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Struktur 1 Struktur (latin structura, bygga upp, ordna), sammanhang mellan delar i en helhet, deras ordning och förhållande till varandra, system. Motsatsen till struktur är kaos. Betecknar den inre ordning som på ett konkret eller abstrakt sätt bygger upp en helhet utifrån sina delar inre byggnad, uppbyggnad, sammansättning, mönster, system, form, konstruktion, beskaffenhet; textur, grovlek, yta System av enheter och dessas inbördes förhållanden, (inre) uppbyggnad: näringslivets, språkets, bergartens struktur; ytmönster: tygets struktur Struktur kan i dess mest allmänna betydelse avse en regelstyrd ordning mellan beståndsdelar eller element i en helhet. Det är ett fundamentalt begrepp inom lingvistiken, då det ämnet studerar fonems, lexikala ords, och meningars relation till varandra, och har givit upphov till viktiga lingvistiska och estetiska teorier och metoder som strukturalismen och poststrukturalismen, där det i stället för element är relationen mellan fenomen som studeras. En struktur kan vara ordnad hierarkiskt eller med platt struktur, till exempel numerisk sådan. Språkets struktur studeras i bland annat grammatiken och semantiken. 2 Cicero Retorik structūra (mostly construction) a fitting together, adaptation, adjustment. in structurā saxorum rudium. (language) an arrangement, order, structure (in Cicero, as a figure of speech, with quasi or quaedam) et verborum est structura quaedam, Cicero. Opt. Gen. 2, 5 proprietates verborum exigit, et structuram et argumentationes, Senecca. Ep. 89, 9 Dispositio is the system used for the organization of arguments in Western classical rhetoric. The word is Latin, and can be translated as "organization" or "arrangement." 3 Structure Konstruktion (byggt object) 4 Cabinets of curiosities (also known as Kunstkabinett, Kunstkammer, Wunderkammer, Cabinets of Wonder, and wonder-‐rooms) were encyclopedic collections of objects whose categorical boundaries were, in Renaissance Europe, yet to be defined. Modern
terminology would categorize the objects included as belonging to natural history (sometimes faked), geology, ethnography, archaeology, religious or historical relics, works of art (including cabinet paintings), and antiquities. "The Kunstkammer was regarded as a microcosm or theater of the world, and a memory theater. The Kunstkammer conveyed symbolically the patron's control of the world through its indoor, microscopic reproduction." Interior view of Sir Ashton Levers Museum London Interior of England's most notable late-‐eighteenth century private natural history museums collected on Cook's and other voyages to Australia and the Pacific. 5 "Musei Wormiani Historia", the frontispiece from the Museum Wormianum depicting Ole Worm's cabinet of curiosities. 6 System Linneus visual Sexual System (from the 10th, 1758, edition of the Systema Naturae) Biologisk Form-‐structure Gorthe Urform By the middle of the 1700s, Western philosophy had reached an ethical and epistemological cul-‐de-‐sac. The Enlightenment or Age of Reason was based on a static view of human nature, an increasingly mechanical view of the universe (based on Copernican astronomy, Galilean mechanics and Newtonian physics) and a linear view of the progress of scientific knowledge (based on a mechano-‐material, reductionist approach). This rationalist approach, what one commentator has termed the 'one-‐eyed, color blind' perspective of the world, raised fundamental issues about "God, freedom and immortality" (Kant) of growing concern to a culture undergoing significant economic, political and cultural transformation. The scientific method that had worked well with inert nature (Bacon's natura naturata), was less successful in seeking to understand vital nature (natura naturans). At the same time, the rational-‐empirical model based on the predominance of mentative thinking (German: sinnen) via the intellect (German: Sinn), started by Descartes and advanced most notably in France, was leading to confusion and doubt rather than clarity: equally rational arguments could be made for widely divergent propositions or conceptions. The more empirical approach favored in England (Hume) had led to viewing reality as sense-‐based, including the mind, that what we perceive is only a mental representation of what is real, and what is real we can never really know. As one observer summarizes, there were two 'games' being played in philosophy at the time – one rational and one empirical, both of which led to total skepticism and an epistemological crisis.
