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Synthesis gas generation on-board a vehicle: Developmentand results of testing

V.A. Kirillov a,b,*, V.A. Sobyanin a,b, N.A. Kuzin a, O.F. Brizitski c, V.Ya. Terentiev c

aBoreskov Institute of Catalysis, Pr. Akademika Lavrentieva 5, Novosibirsk 630090, RussiabNovosibirsk State University, Ul. Pirogova 2, Novosibirsk 630090, RussiacRussian Federal Nuclear Center “VNIIEF”, Ul. Jeleznodorojnaya 4/1, Sarov 607188, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 15 November 2011

Received in revised form

17 April 2012

Accepted 20 April 2012

Available online 17 June 2012

Keywords:

Hydrogen

Onboard synthesis gas generator

Internal combustion engine

Natural gas

Electronic control system

Catalytic reaction of partial

oxidation

* Corresponding author. Boreskov Institute oE-mail address: vak@catalysis.ru (V.A. Ki

0360-3199/$ e see front matter Copyright ªdoi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.04.106

a b s t r a c t

The present work is focused on the development of energy-efficient internal combustion

engines with minimized CO, CO2, CH and NOx emissions. In frame of this concept,

a method for hydrogen-rich gas generation onboard a vehicle and, in particular, its

application as an additive to the engine fuel was suggested and tested experimentally. For

practical realization of the method, the catalysts for hydrocarbon fuel reforming to

synthesis gas were created, compact under-hood mounted synthesis gas generator was

designed, and integrated ICE-synthesis gas generator control system was developed. The

tests proved fuel economy in city cycle and considerable decrease of CO, CO2, CH and NOx

emissions. The prospects of the technology for the development of energy-efficient envi-

ronmentally benign engines are analyzed.

Copyright ª 2012, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights

reserved.

1. Introduction Traditionally, reduction of harmful emissions in automo-

Large-scale vehicle production in the developed countries and

high concentration of vehicles in large cities caused

increasing fuel demands and mass emissions of harmful

substances into the atmosphere. At present, motor transport

is the main source of urban air pollution in the world. Current

levels of specific fuel rates and exhaust cleanup remain

insufficient that provokes continuous tightening of automo-

tive emission regulations. The world leading car manufac-

tures have been focusing intensive efforts on improving

spark-ignited internal combustion engines, including

changeover to gaseous fuels [1].

f Catalysis, Pr. Akademikrillov).2012, Hydrogen Energy P

tive exhausts is reached by using three ways catalytic

neutralizers which provide simultaneous conversion of CO,

CH, NOx [2]. But expensive three-component platinum metal

based catalysts raise the car price and worsen engine effi-

ciency. In other words, traditional approaches to reduce car

exhaust emissions address consequences rather than prin-

cipal shortcomings of fuel combustion in the engine. It seems

reasonable to concentrate attention on new principles of

hydrocarbon fuel combustion in spark-ignited engines, in

particular, on lean-combustion approach. In city driving, a car

engine frequently runs in idle and partial load regimes,

emitting large amount of harmful combustion products. For

a Lavrentieva 5, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia. Tel.: þ7 383 3306187.

ublications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Fig. 1 e General overview flat and corrugated strips of

reinforced nickel based catalysts.

i n t e rn a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 6 3 5 9e1 6 3 6 616360

example, an engine of 50e100 kW nominal power demon-

strates in city cycle an average power not exceeding 10 kW

and efficiency below 15% (instead of 30% nominal) [3]. In view

of hydrocarbon fuel economy, reduction of CO2 emissions and

minimization of internal combustion engines (ICE) impact on

urban environment, the use of lean fuel mixtures shows

obvious promises. One of the problems related to application

of lean fuels is to provide stable ICE operation without power

losses. Promising approach is to use hydrogen as an additive

to the lean fuel combusted in ICE.

However, the use of even small amounts of cylinder

hydrogen in vehicles is problematic because of high explosion

and fire risks as well as the absence of developed hydrogen-

supply infrastructures. A practical solution consists in the

production of hydrogen-rich gas mixture (synthesis gas,

syngas) in situ onboard a vehicle. This concept is especially

attractive in view of large territories and lack of hydrogen-

refueling stations in Russia. It combines the advantages of

engine fuelling by hydrogen-enriched lean fuel mixtures and

hydrogen risk reduction.

