Strategical analysis of NCR WIFI by Kedari Kiran

Pampana Kedari Kiran KumarMBA-Fulltime

Strategic ManagementPerspective-NCR W

11 | P a g e

Strategic Management Perspective

Contents

1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................3

2. Company Overview............................................................................................................................3

3. Situational Analysis............................................................................................................................3

3.1 Pestle Analysis.................................................................................................................................4

3.2 Porter’s five forces analysis (Micro environment):..........................................................................5

3.3 Porter's Value Chain Model.............................................................................................................7

Primary Activities:..............................................................................................................................7

Support Activities:.............................................................................................................................9

3.4 SWOT analysis.................................................................................................................................9

4.Strategic issues and paradoxes.........................................................................................................11

4.1 Compliance vs. Choice:..................................................................................................................11

Leadership Perspective:...................................................................................................................11

Dynamics Perspective:.....................................................................................................................11

4.2 Competition vs. Cooperation:........................................................................................................13

5. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................14

6. Reflection.........................................................................................................................................15

7. References.......................................................................................................................................17

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1. Introduction

WIFI today has changed the way users connect to a network. The technology is currently

widely used and NCR has been a key innovator in its creation while investing a large amount

of resources (labour and capital) in bringing WIFI to the market. This report observes the

paradoxes that are evident in the case while academically underpinning the observed

conclusions. I will also look at the external and internal influences and how they affected the

company's competitive advantage and operating environment.

2. Company Overview

NCR was founded in 1879 as the National Manufacturing company in Dayton manufacturing

and selling cash registers (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p873). In 1884 the company was taken

over and renamed to National Cash Register Company. It evolved into one of the first modern

American companies introducing new, aggressive sales methods and business techniques.

Right from the early 80's to the late 90's NCR played a prominent role in the development of

wireless LAN and its security. With its continuous innovation, global reach and cross

industry knowledge from 1884 till today it is a total solutions provider offering various

solutions to both hardware and software requirements (NCR website, 2011).

3. Situational Analysis

According to James Brian Quinn (1998), strategy is the pattern or plan that integrates an

organization's major goals, policies and action sequences into a cohesive whole. In order to

plan strategically it is very important to analyse the Macro and Micro environmental forces of

the organisation. Environmental analysis is a study of these forces, the relationships among

them, and their effect and potential effect on the organization (Segev, 1977)

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3.1 Pestle Analysis

The PESTLE framework allows an organisation to identify factors from its external

environment that impact the creation of its strategy.

Political factors: With the US Federal Communication Commission (FCC) requesting

the MITRE Corporation to investigate the potential civil usage of spread spectrum, a

move to deregulate the market was put into motion (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p875). The

FCC decided to open three radio frequency bands allocated for Industrial, Scientific and

Medical (ISM) applications for the use by radio communication systems which also

included wireless LANs. This allowed NCR to realistically develop a product for this

market segment.

Socio-cultural factors: In terms of the socio-cultural perspective, potential customers

were most concerned about privacy and security (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p882). Due to

multiple companies talking negatively about the competition's product, prospective

customers did not trust anybody with their valuable data while considering radio waves

new and weird. Their attitude was to 'wait and see'. These security levels clearly showed a

need for standards, higher speeds and lower costs. NCR responded to this driver of

change by coming up with an authentication and encryption method called WEP (DeWit

& Meyer, 2010: p875).

Technological factors: NCR was a dominant market player in the retail industry where

their points of sale terminals were very popular. However, a technological need arose due

to the immobility of these terminals - every time a store changed its display format the

POS terminals had to be rewired which was an expensive proposition. (DeWit & Meyer,

2010: p874). This led NCR to look into the feasibility of wireless technology so that their

POS terminals became portable.

Legal factors: Various regulations and industry standards were adhered by all the

organizations involved in the development of WIFI. European agencies like CEPT passed

legislation that denied NCR's product to enter into the European market without the given

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modifications. This limited the company in having a global standard process of

production.