Goethe undertook his 'adventure of reason', starting with the "crisis" in botany, the merely and purely mechanical classification-‐taxonomy of plant life. In so doing Goethe also "wagered a sweeping theory about Nature itself."[3] Goethe was concerned with the narrowing specialization in science and emphasis on accumulating data in a merely mechanical manner, devoid of human values and human development. Linnaean botanic taxonomic system represented this in his day, a Systema naturae. Goethe intuited a narrowing and contracting interplay between humanity and Nature. For Goethe any science based only on physical-‐material characteristics and then only selected external traits, led to epistemic impoverishment and a reduction of human knowledge. What was needed was increased ability to derive meaning from voluminous external data by looking at it from a different perspective (a new theoria, from Greek for "way of seeing"). Linnaean taxonomy was already coming under criticism from Comte de Buffon, who argued that this mechanistic classification of the outer forms of nature (natura naturata) needed to be replaced by a study of the interrelation of natural forces and natural historical change 7 George Cuvier Vertebrate paleontology is a large subfield to paleontology seeking to discover the behavior, reproduction and appearance of extinct animals with vertebrae or a notochord, through the study of their fossilized remains. It also tries to connect, by using the evolutionary timeline, the animals of the past and their modern-‐day relatives. Perhaps Cuvier's most crucial and longest-‐lasting contribution to biology was establishing extinction as a fact. For over a century before Cuvier, fossils had been accepted as the remains of once-‐living organisms, as scientists like Leonardo da Vinci and Robert Hooke had stated. Some scientists believed that many fossils represented life forms that no longer existed: Buffon, for instance, wrote prophetically that "We have monuments taken from the bosom of the Earth, especially from the bottom of coal and slate mines, that demonstrate to us that some of the fish and plants that these materials contain do not belong to species currently existing." But others who had studied fossils could not believe that God, having created all things and pronounced them good, would allow any of them to be wiped out. Some scientists interpreted fossils as remains of living species: fossil mammoths found in Italy were interpreted as the remains of the elephants brought by Hannibal when he invaded Rome. Others thought that the unusual organisms then known only as fossils must still survive in unexplored parts of the world -‐-‐ no less a personage than Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, speculated that mammoths might yet be found living in the American wilderness. While speculation raged, the detailed information needed to solve the problem had never been collected. Cuvier went on to publish detailed studies of elephant anatomy that showed not only that the African and Indian elephants were distinct species, but that the fossil mammoths of Europe and Siberia were different from either living elephant species. Cuvier went on to publish the results of study after study documenting the past existence of large mammals that resembled no living speci
es: the giant ground sloth, the Irish elk, the American mastodon, and many others. With these studies, Cuvier launched modern vertebrate paleontology. 8 Manligt/kvinnligt Upprätt/Gravitation Muskler illustrerar kampen mot gravitationen Laocoön 40–20 CE-‐ Probable period in which the "Laocoon" group was sculpted by Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus of Rhodes. Late 19th century photograph showing Canova's restoration Aphrodite The Colonna Venus is located in the Mask Room off the Gallery of Statues in the Pio-‐Clementine Museum (Vatican). 9-‐12 Bruno Munari Drawing a tree 13-‐17 Violet Le Duc Front cover of the Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'Architecture Française du XIe au XVIe siècle 1868 Viollet-‐le-‐Duc is considered by many to be the first theorist of modern architecture. Sir John Summerson wrote that "there have been two supremely eminent theorists in the history of European architecture -‐ Leon Battista Alberti and Eugène Viollet-‐le-‐Duc." His architectural theory was largely based on finding the ideal forms for specific materials, and using these forms to create buildings. His writings centered on the idea that materials should be used 'honestly'. He believed that the outward appearance of a building should reflect the rational construction of the building. In Entretiens sur l'architecture, Viollet-‐le-‐Duc praised the Greek temple for its rational representation of its construction. For him, "Greek architecture served as a model for the correspondence of structure and appearance." There is speculation that this philosophy was heavily influenced by the writings of John Ruskin, who championed honesty of materials as one of the seven main emphases of architecture. In several unbuilt projects for new buildings, Viollet-‐le-‐Duc applied the lessons he had derived from Gothic architecture, applying its rational structural systems to modern building materials such as cast iron. He also examined organic structures, such as leaves and animal skeletons, for inspiration. He was especially interested in the wings of bats, an influence represented by his Assembly Hall project.
Viollet-‐le-‐Duc's drawings of iron trusswork were innovative for the time. Many of his designs emphasizing iron would later influence the Art Nouveau movement, most noticeably in the work of Hector Guimard, Victor Horta, Antoni Gaudí or Hendrik Petrus Berlage. His writings inspired some American architects, including Frank Furness, John Wellborn Root, Louis Sullivan, and Frank Lloyd Wright 18-‐20 Jacques-Germain Soufflot 1713 –1780 The Church of Sainte-‐Geneviève (the Panthéon) that he designed starting in 1755. No, just take its portico. It’s a Roman temple front, but not just a copy of some pile of ruins. Setting aside the whole matter of Soufflot’s treatment of ornament and proportions that differed from ancient practice, consider the structure. Soufflot had researched antiquity enough to know that the Romans didn’t rest flat lintels on columns as they (and he) appeared to do; by the Empire they employed shallow arches to distribute the weight of the architrave to each column, making the structure more efficient (it’s right there at the Temple of Saturn if you bother to look for it). 21 Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve 1838-‐1850 Henri Labrouste 22 1942 Nash Ambassador 600 X-‐ray drawing. The BMW i3 electric car is one of the rare modern cars with a separate body and frame design (2013). 23 Statue of Liberty The impressive structure surrounded by scaffolding as workers complete the final stages in Paris 24-‐25 Eiffel tower Maurice Koechlin The idea behind the landmark emerged in 1884, when the organizers of the Universal Exposition, planned for 1889, requested projects for a large metallic structure which could act as the entrance and the main draw of the event. In May of that year, engineer Maurice Koechlin drew at home the first sketch of what he defined as “a great tower, made up of four lattice girders, separated at the base and coming together at the top and joined to each other by more metal girders at regular intervals.” Koechlin then recruited the help of another structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, to work the necessary maths to build the 300 meter tall pylon. Now, both Koechlin and Nouguier were at the time employed by the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel, a reputed construction company specialized in bridges, and showed the project to the boss. At first, Monsieur Eiffel was not very impressed by the sketch, nonetheless, invited his engineers to keep working on the project.
