluntary - you
control and choose
Involuntary - allows parts to keep functioning without thought
Nerve cells send and receive information.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Nervous SystemNervous System - 2Main parts of
nerve cell: – Axon: sends
signal – Cell Body:
controls cell functions
– Dendrite: receives signal from another
– Synapse: space between cells
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Nervous SystemNervous System - 3
• Involuntary is controlled by the medulla oblongata of the brain.
• This is how you keep breathing while sleeping and digest food without thinking about it.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Circulatory SystemCirculatory System - 1This system helps to connect many other systems as it provides the transport of substances from one organ to another.
Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of waste.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry it back to the heart.
The heart pumps the blood
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Circulatory SystemCirculatory System - 2• The top parts of the
heart receive blood – Atrium/atria
• The bottom two are very muscular and pump the blood – Ventricle/ventricles
• Two contractions, right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
A circulatory system
B integumentary system
C excretory system
D endocrine system
29 Nutrients from digested food move from the digestive system directly into the —
Endocrine system does not transport. So . . .
Excretory system gets rid of waste CO2 and H2O, not food. So . .
Integumentary system holds organs and tissues in place. So. . .
The Circulatory System carries everything to every cell, so it is . .
TAKS Review, Objective 2
25 The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts quickly to increased levels of CO2 in the blood and stimulates a response from the —
A excretory system
B immune system
C respiratory system
D integumentary system
Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO2.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Immune SystemImmune System - 1• The immune system
protects from infections and illness
• 1st Order Non-specific: includes skin, mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach acid, tears
• 2nd Order: includes the inflammatory response (swelling, redness due to histamine release), fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected tissue cells.
Could also be called first line defense.
Could also be called second line defense.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Immune SystemImmune System - 2Two main types of immunity: • ACTIVE – body makes
its own antibodies after being sick - permanent OR a vaccination to help your body make antibodies
• PASSIVE – injection with antibodies, or transferred from mother to unborn baby
TAKS Review, Objective 2
6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell. Which of the following are infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?
F Helper T cells
G Liver cells
H GABA-receptor cells
J Red blood cells
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Ask yourself: which cell type deals with immunity?
F Helper T cells
G Liver cells
H GABA-receptor cells
J Red blood cells
• Answer? Helper T cells.
• All the rest are body cells with specific jobs that do not relate to immunity.
TAKS Review, Objective 2
Plant SystemsPlant SystemsThere are 3 main plant
systems: • ReproductiveReproductive – this is the
flower structure (in flowering plants)
• TransportTransport – this is the stem and roots and their xylem and phloem
• EnergyEnergy – this is the leaf and other areas of photosynthesis.