Application of hydrogen as an additive to fuel mixtures is

not a new problem. As far back as 1980s, a cycle of extensive

studies on hydrogen engines was performed in USSR [4,5].

Changeover to fuelling automotive engines with hydrogen in

combination with traditional motor fuels was proved prom-

ising. At the same time, the problems of hydrogen storage,

blending and risk management were unveiled that suspended

activities towards practical application of hydrogen as fuel

additive.

Investigations carried out in 1973e1975 in USA with

Chevrolet car with an engine (5.75 L in volume) equipped with

synthesis gas generator demonstrated a decrease in petrol

consumption by 26% when driving according to the Federal

Drive Cycle CVS-3 [6]. However, the development was not

commercialized because of low lifespan of catalysts and

tightening of NOx emission standards.

In the following years, investigations on using hydrogen as

a fuel for ICE were reported periodically [7e13]. The results of

the studies allow conclusion that addition of hydrogen to

natural gas in the amount not exceeding 20% reduces CO, CH

and NOx concentration in the exhausts, but worsens thermal

efficiency of an engine owing to lower volumetric energy

density of hydrogen. Reduction of emissions may be attrib-

uted to homogenization of the fuel mixture with hydrogen

additives that provides more uniform spatial ignition in the

ICE cylinders where hydrogen serves as a spatial combustion

initiator.

Further increase of hydrogen concentration leads to

increasing formation of NOx and provokes other critical

effects such as back-fire of the fuel. To neutralize these

effects, recycling of the exhaust gases is recommended.

Clearly, the use of variable composition fuels and optimum

combustion of lean fuel mixtures represented a complex task

which needed novel approaches and technical solutions.

Mostly for this reason, the realization of this obviously

advantageous concept remained kept within laboratory bench

bounds.

For practical realization of hydrogen-rich gas generation

onboard a vehicle and its application as an additive to

conventional fuel, the following tasks are to be solved:

� development of new type structured catalysts for the

conversion of hydrocarbon fuels to synthesis gas;

� development of compact, under hood-mounted synthesis

gas generators;

� development of microprocessor-based control system of

syngas generator, integrated with vehicle control system;

� technical problems associated with practical operation and

control of ICE integrated with SGG;

� lab, bench and road trials;

� evaluation of technology perspectives for the development

of energy-efficient ecologically benign engines.

Analysis of these tasks is the aim of the present report.

2. Results and discussion

2.1. Catalyst for partial oxidation of the natural gas

Catalytic reaction of partial oxidation of natural gas is one the

most preferred processes for hydrogen-rich gas generation.

The following gross reactionsmay proceed at partial oxidation

of natural gas:

CH4 þ 2O2 ¼ CO2 þ 2H2O DH0298 ¼ �803kJ=mole

CH4 þH2O ¼ COþ 3H2 DH0298 ¼ þ206kJ=mole

COþH2O ¼ CO2 þH2 DH0298 ¼ �41kJ=mole

Since the reaction of methane partial oxidation is highly

exothermic, it is reasonable to support a catalyst ontometallic

materials in order to prevent hot spot formation and improve

mechanical strength. In the present work, we used nickel

catalysts reinforced with stainless steel gauze and nickel

catalysts supported onto porous nickel strips (Fig. 1). To

prepare gauze-reinforced nickel catalysts, a mixture of Ni

powder PNE-1 (84.0e85.5 wt.%), a <0.25 mm fraction of

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commercial catalysts GIAP-3 and NIAP18 (12.5 wt.%), and

chromium oxide (2.0e3.5 wt.%) was mixed with rubber-based

glue and spread over a X18H9T stainless steel gauze (GOST

3187-76). Catalytic layer separated from the gauze contained

w4 wt.% of the glue (on dry basis). Gauze-reinforced catalysts

were dried in air for 24 h and sintered in a vacuum oven at

760 �C for 2 h. The fraction of catalytic layer in the gauze-

reinforced catalyst was w60 wt.%. It was found [14] that the

catalysts had macroporous structure with predominant pores

radii within 15e100 mm. The catalysts interior was formed by

5e15 mm rounded conglomerates intergrown at contact

points. The pores contained either individual 1e3 mmparticles

of irregular shape, or aggregates of small particles (particle

size 0.3e1 mm, aggregate size 1e5 mm). Detail information on

catalyst preparation, investigation and respective results is

presented in [15e17].