They asked for help to Stephen Sauvestre, head of the architecture department of the Eiffel firm and he took on the job of embellishing the design by adding some arches to the base, a crystal pavilion to the first level and other ornaments which, eventually, convinced Mr. Eiffel, so much, that he bought the patent that Koechlin, Nouguier and Sauvestre had obtained for their idea (the law at the time did not attach property of a design to the company where the designers were working). In this way, he secured the exclusive rights of the tower’s future operating profits. Eiffel was also instrumental in winning the tender and in raising the funds necessary for the construction. 26 Airbus A380, the world's largest passenger airliner 2007 27 Louis Sullivan In 1896, Louis Sullivan wrote: It is the pervading law of all things organic and inorganic, of all things physical and metaphysical, of all things human, and all things super-‐human, of all true manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the soul, that the life is recognizable in its expression, that form ever follows function. This is the law.' "Form follows function" would become one of the prevailing tenets of modern architects. Sullivan, however, attributed the concept to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, the Roman architect, engineer, and author, who first asserted in his book, De architectura, that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of– that is, it must be solid, useful, beautiful. This credo, which placed the demands of practical use above aesthetics, later would be taken by influential designers to imply that decorative elements, which architects call "ornament", were superfluous in modern buildings, but Sullivan neither thought nor designed along such dogmatic lines during the peak of his career 28-‐30 Mies van der Rohe 1886 –1969 Structure as idea Constructing Lake Shore Drive 1951 Farnthworth House 1951 31 Galileo Galilei Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche Intorno a Due Nuove Scienze (1638) Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C.E. when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as
opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads). However, it's important to note that the structural stability of the pyramid is not primarily a result of its shape. The integrity of the pyramid is intact as long as each of the stones is able to support the weight of the stone above it. The limestone blocks were taken from a quarry near the build site. Since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 30 to 250 MPa the blocks will not fail under compression.Therefore, the structural strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramid's geometry. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked before'. Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental. No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behavior of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re-‐invention of concrete. The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have since developed into computer-‐based applications pioneered in the 1970s. Galileo Galilei published the book "Two New Sciences" in which he examined the failure of simple structures. 32 Frei Otto Olympia stadium Munich 1972 33 Frei Otto Finding Form 1995 34 On Growth and Form Dárcy Wentworth Thompson On Growth and Form is a book by the Scottish mathematical biologist D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson (1860–1948). First edition of 1917 second edition 1942. The book covers many topics including the effects of scale on the shape of animals and plants, large ones necessarily being relatively thick in shape; the effects of surface tension in shaping soap films and similar structures such as cells; the logarithmic spiral as seen in mollusc shells and ruminant horns; the arrangement of leaves and other plant parts (phyllotaxis); and Thompson's own method of transformations, showing the changes in shape of animal skulls and other structures on a Cartesian grid.
The work is widely admired by biologists, anthropologists and architects among others, but less often read than cited. Peter Medawar explains this as being because it clearly pioneered the use of mathematics in biology, and helped to defeat mystical ideas of vitalism; but that the book is weakened by Thompson's failure to understand the role of evolution and evolutionary history in shaping living structures. Philip Ball on the other hand suspects that while Thompson argued for physical mechanisms, his rejection of natural selection bordered on vitalism. The central theme of the book is that biologists of its author's day overemphasized evolution as the fundamental determinant of the form and structure of living organisms, and underemphasized the roles of physical laws and mechanics. At a time when vitalism was still being considered as a biological theory, he advocated structuralism* as an alternative to natural selection in governing the form of species, with the smallest hint of vitalism as the unseen driving force. Thompson had previously criticized Darwinism in his paper Some Difficulties of Darwinism.On Growth and Form explained in detail why he believed Darwinism to be an inadequate explanation for the origin of new species. He did not reject natural selection, but regarded it as secondary to physical influences on biological form. Using a mass of examples, Thompson pointed out correlations between biological forms and mechanical phenomena. He showed the similarity in the forms of jellyfish and the forms of drops of liquid falling into viscous fluid, and between the internal supporting structures in the hollow bones of birds and well-‐known engineering truss designs. He described phyllotaxis (numerical relationships between spiral structures in plants) and its relationship to the Fibonacci sequence. *Biological or process structuralism is a school of biological thought that deals with the law-‐like behaviour of the structure of organisms and how it can change. Typical structuralist concerns might be self-‐organisation, the idea that complex structure emerges from the dynamic interaction of molecules, without the resultant structure having necessarily been selected for in all its details. For example, the patterning of fingerprints or the stripes of zebras might emerge through simple rules of diffusion, and the resulting unique structure need not have been selected for in its finest details. Structuralists look for very general rules that govern organisms as a whole, and not just particular narratives that explain the origin or maintenance of particular structures. The interplay between structural laws and adaptation thus govern the degree to which an adaptationist account can fully explain why a particular organism looks as it does. 35 Oskar Hansen and Zofia Hansen, My Place, My Music, Design for the Pavilion of Music at the Warsaw Contemporary Music Festival, 1958 36-‐37 Sagrada Familia in Barcelona the last Monday. The objective of this visit was to see and analyse the catenary model of the Cripta Güell exhibited there, which was made some years ago by a
team lead by Frei Otto (Cristine’s father) and shows the way that Gaudí was prototyping his structures. 38 Viamala, Graubunden, Switzerland 1997 -‐ 1999 Jürg Conzett 39 CCTV Headquarters Stress Diagram-‐ Cecil Balmond, Rem Koolhaas, OMA and Arup AGU interpretation of a given grid (black) and reinforcement (red) where needed 40-‐43 Wittkower's Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism introduced an in depth analysis of Venetian architect Andrea Palladio and his relation to sixteenth century music theory. Part Four specifically deals with how and why Palladio adapted harmonic musical ratios and incorporated them into the physical proportions of his buildings. Although this theory of Palladian proportions was universally accepted after the book's release, recent works in art history have made it the subject of much controversy. Wittkower had encountered this notion that musical harmony may act in a manner analogous to visual harmony in Pythagoras, where it was also noted by Alberti Villa Maser Villa Emo R. Wittkower. Villa Malcontenta. Calculation for studies on proportion. Villa Malcontenta. Plan and elevation. 44-‐45 Possible Palladian Villas George Hersey 1992 Possible Palladian Villas: (plus a Few Instructively Impossible Ones) 1992 George L. Hersey Richard Freedman "Drawing on the architect's original published legacy of forty-‐odd designs, George Hersey and Richard Freedman reveal the rigorous geometric rules by which Palladio conceived these structures. Where most earlier attempts to analyze the villas are mere lists of numbers and ratios that ignore space distribution, the present rules produce actual designs. Using a computer, the authors test each rule in every possible application, establishing a degree of validity not possible in ad hoc analyses. Progressing from the architect's most obvious to his subtlest geometry, the computer ultimately creates villa plans and facades that are stylistically indistinguishable from those of Palladio himself."