3.2 Porter’s five forces analysis (Micro environment):

This type of analysis is crucial to strategic planning. A major part of the analysis phase is a

diagnosis of the external environment (de Swaan Arons, 1999). This framework identifies the

five important factors in the micro environment of an organization that impact the

competitive intensity and thus the attractiveness of the market (Porter, 1980). Many of these

factors are structural factors are inherent to the industry and defy any attempts to change

them (Bain, 1959; Porter, 1980)

Competitive Forces Model (Porter, 1980, p.4)

Threat of new entrants: NCR had always invested huge amount of money towards its

Research and Development and marketing activities. At the same time they had to

conform to numerous government regulations while setting many protocols in the

standard that was developed by the IEEE and Task Groups. These factors ensured that the

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barriers for entry were very high. Although with the formation of the WIFI Alliance the

barriers have reduced due to standard conformity to options such as 802.11b and thus the

market is attractive for new entrants to capitalize on the industry potential (DeWit &

Meyer, 2010: p886).

Bargaining power of suppliers: Due to development being handled at NCR right from

the stage of the feasibility report to the development of the standard and the eventual

popularization of the product, bargaining power of suppliers would be low. This is

because all these activities were carried out in-house by NCR themselves including

funding from its corporate R&D organization. (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p877).

Bargaining power of customers: The initial clientele base of NCR was universities and

corporate clients. The customers eventually demanded better products with higher data

rates and thus exerting a pressure on NCR and other firms in the industry. Since the

customers had the option to choose other technologies such as Wired LAN, it was critical

for the organizations to constantly innovate and provide their services and products at

competitive prices (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p880). This is also reflected in the security

measures implemented in the technology to satisfy customer requirements. Therefore, it is

evident that the customers had the bargaining power over the firms.

Threat of substitute services: This has always been a predominant threat to WIFI and

NCR. The ubiquitous presence of wired LAN as well as the massive investment in 3G

technology by established entities like Vodafone, Deutsche Telecom and AT&T led to the

creation of a constant substitute available to potential customers. Wired LAN, 3G, Data

cards etc. have developed at the same pace as WIFI and thus pose a huge threat to the

growth potential of WIFI (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p886).

Rivalry among existing firms: There was intense rivalry within the industry during the

evolution of WIFI (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p878-879). The product offerings of these

organizations were similar in principle but resulted in numerous compatibility issues that

led to direct competition with each trying to establish its product while discrediting the

competitors. This potentially resulted in companies cutting into each other’s business.

NCR adapted to this by following two strategies – one of having a futuristic vision where

they wanted their product to be adopted not only by their corporate clients but the market

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as a whole. The second was a price based strategy where they attempted to lower costs

and prices.

3.3 Porter's Value Chain Model

Michael Porter came up with the concept of value chain in 1985 and defined it as a semi-

formal or textual representation of all value-adding activities of an individual, single

organisation (i.e., enterprise). It is a well-established model to carry out an organisation’s

situational analysis. It helps in analysing special activities through which an organisation can

create value and competitive advantage. Below are the activities carried out by NCR with

regard to its primary and support activities.

Value Chain Model (Porter, 1985)

Primary Activities: These are the activities that are directly concerned with a creation or

delivery of a product or service. Below are the activities that are directly concerned in

developing WIFI technology by NCR.

Inbound Logistics: NCR had a well-established skilled Systems Engineering Centre in

Utrecht, Netherlands. The centre had two teams – one for software development and one of

experts that worked on areas such as telephone modem technologies. With respect to the

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WIFI project, capital was provided as seed money directly from the headquarters for the

feasibility study and subsequent technology development (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p879-880).

Operations: Initially the radio part of the card was tested manually however the testing was

completely done by the use of software. The reduction of components in the cards helped in

increasing the production lever from 100 cards per week in 1991 to 100,000 cards per week

in 2001. (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p886). This shows that NCR achieved a high standard in

their operations within this time period.

Outbound Logistics: Due to the use of software technology for testing NCR could ensure

that it can produce error free radio components (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p886). The company

also came up with Security for wireless which helped in integrating the technology by Intel

((DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p887). These features added to the product offering to NCR's target

market and this contributed to their competitive advantage at the time.