Fig. 2 e Radial type synthesis gas generator.

Fig. 3 e Axial type synthesis gas generator with monolith

catalysts.

2.2. Development of compact onboard synthesis gasgenerators

Onboard synthesis gas generator (SGG) is a device that

converts a part of a primary fuel (natural gas in this work) to

hydrogen-rich gas (synthesis gas) which is fed to the engine

together with themain fuel (natural gas or gasoline). Consider

the simplest version of SGG on the basis of air reforming of

natural gas. Variants with other fuels will differ only by feed

and dosing systems.

SGG for onboard vehicle (for example, minivan) application

contains the following units:

� system for feeding and dosing of initial components (fuel,

air), which includes air compressor, dozer, flowmeter,

injector, “air-natural gas” mixer;

� reformer, which includes catalytic reactor for fuel conver-

sion to syngas, quick starter of catalyst, systems for recu-

peration of reaction heat, temperature sensors, mixers;

� system for hydrogen-rich gas cooling (heat exchanger-

cooler);

� automatic controller of operation parameters.

SGG and ICE configurations and control systems should be

maximally integrated and operated according to control

algorithm. Depending on the integrated operation mode, SGG

performs the following functions: cold start mode; all modes

of operation (except of closed-throttle deceleration mode): as

SGG is warmed up, hydrogen-rich gas is fed to ICE in the

amount according to control algorithm; closed-throttle

deceleration mode: supply of hydrogen-rich gas to ICE is

terminated; stop mode: supply of initial components (fuel

and air) to SGG is terminated, no hydrogen-rich gas is

generated.

A radial type (Fig. 2) and axial type (Fig. 3) of SGG for

5e25 m3/g syngas productivity were developed and tested at

bench-scale. The following parameters were monitored

during bench tests: flow rates of natural gas and air, reactor

pressure drop, inlet catalyst temperature T1 and outlet

catalyst temperature T2, outlet product distribution. The

Bronkhorst mass flow meters were used to measure and

control the flows of natural gas and air. The temperature was

measured by thermocouples and recorded by “TERMODAT”

unit. The outlet products were analyzed on-line using

a stationary “Siemens” gas analyzer. Table 1 presents the test

results for SGG of both types. It is seen that both SGG

provided almost complete conversion of natural gas to

synthesis gas; hydrogen content in the outlet gas mixture

ranged within 30e34%. At low flow rates of the gas mixture,

the hot spot locates in the front cross-section of the catalyst

bed. As the flow rate increases, the hot point in the axial

reactor shifts inwards. Taking into consideration design

simplification and necessity to cool the generated synthesis

gas, subsequent experiments were performed using the axial

type SGG.

Special attention was focused on minimizing SGG start

time. As a result, the catalyst was heated up from ambient

temperature to 600 �C in 11 s at flow rates of natural gas and

air of 0.5m3/h and 5.2m3/h, respectively (stoichiometry, l¼ 1).

As the flow rates of natural gas and air was 2 m3/h and 5.5 m3/

h, SGG generated 9.6 m3 of hydrogen-rich gas. The tempera-

ture of hydrogen-rich gas at SGG outlet was 150e200 �C; theflow rate of cooling agent did not exceed 100 L/h. According to

test results, the SGG hydrogen-rich gas productivity ranged

within 5e30 m3/h.

Table 1 e Results of SGG bench tests.