The Macintosh software is simply titled: Possible Palladian Villas: The Program. And it ships on a single floppy disk with a tiny piece of paper inside with simple instructions. It's no big deal to load and use but there is one slight hitch. It's for System 7.x only. Or at least that is what the book says. Peter Eisenman. Eisenman is the master of formal operations and his work can be very strongly compared with Palladio's. At the time, the idea of using the formal operations to generate space was at the forefront of modern architecture. It was not; however, a new idea that had never been explored. Palladio defined a modern project based on structure, that is based on the recognition of absolute idea order, identified by the humanists of the time. This modernism was based on an advancement from Leon Battista Alberti system of measurements, which Palladio used to establish a system of relationships between spaces, assigning continuity across the composition through alternating rhythmic mathematical ratios. He reinforced a general logic, not only relating part to whole, but creating a responsive structural system that can be both referenced and altered, subsequently giving an underlying sense of control to the organization. While a normal proportion is kept constant, the other varies by inducing displacements to this initial reference, projecting a relationship that is both kept, accumulated but also displaced. This system of relationships systematically controls decisions based on proportions parameterized by mathematical progression, but particularly developing a self referential modern consciousness. This mental consciousness critiques the ideal, generic, typological set of pre-‐established relationships incorporating variations to the composition with singular displacements that activate specific architecture problems that respond to the logic of the particular. This systematic work across Palladio's villas is demonstrated by Rudolph Wittkower's common nine square grid composition. 46 The forerunner of modern linguistics was a philologist and scholar of ancient India named Sir William Jones. 47 The next century of linguistics was dominated by Jones’ diachronic approach until Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure introduced a new method. Structuralism's point of origin is usually designated by the publication in 1955 of anthropologist Claude Levi-‐Strauss's South American narrative "Tristes Tropiques," the book that established his fame much as the "Voyage of the Beagle" established Darwin's more than a century before. Other commentators on structuralism take its beginnings from the "Theses" presented by the Prague Linguistic Circle in 1929, though it may be dated even before that to the publication in 1916 of Swiss linguist Ferdinand De Saussure's "Course in General Linguistics." Larger influences -‐ the notion becomes ironic soon enough -‐ may be seen in Nietzsche, Marx, and Freud.
In any case, structuralist activity was a la mode in Paris by the '60s and a series of books and journals began to institutionalize structuralism there. The structuralist imagination ranged through social sciences like anthropology, political science (Althusser), and psychology (both the psychoanalysis of Jacques Lacan and the learning theory of Swiss clinician Jean Piaget), to the history of ideas (Foucault), literary criticism (Barthes, Derrida), and the interpretation of film (Metz). 48 Structuralism Strukturalism är ett samlingsnamn på ett betraktelsesätt inom skilda områden som studerar strukturer och system i stället för subjekt, sanning eller innehåll. Strömningen var som mest populär under 1960-‐talet i Frankrike. Betraktelsesättet är utvecklat från lingvistiken, men uppstod som egen idéströmning i andra, delvis nya vetenskapsdiscipliner, framför allt sociologi, antropologi, religionshistoria, och olika ämnen i humaniora och filosofin. Genom centrala personers popularitet blev detta en modefilosofi, senare utgrenad i poststrukturalismen och dekonstruktion. Strukturalistisk metod går ut på att jämföra teckens betydelse (symbolers innebörd) genom att se dem som delar av strukturer (eller system) av teckengrupper (symbolsystem). Varje tecken är meningsbärande, och får sin betydelse genom sin funktion för strukturen och relation till andra tecken. Strukturalismen bröt mot synsättet att språket utgjordes av självständiga delar, och fokuserade på samband och förhållanden. Strukturalismen är en av två huvudinriktningar inom semiotiken. Ett språk finns som både ett system och som användning. Ett tecken består av två delar, dels ordet/bilden och dels konceptet/idén. Till exempel ett träd. Ordet "träd" och vad du ser framför dig när du läser ordet bildar ett tecken. De två delarna finns inte var för sig utan existerar bara tillsammans. Däremot är det relationen mellan dem som skapar mening. Det finns givetvis inget som säger att ett träd är just ett träd, man hade kunnat säga "brugduf". Tecken är godtyckliga. Varje tecken måste sättas in i ett sammanhang för att få betydelse. Ett känt exempel är trafikljusen. Om vi bara ser en röd cirkel är det svårt att veta vad det betyder, men tillsammans med en gul och grön cirkel får det ett sammanhang och en innebörd. Betydelserna av ett tecken är inte huggna i sten utan ändras efter hand men det är ett sätt att organisera vår omvärld. de Saussure delade in språk i två delar. Den första kallade han för langue, vilket är det abstrakta system av grammatik, regler och koder som behövs för att det ska gå att kommunicera. Den andra är parole, själva yttrandena, språkets yta, den yttre manifestationen av "langue". Langue ansåg han vara ett socialt system, den del av språket som gick att studera djuplodande och med vetenskaplig precision. Det är hans studier av språket på en sådan strukturell nivå som gjort att han kallas för strukturalist.