Marketing & Sales: Considering NCR's active involvement in the development of WIFI

technology, their products would benefit from this USP when they are marketed. Word of

mouth would also play an important part in the popularisation of their WIFI offerings.

Becoming a part of AT&T also helped them to increase awareness of their product portfolio.

NCR always gave importance to sales they have also come up a first sales training schools in

the year 1984 (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p874). With a market share of 50% by 2001, the

products were distributed through multiple channels include the OEM route (Original

Equipment Manufacturers). Essentially NCR had created the technology and distributed it via

their key partners to the end user.

Quality: Currently NCR is a provider of Inventory management, Innovation services and

Networking services in which they maintain great standards of quality (NCR website, 2011).

They incorporated changes to their products by responding to market demands (introduction

of security measures) and this provided customers with a higher quality product.

Support Activities: All the primary activities are linked to the support activities which

help in improving efficiency.

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Firm Infrastructure: Infrastructure present at NCR allows them to carry out all the primary

activities as they have software and hardware development in house. Their strong base in

research and development (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p880) also provides them with the

infrastructure to innovate.

Human Resource Management: Employees played a major role in the success of NCR, the

human resource management was efficiently carried out as a part of it the employees were

always given priority and the company also introduced a comprehensive social welfare

programmes for its factory workers (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p873).

Technology Development: The Company developed technology not just to the benefit of

the company but for the benefit of the IT sector. The company came up with many technical

alternatives in the place of regular wired usage of internet (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p874).

IEEE Task and Working groups were initiated by NCR and were responsible for the setting a

standard for WIFI. Expertise in research and development as well as their centre in Utrecht

contributed to NCR's technology development.

Procurement: NCR in the process of creating the Wireless Technology merged with

different companies like AT&T and acquired companies like Teradata Corporation to take

advantage of their commercial parallel processing technology. This led NCR Teradata to

emerge as a powerful provider of data warehousing through their globally proven database

systems (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p874).

3.4 SWOT analysis

Strength: Having the ability to invest in research and development along with impressive

sales methods and business techniques was a key strength for NCR. They had the best

engineering team who became de-facto leaders in the process of creating a new standard in

IEEE 802.11 (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p879-880). They had the knowledge of processing

signals along with the ability to design and develop hardware according to the market

requirement. This strength was reflected in their constant effort to update the product when it

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was required. As an example, they used the 2.4 GHz frequency in Europe and America in

order to capture the market.

Weakness: Though the concept of wireless technology is very fascinating, they operated at a

lower speeds compared to that of the wired technology (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p882), since

there was no strong signal between the transmitter and the receiver. The introductory price

was very high as the company launched the product when costs were high and economies of

scale were not possible. This was done to benefit from the new technology. NCR also

initially used the 915 MHz frequency which minimised the channels that users could access

and thus limited the technology's supply (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p880).

Opportunities: The FCC's deregulation of radio frequency was NCR's first opportunity to

develop wireless LAN. Due to the failure of the HomeRF consortium with the failure of

Intel's Anypoint wireless home networking and Proxim's Symphony HRF, a gap in the

market developed for NCR to capitalise upon (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p875). Another key

opportunity for NCR was with Steve Jobs wanting to integrate wireless LAN into the iBook

(DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p885). Successfully doing this at a groundbreaking price led to quick

adoption by Michael Dell and other major players in the market (DeWit & Meyer, 2010:

p886). Further opportunities developed with community initiatives to provide internet at a

low cost through the network (eg.: Wireless Leiden, Netherlands) (DeWit & Meyer, 2010:

p888). Hotspots were soon developed to provide free internet access to the customers who

further helps in increasing the use of WIFI (Starbucks was a major brand to adopt this)

(DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p887). Public sector opportunities arose with the use of municipal

networks with government involvement to improve the availability and affordability of

broadband access (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p888).

Threats: A constant threat existed from high speed wired LAN as it was a constant

alternative available to users. Security issues with the wireless technology were also a threat

that required not only resolution but also assurance to the customer as to the effectiveness of

implemented security measures. A newer threat for the technology was the popularity and

heavy investment into 3G technology by telecommunication giants (DeWit & Meyer, 2010:

p882).