Run Flow rate, m3/h DR,lPa

Inletcatalyst

temperatureT1,�S

Outletcatalyst

temperatureT2, �S

Composition of the reaction products, Vol%

Natural gas Air H2 CO CH4 CO2 N2

Axial type of SGG

1 2 5.8 2.2 881 786 34.09 17.07 2.25 1.95 44.64

2 3 8.7 3.6 855 792 34.58 17.44 2.25 1.95 44.64

3 4 11.6 7 832 831 34.54 17.65 1.2 1.81 44.8

4 5 14.5 10 757 894 34.4 17.63 1.06 1.8 45.11

5 6 17.4 12.5 750 962 34.23 17.72 1.07 1.77 45.21

6 6 16.2 12.8 715 886 34.46 17.53 2.16 1.71 44.14

7 6.5 17.55 13.2 709 906 34.68 17.65 2.26 1.77 43.64

Radial type of SGG

8 1 3.44 1.0 852 621 29.0 14.3 1.27 4.57 50.9

9 1 2.93 1.0 810 576 30.8 14.1 4.83 3.82 46.5

10 2.5 10.4 8.1 1010 979 26.2 12.9 0.01 4.42 56.5

11 2.5 8.6 6.2 908 870 31.0 14.7 1.07 2.99 50.2

12 2.5 6.98 5.1 861 715 29.7 16.1 2.13 2.90 49.2

Here DR e pressure drop on SGG.

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2.3. Development of microprocessor-based controlsystem of syngas generator, integrated with vehicle controlsystem

The developed system for onboard generation of hydrogen-

rich gas and its application as additive to primary fuel is

Air flow-mass controllerCutoff air valve

Natural gas mass

controlle

Natural gas flow meter

Ignition coil Natural gflow mascontrolle

Fig. 4 e General view of e

principally different from hythane-based technical solutions

reported in literature [10]. Since hythane fuel (methane 80%,

hydrogen 20%) has fixed composition which can not be

changed depending on ICE operation mode, it fails to use

hydrogen advantages as fuel additive. The suggested solution

is universal, flexible and allows variation of fuel-syngas

Control unit

Air filter

Compressor

Air regulator

Natural gas cutoff valve

flow-

r

as s r

Compressor

lectronic control unit.

Syngas generatorSyngas feedingSyngas-petrol control unit

Air filterGas injectorsPressure regulator

Syngas-petrol control unit

Fig. 5 e Arrangement of onboard synthesis gas generator and engine operating components in under engine cowling of

minivan “Sobol”.

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proportion depending on ICE operation load. For example, for

the purpose of fuel saving in idle mode, the engine is run on

synthesis gas, that is not possible in case of hythane

technology.

Microprocessor-based control system provides the

optimum operation of SGG according to special algorithm and

holds the following functions:

� ICE control in cold and warm starting modes;

� provides the needed fuel-air proportion in all operation

modes depending on temperatures of air and cooling agent,

air flow rate, throttle angle, speed of throttle angle change,

oxygen content in exhaust gases;

� provides the needed spark angle depending on gas-

hydrogen proportion in the fuel; control of SGG and ICE

actuation mechanisms.

Microprocessor operation algorithm is described in [18].

Fig. 4 presents electronic control unit arranged for minivan

“Sobol”. More details on this development are reported in [18].

Fig. 6 e Thermal efficiency and emissions of VAZ-21102

ICE fuelled by gasoline with syngas additive generated

onboard by partial oxidation of natural gas. Operation

conditions: n[ 2185 rpm, Pe [ 0.2. 1, 4egasoline; 2,3,5,6 e

gasoline with syngas additives. Syngas consumption

(m3/h): 2e5.8; 3e7.35; 4, 5e8.4; 6e9.2. Gasoline

consumption 0.9e1.4 kg/h.

2.4. Technical issues associated with practical operationand control of ICE integrated with SGG

Technical solutions related to arrangement of SGG under

vehicles cowling addressed the following requirements:

compactness; minimization of hydraulic and heat losses;

feasible visual and instrumental diagnostics. SGG was

mounted in engine compartment of GAZ-2310 (Sobol) equip-

ped with ZMZ-40522.10 ICE. SGG was mounted on left fender

and cooled by engine cooling system. Hydrogen-rich gas from

SGGwas fed to ICE by flexiblemetal tubing through special air-

gas mixer located upstream throttle valve. The SGG was

mounted using a structure absorbing vibrations and impact

stresses. Compressed gas equipment was placed in the

bottompart of the car. Electronic control systemwasmounted

Table 2 e Effects of syngas additives to gasoline at bench test of ZMZ-4092.10 engine (JSC “ZMZ”).