Ett synkront perspektiv tar ej hänsyn till historia utan bara till vad som existerar vid en viss tidpunkt. Detta som konstrast till ett diakront perspektiv, där man koncentrerar sig på utvecklingen till det som idag existerar. Något som sker parallellt och vid exakt samma ögonblick (ofta upprepande). Motsats är något som är asynkront. Motsättningen synkron(isk): diakron(isk) har spelat stor roll inom lingvistikens historia. Förtjänsten av att ha framhållit vikten av det synkroniska perspektivet i språkforskningen, alltså att man bör studera språket som ett system (en struktur), fungerande vid en viss tidpunkt, kan tillskrivas en bestämd person, Ferdinand de Saussure. Methodologically, it analyses large-‐scale systems by examining the relations and functions of the smallest constituent elements of such systems, which range from human languages and cultural practices to folktales and literary texts. Ferdinand De Saussure Characteristic of structuralist thinking, Saussure's linguistic inquiry was centred not on speech itself but on the underlying rules and conventions enabling language to operate. In analysing the social or collective dimension of language rather than individual speech, he pioneered and promoted study of grammar rather than usage, rules rather than expressions, models rather than data, langue (language) rather than parole (speech). Saussure was interested in the infrastructure of language that is common to all speakers and that functions on an unconscious level. His inquiry was concerned with deep structures rather than surface phenomena and made no reference to historical evolution. (In structuralist terminology, it was synchronic, existing now, rather than diachronic, existing and changing over time.) Structuralism 2 In the domain of anthropology and myth studies, the work done in the immediate post-‐World War II period by Claude Levi-‐Strauss introduced structuralist principles to a wide audience. Following the ideas of Saussure and of the Slavic linguists N. S. Trubetzkoyand Roman Jakobson, Levi-‐Strauss specified four procedures basic to structuralism. 1) structural analysis examines unconscious infrastructures of cultural phenomena 2) it regards the elements of infrastructures as "relational," not as independent entities 3) it attends single-‐mindedly to system 4) it propounds general laws accounting for the underlying organizing patterns of phenomena. In humanistic and literary studies, structuralism is applied most effectively in the field of "narratology."
This nascent discipline studies all narratives, whether or not they use language: myths and legends, novels and news accounts, histories, relief sculptures and stained-‐glass windows, pantomimes and psychological case studies. Using structuralist methods and principles, narratologists analyse the systematic features and functions of narratives, attempting to isolate a finite set of rules to account for the infinite set of real and possible narratives. Because structuralism values deep structures over surface phenomena, it parallels, in part, the views of Marx and Freud, both of whom were concerned with underlying causes, unconscious motivations, and trans-‐personal forces, shifting attention away from individual human consciousness and choice. Like Marxism and Freudianism, therefore, structuralism furthers the ongoing modern diminution of the individual, portraying the self largely as a construct and consequence of impersonal systems. Individuals neither originate nor control the codes and conventions of their social existence, mental life, or linguistic experience. As a result of its demotion of the person, or subject, structuralism is widely regarded as "anti-‐humanistic." Starting in the 1960s, the French critic Roland Barthes and several other French narratologists popularized the field, which has since become an important method of analysis in the United States as well. Shifting attention away from individual human consciousness and choice. Individuals neither originate nor control the codes and conventions of their social existence, mental life, or linguistic experience. Saussure envisaged a new discipline, a science of signs and sign systems that he named semiology, and for which he believed structural linguistics could provide a principal methodology. The American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, Saussure's contemporary, sketched a similar science labeled semiotic. In 1961, Levi-‐Strauss situated structural anthropology within the domain of "semiology." Increasingly, the terms Semiology and Semiotics came to designate a field of study that analyses sign systems, codes, and conventions of all kinds, from human to animal and sign languages, from the jargon of fashion to the lexicon of food, from the rules of folk narrative to those ofphonological systems, from codes of architecture and medicine to the conventions of myth and literature. As structuralist methodology expanded into the discipline of semiotics, critical reaction occurred, particularly in France, leading to, for example Gilles Deleuze's "schizoanalysis" Jacques Derrida's Deconstruction Michel Foucault's "genealogy" Julia Kristeva's" semanalysis" These critical schools were lumped together and labelled post-‐structuralism in the United States.
Sartre Sartre menade å sin existentialistiska sida att människan var fundamentalt fri att göra vad de ville, men å sin socialistiska sida att individer var bundna av de ideologier som makthavare överförde på dem. I opposition till Sartre presenterade Lévi-‐Strauss sin strukturalistiska teori om agens. Ekon av denna konfrontation mellan existentialism och strukturalism skulle ljuda hos yngre författare som Pierre Bourdieu. 49 Robert Venturi Denise Scott-‐Brown Structuralism in Architecture The work of De Saussure in Linguistics and Levi-‐Strauss in anthropology led to the ideaof the existence of ‘deep structures’ in their respective fields of study. Levi-‐Strauss'studies of traditional cultures drew attention to the built form of these cultures and drewattention to their additive nature. A limited range of related components arranged in alimited range of variations according to a particular set of rules. Just as there seemed to be deep structures shaping the social patterns of these culturesthere seemed to be 'deep structures' defining the organisation of their traditional builtenvironment. This realisation made a deep impact on important European and northAmerican, architects of the time and one or two of them at least began to speculate on the possible existence of deep structures linking late twentieth century western societyand its built environment with those of 'traditional' African and Asian cultures. Historically something like structuralist thought first appeared in architecture via the CIAM meetings of the late 1940’s and early 1950’s. The younger generation of architects thenemerging mounted an increasingly sharp critique of the technocratic, social unresponsiveness of the architectural modernist mainstream at successive meetings of CIAM [Congrés Internationale d’Architecture Moderne]. The decisive split between the old-‐guard and the ‘young turks’, came with CIAM 9 held at Aix-‐en-‐Provence in 1953 when the younger generation led by Alison and Peter Smithson and Aldo van Eyck, challenged the four Functionalist categories of the Athens Charter. Dwelling, Work, Recreation and Transportation Instead of proffering an alternative set of abstractions, the Smithson’s,van Eyck, Jacob Bakema, Georges Candilis, Shadrach Woods, John Voelcker and Williamand Jill Howell searched for the structural principles of urban growth and for the next significant unit above the family cell. Strukturalism i arkitekturen Inom arkitektur avser strukturalism en teoretisk riktning enligt vilken byggnader och samhällets infrastruktur främst ska betraktas som strukturer i vilka delar får sin betydelse genom helheten. Riktningen verkade mycket i polemik mot den formella, sena modernismen, i synnerhet international style, som istället utgick från tydligt definierade funktioner som fick definiera helheten.