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4.Strategic issues and paradoxes

4.1 Compliance vs. Choice:

The pressure for compliance has usually been presented as a form of environmental

determinism, as the industry developments force organisations to adapt or be selected out

(Astley and Van der Ven, 1983). The author argues that if the developments in the industry

are inevitable for an organisation to follow then they have to adapt to the developments in

order to sustain in the market.

The freedom of choice has often been labelled as organisational voluntarism, to convey the

notion that industry developments can be the wildful actions of individual organisations

(Bettis and Donaldson, 1990) here the author argues that the organisation is free to follow any

kind of approach that supports its objectives and the industry development can arise as a

result of the organisational products.

The paradox of compliance and choice essentially deals with balancing between the industry

dynamics perspective and the industry leadership perspective. NCR has managed to place its

operations in such a scenario where salient features of both the perspectives are visible. This

balance can be displayed by the following points:

Leadership Perspective:

The Industry development was a controllable creation process for the WIFI project with NCR

creating the product and the industry. It has thus created a fitting environment to show change

dynamics. With the introduction of new standards in the market NCR successfully innovated

and changed the rules of WIFI (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p872).

Dynamics Perspective:

Yet its success was due to fitness to industry demands with the provision of security facilities

and wireless networking. (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p884). The ability to shape was low and

slow since the time taken to reach modern WIFI products was over a decade, Yet its

profitability was largely industry dependent since the aim was to have a product accepted by

the entire market and not just a niche.

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According to Porter (1980) the evolution of an industry can be illustrated within the four

stages of the Product Life Cycle: introduction, growth, maturity, and decline in an S-shaped

curve (Vernon, 1966). During the introduction phase it is difficult for organizations to

overcome buyer inertia and penetrate into the market. Similarly NCR had faced difficulties

initially to develop its customer base. As the market for WIFI started growing the sales

revenue reached its peak. As NCR has always thrived on innovation they ultimately decided

to back out of the Wi-Fi industry in order to concentrate their research and development

activities towards newer areas but they are strong on industry leadership perspective(DeWit

& Meyer, 2010: p887).

The S shaped curve in the Product Life Cycle

According to de Wit and Meyer (2010) it is important for firms to be aware of one's industry

context. The industry rules arise from the structure of the industry (Porter, 1980). Therefore it

was crucial for NCR to adhere to industry standards and protocols especially because the

industry was highly regulated. The vision of Don Johnson, Corporate R&D at NCR to

develop a prospective market for wireless products could be worked towards realization after

the deregulation act of FCC (1985). Although the strategy of NCR to work upon the wireless

networks was emergent (Mintzberg et al, 2003) it was perseverance towards formulating its

strategic planning (deliberate strategy) in order to concentrate on activities central to the

development of Wi-Fi which was critical to its success. While formulating and planning its

strategies NCR consistently made efforts to innovate and diversify into newer market

segments. NCR had always invested heavily into its Research and Development activities.

Even during the standardization of architecture of Wi-Fi NCR collaborated with Symbol

Technologies and Xircom in order to propose a decentralized mechanism as opposed to the

centralized approach proposed by IBM (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p879). The evolution of Wi-

Fi has been a dynamic process due to the constant technological developments in the

industry. It is important for organizations to follow normative implications set by the industry

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(DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p443). At the same time it is critical that organizations must come to

see that in the long run the easy path of following the industry rules will be less productive

than the rocky road of innovation and change (Hamel and Prahalad, 1994; Kim and

Mauborgne, 2005) for example if NCR would not have come up with the new technology

they might not have made such big contribution to the IT industry which will definitely have

an impact on the productivity levels they have today.

4.2 Competition vs. Cooperation:

According to Porter,1985 competition is at the core of the success or failure of firms.