ICE load Decrease of emissions SP Decrease of emissions SOþNOx Gasoline saving, %

n ¼ 1088 rpm, Nload ¼ 10% 13.6 -fold 13 -fold 16.7

n ¼ 1861 rpm, Nload ¼ 20% 19.2 -fold 215 -fold 12.5

n ¼ 2886 rpm, Nload ¼ 40% 6.5 -fold 36 -fold 15.8

n ¼ 3694 rpm, Nload ¼ 75% 7.5 -fold 6.9 -fold 4.3

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on ametal shelve in the right part of engine compartment (see

Fig. 5). Purchased component parts of SGG (air compressor,

ignition coil, filter, flow controller, cutoff valves) were also

mounted under the cowling using special bracketry. Specially

developed feed control unit to provide ICE operation both on

gasoline and natural gas was installed in the engine

compartment.

The mounted system allowed experiments on optimiza-

tion of ICE operation with gasoline, natural gas, synthesis gas,

gasoline or natural gas with syngas additives.

2.5. Bench tests of ICE-integrated SGG with gasoline-syngas (hydrogen)

In 2001e2004, bench tests of VAZ-21102 fuelled by gasoline

with hydrogen or syngas additives were performed [19] in

order to collect experimental data for the analysis and opti-

mization of themethods for CO2 decreasing, improving engine

efficiency and meeting emission standards without using

three-component neutralizers, all this with minimized

production costs. Fig. 6 presents bench data on emissions of

VAZ-21102 ICE fuelled by gasoline with syngas additive

generated onboard by partial oxidation of natural gas. Clearly,

Table 3 e Bench tests of ZMZ-40522.10 ICE fuelled by natural g

1 2 3 4 5 6

n, min�1 884 2369 1861 2886 2661

Nt,Nn 3.8 56.6 39.1 14.9 30.7

Supply through SGG 3.0 m3/h air, 0.75 m3/h (0.54 kg/h) methane

l 1.7 1.58 1.59 1.63 1.7

Gg kg/h 1.2 5.0 2.9 3.6 4.0

D 0.45 0.108 0.186 0.15 0.18

NSP g/kWh 171 181 70 258 174

%a 17 �73 �84 �42 �68

NSO g/kWh 31 463 84 327 303

%a �6 774 140 1158 766

MNOx g/kWh 0.1 26 2.9 1.0 1.8

%a �86 �91 �95 �99 �99

Supply through SGG 5.0 m3/h air, 1,25 m3/h (0.90 kg/h) methane

l 1.7 1.63 1.63 1.68 1.73

Gg kg/h 1.2 4.9 2.8 3.5 3.9

D 0.75 0.183 0.32 0.26 0.23

NSP g/kWh 171 232 136 320 218

%a 17 �66 �69 �28 �60

NSO g/kWh 31 292 107 234 164

%a �6 451 206 800 369

MNOx g/kWh 0.1 10 4.2 0.5 0.5

%a �86 �94 �93 �99 �89

D e corresponds to fraction of natural gas consumed for conversion to sy

a Marked data - comparison with the results obtained at l ¼ 1.0 (natural

synthesis gas additives widen the interval of stable perfor-

mance of ICE fed by lean fuel mixtures. Indeed, air-gasoline

stoichiometric ratio of 1.15 increases to 1.6e1.7 for gasoline

with syngas additives. Table 2 presents experimental results

obtained during bench tests of ZMZ-4092.10 engine at JSC

“ZMZ” [18]. Clearly, the engine fed by gasoline with synthesis

gas additives emits lower amounts of CO and HC þ NOx;

gasoline consumption decreases by 4.3e16.7% depending on

ICE operation load. Thus, the tests proved feasible the stable

operation of engines fed by lean gasoline-airmixture enriched

with synthesis gas additives.