I det typiska fallet, befattar sig strukturalismen med fenomen, trender och hypotetiska eller generaliserade fall och föreslår lösningar utan att (i detalj) beskriva hur delarna ser ut. En typiskt strukturalistisk byggnad är, eller kan göras, oändligt stor. I kontrast arbetar funktionalismen med en begränsad uppsättning funktioner, byggnadstyper och föreslår i allmänhet "skräddarsydda" lösningar på ett specifikt problem. En funktionalistisk byggnad är därför bara "funktionell" om förutsättningarna förblir statiska. Eftersom delarna i det strukturalistiska fallet är utbytbara, är dess lösningar flexibla. 50 A Pattern Language Christopher Alexanders 51 A City is Not A Tree 52 Game of Life, är en cellulär automat där användaren väljer en startuppställning som helt avgör hur simulationen kommer att utvecklas, enligt strikta regler. Utmaningen ligger i att hitta startuppställningar som ger intressanta utvecklingar. Game of Life är ett exempel på hur komplicerade mönster kan uppstå från väldigt enkla regler, ett fenomen som kallas emergens. 53 Dogon Village, Bandlagara, Mali 54 In the architecture magazine Forum a reprint has been published of Aldo van Eyck’s article about the Dogon and of the story ‘Dogon blues’ about constructing in Mali. 55 Orphanage in Amsterdam Dutch Structuralism 1960 (Aldo van Eyck) 56 Fumihiko Maki This diagram which appears in the later versions of Maki text, Collective Form, Three paradigms, is a schematic representation of three ways of classifying the Collective Form. The first type, Compositional Form, is based on the rules of composition and encompassing the cases of planned cities such as Chandigarh or Brasilia. The second, the Megaform is present in Metabolist projects such as Agricultural City by Kirokawa or the Tokyo Bay program by Tange Lab. Lastly, the Group Form pertains to, for instance, the stepped villages of the Greek islands or the Dogon villages where time is the key player. ‘Group Form’ is the form defined by a group of buildings which share strong physical relationships. It is based on four factors:
the basic materials and the construction methods; the intelligent and dramatic use of geography and topography; the human scale the sequence of development. 57 Le Corbusier Plan Obus 1932-‐42 58-‐59 Erik Friberger Kallebäck 1960 60-‐61 Cité Fruget Pessac 1924 62-‐63 PREVI Lima housing competition 1965 In 1965, the Peruvian Government and the United Nations invited British architect Peter Land to design a strategy for mass housing as an alternative to the massive informal settlements that were dramatically taking place in Lima during that period. In 1966, informal discussions began with the Peruvian Government about the PREVI (Proyecto experimental de vivienda, Experimental Housing Project), and its initial form consisted of four different pilot projects (1). For the first pilot project (PP1) Peter Land proposed the organization of an international competition to design 1,500 housing units(2) on a deserted 40-‐hectare site north of Lima’s downtown. Thirteen international architects (3) were invited to take part in the competition, and an open national competition was organized for architects in Peru to obtain the same number of competitors (4). The international and national sections were implemented simultaneously, and the PREVI competition for 26 selected competitors was announced in 1969. The competition brief was based on a series of experimental principles (5): 1. A neighborhood and design based upon the high-‐density, low-‐rise concept, a module and model for future urban expansion. 2. A growing house concept , with integral courtyard. 3. Configurations of housing clusters within the neighborhood master plan. 4. An entirely human-‐scale pedestrian environment in the neighborhood. 5. Improved and new house-‐building methods with earthquake resistance. 6. An overall neighborhood landscape plan. The jury (6) met the same year in Lima and, having chosen the six winning projects (the international groups selected were Kikutake-‐Kurokawa-‐Maki, Herbert Ohl and Atelier 5), resolved to start working on the construction of the 26 proposals chosen for their very high quality and progressive design. Due to political and economic circumstances, instead of the 1,500 dwellings initially envisaged, the pilot scheme comprised 500 homes, with Peter Land's team drawing up a collage of 20 housing units per architect within a Master Plan defined by him. In a second phase, the best proposals were to develop 1,000 dwellings, but this phase was never implemented. Finally, 24 of the 26
proposals were successfully built. Two projects, by Herbert Ohl from Germany and Takahashi from Peru, were not built due to their technical and material complexities. The PREVI was designed as a platform for expansion and the gradual adaptation to changing family needs over time. Its evolution and subsequent changes were essentially anticipated in the original design, but 40 years after its construction, the inhabitants have radically transformed the dwellings in programmatic and formal terms. The transformation of the PREVI is the reflection of a dynamic, consolidated, cohesive neighbourhood that is highly relevant today, in the context of the current crisis. International participants: 1.James Stirling, 2.Knud Svenssons, 3.Esquerra-‐Samper-‐Saenz-‐Urdaneta, 4.Atelier 5, 5.Toivo Korhonen, 6.Herbert Ohl, 7.Charles Correa, 8.Kikutake-‐Maki-‐Kurokawa, 9.Iñiguez de Ozoño-‐Vazquez de Castro, 10.Hansen-‐Hatloy, 11.Aldo van Eyck, 12.Candillis-‐Josic-‐Woods, 13.Christopher 64 Open Form Oskar Hansen, Lech Tomaszewski, Stanislaw Zamecznik-‐ model of the proposed extension to the Zacheta