Competition determines the appropriateness of a firm's activities that can contribute to its

performance, such as innovations, a cohesive culture, or good implementation (DeWit &

Meyer, 2010: p264). He says that the profitability of an organisation depends upon how well

an organisation defend against its opponents. Though porter makes a little mention of, or is

apprehensive about collaboration with other firms, Hamel, Doz and Prahalad see

collaboration as a useful tool for improving the organisations competitive profile (DeWit &

Meyer, 2010: p387) . There was intense rivalry prevalent within the industry throughout the

evolution phase of WIFI. At the same time corporations had to create and adhere to an

industry standard and protocols as the government regulations were numerous. In order to

have a better understanding of how NCR had strategically balanced both sides of the

Competition and Cooperation paradox we would be using the 3Cs model by Kenichi Ohmae

(2005). According to Ohmae (2005) it is critical for organizations to focus on the customer,

corporation and competitors in order to develop a sustainable competitive advantage. Any

strategy planning needs to take into account these three factors. With respect to this case

study, there is ample amount of evidence that the NCR Corporation itself had to cooperate

and collaborate with other companies in the technology industry (most of them being its

competitors) in order to reach an industry standard. This is also seen in the way proposals

were discussed for the industry standard. Any opposition to a proposal at vote had to be

accompanied with reasons explaining why and even then the entire Working Group worked

as a collective to find ways to resolve the issue. Doing this would be beneficial to all parties

involved.

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However, even within the cooperation there was competition (DeWit & Meyer, 2010:

p879). Fierce battles resulted from competing proposals. Three examples have been

mentioned in the case, the first being a centralised architecture proposed by IBM while NCR

along with Symbol Technologies and Xircom proposed a decentralised mechanism (DeWit &

Meyer, 2010: p887). NCR won this primarily due to the ‘ad-hoc networking’ between

terminals that was made possible through its proposal.

The second example was when a decision had to be taken on Frequency Hopping and

Direct Sequence. Since cooperation meant that a proposal needed 75% approval to be

implemented, neither of these techniques were able to get this. Therefore, both were

implemented into the standard (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p886-887) .

The third example is when an alternate European standard was created for WLAN

called HIPERLAN. Both versions of this eventually were not successful due to the IEEE

802.11 standard having a head start and the benefit of devices being mass-produced to this

standard. Therefore, HIPERLAN could never catch up. However at the time it was proposed,

competing views led to a large difference of opinion about it(DeWit & Meyer, 2010:

p876,878).

Ultimately NCR had to balance this competitive nature within the cooperation and

create a product that was customer driven in order to introduce a new technology into the

market that was both cost effective and easy to implement. Therefore, using Kenichi Ohmae

3Cs model of competition, corporation and customer we have explained the paradox of

competition versus cooperation. Looking at the analysis I feel that NCR's management of this

paradox is good as they have been successful.

5. Conclusion

Being an industry leader might sound very proactive, and even heroic, but it is potentially

suicidal if the industry context defies being shaped. (DeWit & Meyer, 2010: p443). However

there might be huge rewards and recognition if a firm can lead industry developments for

example NCR which came up with a new technology which never existed (DeWit & Meyer,

2010: p874). If we look at Industry leadership perspective it is adopted by the organisation

when it takes the risk to innovate and lead. Initially when there was no WIFI technology

many organisations looked at coming up with new developments, however it was NCR who

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could channelize and come up with a product with the resources available. Though Industrial

leadership is evident and successful here, trying to break industrial rules may sometimes turn

out to be immutable and can go bankruptcy if the product is a failure even after investing a

large amount of money in developing it. The recommendation in this context would suggest a

firm to escape the pitfall of organisational conformity which includes the adherence to the

current industry rules with a need to understand the context in which they operate.

Organisations should come up with structures, process and a culture in which the current

industry recipe is constantly questioned, challenged and changed.

6. Reflection

This module helped me to understand the nature of the strategic issues and challenges facing

organisations in the present and unfolding era of business management. It was a wonderful

academic journey where I was introduced to a number of strategic issues from different

perspectives. I have learnt how to apply concepts and techniques to analyse organisations and

their environment in order to develop an integrated view of an organisation and its future

perspectives. After looking at different perspectives I understood that there is no tailor made

strategy for any organisation however the efficiency is achieved by selecting the right

strategy appropriate to the organisations environment and the situation at hand. My personal

reflection is further discussed using the SWAIN model of personal development:

Strengths: Now I have a clear understanding of a range of strategic issues from different

perspectives. I am also confident that I have a good knowledge of concepts, tools and

techniques to analyse an organisations resources and capabilities as well as their strategic

decision making and implementation of that strategy.