2.6. Bench tests of ICE-integrated SGG with naturalgas þ synthesis gas

In 2007e2008, performance of ZMZ-40522.10 engine fuelled by

natural gas with syngas additives was tested at JSC “ZMZ”

(bench) and FSUE “NAMI” (chassis dyno rollers). SGG

arrangement was the same as presented in Fig. 3, chassis

roller imitated city cycle driving. During tests, the following

parameters were measured: crankshaft rpm (min�1); torque

Nt (nN); power N (kW); fuel consumption Gg (kg/h); air

consumption Ga (kg/h); engine air ratio l; gas emission NSP,

as with syngas additives.

7 8 9 10 11 12

1887 3241 2396 2367 3694 3624

14.7 83.9 82.6 5.5 116.5 7.0

1.59 1.46 1.45 1.69 1.41 1.55

2.3 8.4 5.9 2.5 12.4 4.0

0.23 0.108 0.09 0.21 0.04 0.108

150 119 111 19 84 126

�41 �99 �85 �85 �95 �67

141 421 183 195 195 157

292 373 181 748 62 614

1.5 400 204 0.7 329 11

�85 �68 �58 �97 �84 �85

1.68 1.46 1.48 1.71 1.43 1.63

2.1 8.3 5.8 2.5 12.3 3.8

0.42 0.108 0.155 0.36 0.07 0.236

154 179 96 272 85 137

�40 �83 �87 �24 �95 �65

69 327 112 129 137 106

92 267 72 461 14 382

1.1 317 89 0.4 296 3.1

�64 �78 �94 �84 �94 �94

ngas.

gas without syngas additives).

Table 4 e Emissions in road tests of vehicle with onboardsyngas generator.

ZNZ-40522.10 engine Fuel

Gasoline CNGa CNG þ syngas

Kilometerage, km 0 0 0

SP, % 0.35 0.3 0.016

SO, rrn 147 193 292

NPy, rrn 174 191 16

SP2,% 13.2 11.1 7.5

Kilometerage, km 550 550 550

SP, % 0.29 0.31 0.035

SO, rrn 210 216 310

NPy, rrn 210 235 17

SP2,% 13.1 11.8 8.1

Kilometerage, km 1800 1800 1800

SP, % 0.3 0.33 0.02

SO, rrn 195 222 340

NPy, rrn 205 195 14

SP2,% 12.9 10.9 7.95

a CNG e compressed natural gas stored in cylinders.

Table 5 e Effect of syngas additive on ICE performanceduring road tests.

ZNZ-40522.10 engine Fuel

Gasoline CNGa CNG þ syngas

Kilometerage, km 2235 2235 2235

Nominal power, hp

(motor bench)

123 103 103

Max speed, km/hs 120 120 120

Acceleration time, s:

0e100 km/h (1e5 gears) 32 34 42

60e100 km/h (3 gear) 12 14 16

60e100 km/h (4 gear) 17 21 27

80e120 km/h (5 gear) 42 42 55

Fuel units L m3 m3

Filling volume 50 39 39

Fuel price, rubles 24 8 8

Fuel consumption

per 100 km (pack

speed 75 km/h)

11.5 10.5 8e9

Costs per 100 km run, rubles 276 84 72

One-filling fuel run, km 434 371 433

a CNG e compressed natural gas stored in cylinders.

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NSO, NNOy (g/kW h). Syngas was generated by onboard SGG

(Fig. 3) from a part of primary fuel. Table 3 presents experi-

mental data on bench tests of ZMZ-40522.10 ICE fuelled by

natural gas with syngas additives.

Analysis of these data suggests the following conclusions:

� fuel-air ratio can be decreased to l ¼ 1.4O1.56 (except of idle

mode); unfortunately, available bench has no capability to

work on leaner fuel mixtures;

� methane consumption decreased by 2e13% compared to

that value at l ¼ 1.0;

� emission of carbon monoxide decreased by 60e93% as

compared to that value at l ¼ 1.0;

� emission of nitrogen oxides decreased by 55e98% as

compared to that value at l ¼ 1.0;

� emission of hydrocarbons increased by 35e1268% as

compared to that value at l ¼ 1.0;

Thus, the tests proved feasible stable operation of ZMZ-

40522.10 engine fed by lean natural gas e air mixtures

Fig. 7 e The road tested “Sobol” minivan.