Gallery in Warsaw, 1958 Open Form Music In 1966 Oskar Hansen, who had recently redesigned the working environment of the Polish Radio Experimental Studio (PRES), went to Stockholm to participate in the Fylkingen congress, an annual meeting of experimental composers. Gathered in the National Museum of Science and Technology under the banner Visioner av Nuet (Visions of the Present), the congress set out to explore new relationships between music, art, and science. Many leading figures in the budding field of intermedia art—creative practices that crossed the boundaries of different art forms, often employing new technologies—participated: Korean-‐American artist Nam June Paik showed one of his robots playing audiotaped speeches, and American composer Alvin Lucier attempted to control brainwave signals to create sounds in a rendition of his extraordinary Music for Solo Performer (1965). Yet it was a musical composition by Iannis Xenakis that drew Hansen’s attention: The piece, a background of musical events of the same pitch but of a changing, fluently modulated intensity, caused even the smallest sounds of different pitches to be heard very clearly (a candy wrapper being unfolded, a cough, a chair creaking). A background “crawling” on the floor, climbing on the walls and the ceiling, as if looking for events to
reveal, only to disappear through the window like sonic fog. A clearly visual piece—a monochromatic continuity characterized by formal insufficiency—awaiting events.1 At the time, Xenakis, a Greek composer who had trained as an architect and worked with Le Corbusier on the much-‐lauded Phillips Pavilion featuring the Poème Electronique multimedia presentation at the Brussels Expo in 1958, was developing his ideas of polytopes, installations featuring sound, light, and architecture. Exploring what he called stéréophonie cinématique, Xenakis presented his Fylkingen audience with the sensation of mobile sound. This was, Hansen declared in his personal notes, “an important experience—Open Form music.” 65-‐66 Yona Friedman Villa Spatiele. “We all know how cities are, they can eventually become different” 67 Cedric Price InterAction Centre, Kentish Town, 1976 (demolished 2003). 68-‐70 Centre Georges Pompidou The Centre was designed by Italian architect Renzo Piano; British architect Richard Rogers; and Italian architect Gianfranco Franchini, assisted by Ove Arup & Partners. The project was awarded to this team in an architectural design competition, whose results were announced in 1971. It was the first time in France that international architects were allowed to participate. World-‐renowned architects Oscar Niemeyer, Jean Prouvé and Philip Johnson made up the jury. System Ett system är ett antal komponenter (delar av systemet) som tillsammans samverkar för ett gemensamt mål. Läran om system kallas systemteori (eng. system science), som är besläktat med ingenjörsämnet systemteknik. Man kan dela upp världen i olika system som åtskiljs av reella eller fiktiva gränser eller gränsskikt. System som inte är under betraktelse förs samman till ett stort system som kallas omgivning. Det är även möjligt att dela in ett system i delsystem, eller att gruppera ihop flera system till ett större system. Systems design is the process of defining the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. 71 Plug-‐in City Peter Cook 1960-‐74
72-‐74 Architect Kisho Kurokawa Nakagin Capsule Tower in 1972 75 Arrheniuslaboratoriet Carl Nyrén 1973 76-‐77 New York Comissioners plan 1811 78 New York City segregation 79-‐81 Racial segregation has always been a pernicious social problem in the United States. Although much effort has been extended to desegregate our schools, churches, and neighborhoods, the US continues to remain segregated by race and economic lines. Why is segregation such a difficult problem to eradicate? In 1971, the American economist Thomas Schelling created an agent-‐based model that might help explain why segregation is so difficult to combat. His model of segregation showed that even when individuals (or "agents") didn't mind being surrounded or living by agents of a different race, they would still choose to segregate themselves from other agents over time! Although the model is quite simple, it gives a fascinating look at how individuals might self-‐segregate, even when they have no explicit desire to do so. Schelling's model will now be explained with some minor changes. Suppose there are two types of agents: X and O. The two types of agents might represent different races, ethnicity, economic status, etc. Two populations of the two agent types are initially placed into random locations of a neighborhood represented by a grid. After placing all the agents in the grid, each cell is either occupied by an agent or is empty as shown below. Now we must determine if each agent is satisfied with its current location. A satisfied agent is one that is surrounded by at least t percent of agents that are like itself. This threshold t is one that will apply to all agents in the model, even though in reality everyone might have a different threshold they are satisfied with. Note that the higher the threshold, the higher the likelihood the agents will not be satisfied with their current location. For example, if t = 30%, agent X is satisfied if at least 30% of its neighbors are also X. If fewer than 30% are X, then the agent is not satisfied, and it will want to change its location in the grid. For the remainder of this explanation, let's assume a threshold t of 30%. This means every agent is fine with being in the minority as long as there are at least 30% of similar agents in adjacent cells.