Weakness: At certain times I hurried my personal decisions and quickly arrived at

conclusions before understanding the bigger picture represented through numerous paradoxes

in the case studies that I read.

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Aspiration: Though I have heard of the term 'strategy' I never had a chance to read strategy,

so when I got an opportunity to learn from this module, I was expecting a single answer to

the failure of my past organisation which was probably the result of a change in the

management. But today I see many reasons for the failure as well as opportunities that existed

for senior management to overcome it. My aspiration is to develop this skill and apply it to

future organisations I work in and possibly my own family's business as well.

Interests: Though the entire module left me with great learning experience there are few

things that interested me tremendously like the master class by professor Geoffrey Hodgson

on Darwinian Conjecture was really interesting as for the first time I saw strategy relating to

science, coming from a science background I could clearly relate to it. The master class by

Angus Thirwell from Hotel Chocolat where he discussed about being responsible while

maintaining profits. The leadership weekend where Ralph Stacey discussed about the

leadership perspective which was once again observed in the case through NCR taking a

leadership role in coming up with industry standards.

Needs: Coming from a technical background I felt the need for me to pursue this module was

because of the necessity for me to gain managerial knowledge which could back me up with

the practical knowledge i have gained over the years at work. This would be the next logical

step in my career progression after the MBA.

I consider the entire module to be important to me as this learning would come in handy

for the rest of my life. There are many things that I cannot explain in the report which I

acquired as a part of my learning and all of it combined gave me the much needed confidence

to work towards and achieve my goals.

7. References

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Astley, W.G., and van den Ven, A.H. (1983) 'Central Perspectives and Debates in

Organization Theory', Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp.245-273.

Bain, J. S. (1959) +Industrial Organizations. New York: Wiley

Betttis, R.A., and Donaldson, L. (1990) 'Market Discipline of Management', Academy of

Management Review, Vol. 15, No. 3, July, pp.367-368

Business Model Foundry (2011) The Business Model Canvas [Online] Available at:

http://www.businessmodelgeneration.com/canvas [Accessed on 7th June, 2011].

D`Aveni, R.A. (1994) Hypercompetition: Managing the Dynamics of Strategic Maneuvering,

New York: Free Press.

DeWit, B. & Meyer, R. (2010) Strategy Process, Content, Context An International

Perspective. 4th ed. Hampshire: Cengage Learning.

de Swaan Arons, H and Philip Waalewijn, P. (1999) A Knowledge Base Representing

Porter's Five Forces Model. Erasmus University, Rotterdam

Hamel, G., and Prahalad, C.K. (1994) Competing for the Future, Boston: Harvard Business

School Press.

Hamel. G. (1996) 'Strategy as Revolution', Harvard Business Review, Vol. 74, No. 4, July-

August, pp. 69-82

IFM (2011) Available at: http://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/dstools/paradigm/valuch.html

[Accessed on 6th June,2011]

Kim, W.C. and Mauborgne, R. (2004) 'Blue Ocean Strategy'. Harvard Business Review.

October.

Mintzberg, H., Lampel, J., Quinn, J. & Ghoshal, S. (2003) The Strategy Process Concepts

Contexts Cases. Global 4th ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

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http://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/dstools/paradigm/valuch.html

http://www.businessmodelgeneration.com/canvas


NCR (2011) Available at: http://ncr.com/about_ncr/company_overview/history.jsp?lang=EN

[Accessed 6th June, 2011]

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8th June, 2011]

Ohmae, K. (2005). Next Global Stage: The: Challenges and Opportunities in Our Borderless

World. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School Publishing.

Porter, M.E. (1980) Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and

Competitors, New York: Free Press.

Porter, M.: Competitive Advantages: Creating and Sustaining Superior

Performance. The Free Press, New York 1985.

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http://ncr.com/about_ncr/company_overview/history.jsp?lang=EN

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Strategical analysis of NCR WIFI by Kedari Kiran