(l ¼ 1.5e2.1) enriched with synthesis gas additives. Emissions

of CO and NOx were low. Increasing emission of OS at l > 1.7

(Fig. 6) is attributed tomisfires of leanmixture in ICE cylinders.

Further, it is planned to perform detail chassis dynamometer

tests of engines according to standard driving cycle using fuel

mixtures with variable methane-to-syngas ratio.

2.7. Results of road tests

Road tests were performed during “Blue Corridor” rally en-

route Novgorod e St. Peterburg e Novgorod e Moscow, orga-

nized by GASPROM. Total kilometerage (including way from

Rybinsk, Yaroslavskay Oblast, to start position) of rally was

2235 km. Minivan “Sobol” equipped with gas cylinders and

SGG capable of producing 5e15 m3 syngas per h (Fig. 3) took

part in the rally. During rally, full-scale trials were performed

including in situ monitoring of emissions and fuel consump-

tion. Particularly important, the minivan was capable to run

on natural gas,methane-syngasmixture and on gasoline. This

allowed measuring operation characteristics and estimating

efficiency of syngas additive under similar conditions. Table 4

compares results on engine emissions during road tests. Fig. 7

has shown the vehicle which took part in road tests.

Clearly, addition of synthesis gas to natural gas fuel facil-

itates the decrease of CO emission by 18 times, NOx e by 12

times, CO2 e 1.4 times, but increases CH emissions by 1.5

times. In general, these data confirm that synthesis gas

additives help to decrease toxic emissions from vehicles.

Table 5 illustrates the effect of synthesis gas additive on

ICE performance during road tests. It is seen that acceleration

time of the car fueled by natural gas with synthesis gas

additive increases by 14e30% depending on gear type. Costs

per 100 km run on natural gas are 3.28 times lower then that

on gasoline, and 3.84 times lower if natural gas is enriched

with synthesis gas additive (in June 2009 prices). Compared to

vehicles fueling by natural gas, the use of natural gas with

i n t e rn a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 3 7 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 6 3 5 9e1 6 3 6 616366

synthesis gas additive provides 1.17-times cost decrease and

increases one-filling run by 62 km. Note that optimization of

ICE-SGG load characteristics will strengthen these effects

considerably.

3. Conclusion

The results of bench and road tests clearly prove that syngas

additives both to gasoline and lean gas mixtures provide

stable ICE operation, fuel saving and decrease of toxic emis-

sions. With this technology, necessity to develop hydrogen

generating, storing and refueling infrastructure disappears

thus saving enormous money. The technology is free from

hydrogen risks, because hydrogen is generated and used in

situ. The technology provides stable ICE starting in winter due

to combined effect of warmed up heat-carrier and hydrogen-

enriched fuel. Synthesis gas can be produced from diesel

and biodiesel fuels, bioethanol, other biomass-derived fuels

that widens its application opportunities as ICE fuel additive

and NOx reducing agent [20].

The proposed technology represents initial step of wide-

scale works on the development of energy-efficient engines.

The next step includes comprehensive tests with the use of

various type engines and vehicles and modified technology

using exhaust recycling in combination with air-steam-

carbon dioxide reforming. These studies will allow improved

fuel efficiency. Urban transport and municipal vehicle (buses,

minivans, refuse-collectors, street-cleaners, snow-removers,

etc.) are the most promising application areas of the devel-

oped technology, because:

� urban traffic dictates start-stop driving style which makes

switching to synthesis gas fueling most profitable;

� relatively low generator/vehicle price ratio;

� no need for most compact arrangement of synthesis gas

generator onboard vehicle.

Acknowledgement

The authors express gratitude to Federal Agency on Science

and Innovations RF for financial support of the present work

under State Contracts No 02.516.11.6202 and 02.526.11.6060.

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