82 Student Hostel at Enschede, The Netherlands (Project) (O.M. Ungers, 1964) Aldo Rossi Oswald Matthias Ungers Form Morphology is a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features. This includes aspects of the outward appearance (shape, structure, colour, pattern, size), i.e. external morphology (or eidonomy), as well as the form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs, i.e. internal morphology (or anatomy). This is in contrast to physiology, which deals primarily with function. Morphology is an “account of form,” an account that allows us a rational grasp of the morphe by making internal and external relations intelligible. It seeks to be a general theory of the formative powers of organic structure. The Pre-‐Darwinian project of rational morphology was to discover the “laws of form,” some inherent necessity in the laws which governed morphological process. It sought to construct what was typical in the varieties of form into a system which should not be merely historically determined, but which should be intelligible from a higher and more rational standpoint. (Hans Driesch, 1914, p. 149) Borrowing from the disciplines of biology and philosophy, where it refers respectively with the study of form and structure of organisms and the science of the form of words, the term morphology is used in architectural discourse to describe the study of the changing structure of an architectural form and its formation in response to different conditions, such as time or function, or to the relationship of a form to existing typologies. Goethe is credited with the popularization of the term, although a man of letters, he was a polymath who explored scientific philosophy and biology whose work on transmutation and variation was closely bound up with the study of patterns and processes that give rise to form. 83 On Growth and Form 84 Rob Krier morphological series of urban spaces 85
Ungers Roosevelt Island Competion Types 86 Umberto Eco Den frånvarande strukturen 1968 sv översättning 1971 Umberto Ecco 1968 Den frånvarande strukturen: introduktion till den semiotiska forskningen (La struttura assente) Umberto Eco’s career as a literary theorist and a scholar might be divided into two stages. The first, early stage would be marked with an attempt at devising a semiotic theory of literary interpretation, as it was attempted in works such as The Open Work, A Theory of Semiotics, or The Role of the Reader, whereas the second stage would encompass the bulk of Eco’s later theoretical work, including The Limits of Interpretation, and Interpretation and Overinterpretation. Perhaps the biggest difference between these two periods is Eco’s gradual retraction from creating any overarching theoretical framework for literature, from the possibility of formulating a general, semiotic literary theory. Indeed, whereas in his early works, Eco tries to combine C.S. Peirce’s processual semiotics and reader-‐response criticism in order to create a positive program for literary studies, in his later works, he moves to a more defensive position, as if acknowledging the almost uncontrollable character of interpretation, setting himself a more modest goal of merely defining its limits. Post-‐strukturalism Poststrukturalism är en grupp teoribildningar med rötter i den strukturalistiska traditionen, starkt förknippad med franska språkvetare omkring 1960-‐talet och de närmaste årtiondena. De tidigaste poststrukturalisterna var Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Claude Lévi-‐Strauss, Roland Barthes. Jacques Derrida räknas ibland till poststrukturalisterna men emellanåt kallas han dekonstruktionist. Senare språkvetare och filosofer har tagit vissa poststrukturalistiska drag, som till exempel Julia Kristeva, Jean-‐François Lyotard, och Jean Baudrillard. Derrida påpekade, att vi omöjligen kan tänka oss till en position utanför en sådan struktur. Med andra ord, varje försök att "dekonstruera" en struktur måste alltså ta sin utgångspunkt från en annan struktur, om så "bara" språket. Och eftersom det inte finns någon punkt utanför språket för oss att inta så är vi fast i tecknens värld. Detta är vad vi menar med post-‐strukturalism. Poststrukturalismen är radikalt antireduktionistisk. Den ser sökandet efter en yttersta princip eller beståndsdel som den metafysiska paradoxen. Det är icke-‐ursprunget som är det ursprungliga, kan man tillspetsat uttrycka det. En närvaro är alltid märkt av en frånvaro, på så vis är en absolut närvaro omöjlig, och att reducera världen till en funktion av en grundläggande princip är omöjligt. 87 Robert Venturi Vanna Venturi House
88 Roland Barthes, La tour Eiffel 1964 « A vision, an object, a symbol, the Tower is anything that Man wants it to be, and this is infinite. A sight that is looked at and which looks back, a structure that is useless and yet irreplaceable, a familiar world and a heroic symbol, the witness to a century passing by and a monument that is always new, an inimitable and yet incessantly imitated object... » Roland Barthes, La tour Eiffel 1964 89 Marcel Duchamp coined the term ready-‐made in 1915 to describe a common object that had been selected and not materially altered in any way. 90 MIT Press, Body Sweats-‐ The Uncensored Writings of Elsa von Freytag-‐Loringhoven 91 The theoretical contribution by Herman Hertzberger belongs to the most interesting versions. A recent and often cited statement by Hertzberger is: "In Structuralism, one differentiates between a structure with a long life cycle and infills with shorter life cycles." Hertzberger is published in 1973. It is a structuralist definition in a general sense, but also the basis concept for user participation: "The fact that we put 'form' in a central position with respect to such notions as 'space' or 'architecture', means in itself no more than a shifting of accent. What we are talking about is in fact another notion of form than that, which premises a formal and unchanging relationship between object and viewer, and maintains this. It is not an outward form wrapped around the object that matters to us, but form in the sense of inbuilt capacity and potential vehicle of significance. Form can be filled-‐in with significance, but can also be deprived of it again, depending on the use that's made of it, through the values we attach to, or add to it, or which we even deprive it of, -‐ all this dependent on the way in which the users and the form react to, and play on each other. The case we want to put is, that it is this capacity to absorb, carry and convey significance that defines what form can bring about in the users -‐ and conversely -‐ what the users can bring about in the form. What matters is the interaction of form and users, what they convey to each other and bring about in each other, and how they mutually take possession of each other. What we have to aim for, is, to form the material (of the things we make) in such a way that -‐ as well as answering to the function in the narrower sense -‐ it will be suitable for more purposes. And thus, it will be able to play as many roles as possible in the service of the various, individual users, -‐ so that everyone will then be able to react to it for himself, interpreting it in his own way, annexing it to his familiar environment, to which it will then make a contribution." 92
Guide Psychogeographique de Paris 93 Aldo Rossi La citta analoga 1976 94-‐95 Derrida Bernad Tschumi Post-‐Structuralist La Villette
